This thesis addresses the puzzle of heterogeneous trends in paramilitary violence in the two Colombian regions since the beginning of DDR process in 2003. The usual explanations derived from political conflict theories are improved with insights from organized crime research. The author argues that the occasional escalation of post DDR paramilitary violence at sub-regional level cannot be explained with the weakness of the state argument. In order to support this claim, the paper demonstrates the counter intuitive evidence that paramilitary violence correlates positively with the incidence of the state repressive intervention against paramilitary groups. More specifically, the paper finds that the paramilitaries challenged by the state use more violence either as a way of substituting their non-violent resources most affected by law enforcement activities, or in response to crackdown-related intensification of predatory tendencies within their respective organizations. Implications for future conflict resolution of Colombian Civil War are considered.
All'inizio del secolo XII i duchi di Puglia e i signori di Nocera nel giro di pochi anni posero fine a un periodo tumultuoso e ridisegnarono l'assetto dei poteri nell'area a Nord di Salerno. La Trinità di Cava fu il punto attorno al quale si cristallizzarono i nuovi equilibri. Confermando una già chiara vocazione a mediare nei conflitti fra i poteri laici, la Trinità orientò in proprio favore gli accordi fra le parti con l'esborso di grandi quantità di moneta. Ottenne così il possesso di un importante castello e di tutte le terre che i contendenti avevano all'interno di una vasta zona, delimitata in quell'occasione da un confine preciso. Lo spazio così creato, privo di difese militari nella sua parte settentrionale, non era però in quel momento un territorio signorile, né uno spazio immune; era piuttosto un'area di compensazione, che impediva il contatto fra le due potenze rivali. Soltanto diversi decenni dopo, quando l'area di Cava non era più posta alla frontiera fra domini diversi, la Trinità se ne appropriò, edificandovi nuove fortificazioni e volgendo la propria presenza in senso signorile. ; At the beginning of the 12th century, in the course of a few years, the dukes of Puglia and the lords of Nocera put an end to a period of contrasts and redrew the map of powers in the area North of Salerno. The Trinità di Cava became the core of this new balance. Confirming its already evident inclination to act as a mediator in the conflicts between secular powers, the Trinità directed the agreements between the parts to its advantage through the payment of large amounts of money. Thus, it came into possession of an important castle and of the whole of the land of the involved parties inside a large area, delimited on in this occasion by neat boundaries. However, such area, lacking military defences in its Northern part, at the time was neither a territory subjected to a lordship nor a free space; it was, rather, a compensation area, avoiding contacts between the two rival powers. Only several decades later, when the Cava area was no more a borderland between different rules, the Trinità got hold of it and built up new fortifications, thus giving its presence in the area a lordship character.
Based on recent IPE contributions on three key themes in international politics (the relation between trade-technology & interstate conflicts, the link between multinationalization in production & world stability, & the political economy of democracy promotion in post-conflict countries), this essay calls the attention on the potential that IPE studies have for the analysis of complex processes (political & economic, with domestic, international & trans-national reach) across long time-spans. Empirical research on these topics has provided new ground to test & refine hypotheses from the three IPE orthodox Schools (Realism-Mercantilism, Liberalism & Marxism), pointing to the advantages of multivariate setups that treat both political & economic determinants of international outcomes as endogenous. Studies on the trade-war links have opened the way to analyses of how growth-inducing mechanisms in war economies may combine with the lasting effects of war-borne protectionist coalitions in producing differential outcomes, according to countries' resource endowments & level of development. Hypotheses on the peace-inducing features of multinationalized production appear in need of revision, especially when applied to the context of North-South relations, in which traditional dynamics identified in the FDI literature do not seem to obtain. Last, scholars interested in the political economy of post-war reconstruction could fruitfully borrow from the comparative literature on transitions, the economic contributions on development & the IR research on conflict, to provide new theoretical tools for the analysis of democracy promotion in post-conflict states. References. Adapted from the source document.
Following a brief overview of historical events leading up to the Irish revolt against the British & to the Peace Accords of Easter 1998, the article discusses the various characteristics that were integral parts of completing the accords as well as public reactions to the accords. Future scenarios conclude the paper, highlighting some of the lingering problems with peace in Ireland & steps to prevent more problems. E. Miller
Over the last few years the diplomatic language of UN resolutions has repeatedly been questioned for the excessive presence of vagueness. In an era of expanding international contacts between different legal systems, international institutions such as the UN are constantly faced with the need to overcome cultural divergences of their recipient countries. In order to meet these requirements, UN diplomatic texts may use vague words quite extensively. Such terms, whose meaning is very flexible, variable and strictly dependent on context and interpretation, have been defined by Mellinkoff (1963: 21) as "weasel words". The use of vague terms could be connected to the genre of diplomatic texts, as resolutions should be applicable to every international contingency. However, excessive vagueness could also lead to biased or even strategically-motivated interpretations of resolutions, undermining their legal impact and triggering conflicts instead of diplomatic solutions. This doctoral thesis is based on two main research aims: A first section aims at investigating on whether the use of strategic vagueness in Security Council resolutions relating to Iraq has contributed to the breakout of the second Gulf war instead of a diplomatic solution of the controversy. Using the qualitative Discourse-Historical approach (Wodak 2000) and quantitative analysis tools (Antconc and Sketch Engine), special attention is given to the historical/political consequences of vagueness used in that framework, and to the study of vague 'weasel words' (Mellinkoff 1963), modals, and adjectives contained in the corpus. The hypothesis of intentional vagueness is further reinforced through an analysis of the American legislation related to the outbreak of the war, to reveal how the U.S. has interpreted UN legislation and to understand the purposes and consequences of vague language contained in it. A second section of the study was originated by the desire to understand whether the same patterns would be used in resolutions relating to the Iranian 2010 nuclear crises revealing a relationship between the choice of vague linguistic features and intent to use intentional vagueness as a political strategy. The findings indicate that: - Vagueness in resolutions has triggered the Iraqi conflict instead of diplomatic solutions. - Similar patterns can also be found in resolutions relating to the Iranian 2010 nuclear crises: although being less vague than the resolutions relating to Iraq in order to avoid the same historical consequences, the legislation related to the Iranian nuclear controversy still suggests the UN intentional use of some vague linguistic patterns as a political strategy.
In this diplomatic letter, the Italian ambassador to Israel indicates reasons for admiring the Israelis: a people unique in maintaining religious, national, & ethnic identity despite persecution & discrimination; the return to their homeland; & their shrewd tenacity in developing & safeguarding the nation. After discussing theories about how to reconcile the Israeli state with Palestinians claiming homeland, the failures of the Middle Eastern peace accords are reviewed. It is suggested that Israelis lay the Holocaust to rest & that the state of Israel is a significant aspect of the eternal Jewish medallion. The text of the Middle East Conflict. Resolution 1245 (2001), adopted by the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, is appended. 1 Appendix. J. Sadler
The dynamics of transitional justice have been shifting, in the past decade, from democratization towards a more reconciliation/truth approach. Many scholars have underlined a connection between the concept of reconciliation and that of Christian forgiveness. Some case studies do indicate that there may be a strong link between these two concepts (South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission is probably the most well known example). Nonetheless a number of more recent analysis, such as those dealing with Timor East and the Moroccan IER (Instance Equité et Réconciliation) seem to indicate that reconciliation is neither solely linked with Christian forgiveness nor is a solely religious concept. On the one hand the Timor East experience demonstrates that reconciliation is well known as a process even within other religious experiences and is, often, the outcome of a restitution/compensation process, properly ritualized to guarantee a local acknowledgment .On the other hand the Moroccan experience shows that reconciliation can have a more universal value, without any religious aspects. Furthermore reconciliation is a goal that can be achieved through a well structured legal and social reform and through acknowledgment of the past and compensation for victims. These different experiences may indicate that reconciliation, within transitional justice, may be very different from forgiveness, given the intensity and the high number of individuals involved; therefore defining the reconciliation process as a long term goal of a transitional society which can be obtained through a well defined political and juridical, or quasi juridical, plan and which aim is to guarantee a peaceful coexistence within society more than a personal and interior process like forgiveness. Certainly what we are witnessing today is a broad de-secularization of the transitional justice phenomena due to the increasing number of societies which choose local and traditional rituals/values to achieve reconciliation. Part I of this work concentrates on giving a definition of transitional justice, and its evolution, particularly engaging the issues arisen with the application of new instruments such as truth commissions. Part II concentrates on the religious elements of the Community Reconciliation Process (CRP), and how the traditional values influenced the out come: the importance given to the lisan, a traditional religion, which was the basis for the creation of the CRP and the meta-legal basis for the rituals implemented during the hearings. Furthermore it studies the South African experience, from the perspective of religious faith and religious actors, taking into consideration the role played in the creation and works of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission: from the concept of Ubuntu, which played a role in the provisional constitution and therefore in the creation of the Commission; to the importance of forgiveness, constantly indicated as the principal instrument by the president of the commission Archbishop Desmond Tutu. Part III deals with the Moroccan commission (IER) is taken in exam, as a third secular process towards reconciliation: the focus of the commission on human rights and reparation as only mean to obtain reconciliation and social stability. The final part, the conclusions, tries to identify if forgiveness is a universal concept or has a different meaning for different religions. If so, can there be a general instrument for transitional justice which focuses on forgiveness or, maybe, can religions, through their own definition of such concept, influence a transition towards those mechanism of reconciliation best suited for the local traditions.
L'elaborato esamina il tema del concorso e del conflitto tra contratti collettivi di diverso livello nel settore privato. Partendo da un'impostazione complessiva del fenomeno della contrattazione collettiva, oltre che da una riflessione sulla natura e sul ruolo della contrattazione integrativa, il lavoro si propone di individuare un criterio di risoluzione del conflitto. In una prima parte della ricerca sono stati individuati e studiati i modelli di rapporti tra livelli definiti negli accordi interconfederali e nei contratti di categoria. Nello studio della regolamentazione interna al sistema sindacale si è considerato la natura delle relative clausole. Queste ultime hanno valenza obbligatoria e, per tale motivo, non sono idonee a risolvere l'eventuale conflitto tra livelli contrattuali. Si è reso quindi necessario considerare i criteri esterni di risoluzione del conflitto elaborati dalla dottrina e della giurisprudenza. Tra i vari criteri elaborati, ci si è soffermati sul criterio di specialità, sulla sua natura e sulla sua funzione. Più nello specifico, si è ritenuto il principio di specialità un principio generale dell'ordinamento giuridico, applicabile anche al conflitto tra contratti di diverso livello. Alla luce del principio di specialità, si è ricostruito il rapporto tra livelli, anche in ipotesi di contrattazione separata e di negoziazione operante su rinvio legislativo. Infine, nell'ultimo capitolo si è esaminato l'art. 8 della L. 148/2011. Ci si è interrogati sulla compatibilità di tale norma con l'impostazione complessiva del tema del rapporto tra contratti di diverso livello e sui suoi riflessi sulla questione del conflitto. ; The thesis examines concurring collective labor agreements in the private sector, in particular it analyzes the question of the conflict arising between two collective labor agreements of different levels. The research moves from a reflection about the nature and the role of company collective agreement to identify a conflict resolution criterion. In the first part of the work, intersectoral and sectoral collective agreements are studied in order to identify models for the relationship between collective labor agreements defined by trade unions and employers' associations. The research also focus on the nature (normative or not) of provisions of collective labor agreements with the scope to understand if the conflict arising between two different levels can be solved pursuant to these provisions. The negative answer leads to analyze external conflict resolution criteria identified by jurisprudence and by doctrine. Among these criteria, a particular reflection is carried out on the one expressed by the latin terms "lex specialis derogat lex generalis". More precisely, the latter is considered as a general principle of Italian law which is applicable not only in case of conflict arising between two laws, but also in case of conflict arising between two collective labor agreements of different levels. Moving on from this thesis, in the third chapter concurring collective labor agreements is reconstructed, pointing out the phenomenon of separate collective bargaining and the collective bargaining developed on legal provisions. In the end, the research deals with L. 14 september 2011, n. 148, art. 8 , investigating its effects on the question of conflict between two collective agreements.
