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Background: The need to provide quality and equitable health services and protect populations from impoverishing health care costs has pushed universal health coverage (UHC) to the top of global health policy agenda. In many developing countries where the majority of the population works in the informal sector, there are critical debates over the best financing mechanisms to progress towards UHC. In Kenya, government health policy has prioritized contributory financing strategy (social health insurance) as the main financing mechanism for UHC. However, there are currently no studies that have assessed the cost of either social health insurance (SHI) as the contributory approach or an alternative financing mechanism involving non-contributory (general tax funding) approaches to UHC in Kenya. The aim of this study was to critically assess the financial requirements of both contributory and non-contributory mechanisms to financing UHC in Kenya in the context of large informal sector populations. Methods: SimIns Basic® model, Version 2.1, 2008 (WHO/GTZ), was used to assess the feasibility of UHC in Kenya and provide estimates of financial resource needs for UHC over a 17-year period (2013–2030). Data sources included review of national and international literature on inflation, demography, macro-economy, health insurance, health services unit costs and utilization rates. The data were triangulated across geographic regions for accuracy and integrity of the simulation. SimIns models for 10 years only so data from the final year of the model was used to project for another 7 years. The 17-year period was necessary because the Government of Kenya aims to achieve UHC by 2030. Results and conclusions: The results show that SHI is financially sustainable (Sustainability in this study is used to mean that expenditure does not outstrip revenue.) (revenues and expenditure match) within the first five years of implementation, but it becomes less sustainable with time. Modelling for a non-contributory scenario, on the other hand, showed greater sustainability both in the short- and long-term. The financial resource requirements for universal access to health care through general government revenue are compared with a contributory health insurance scheme approach. Although both funding options would require considerable government subsidies, given the magnitude of the informal sector in Kenya and their limited financial capacity, a tax-funded system would be less costly and more sustainable in the long-term than an insurance scheme approach. However, more innovative financing for health care as well as giving the health sector higher priority in government expenditure will be required to make the non-contributory financing mechanism more sustainable.

BACKGROUND: The need to provide quality and equitable health services and protect populations from impoverishing health care costs has pushed universal health coverage (UHC) to the top of global health policy agenda. In many developing countries where the majority of the population works in the informal sector, there are critical debates over the best financing mechanisms to progress towards UHC. In Kenya, government health policy has prioritized contributory financing strategy (social health insurance) as the main financing mechanism for UHC. However, there are currently no studies that have assessed the cost of either social health insurance (SHI) as the contributory approach or an alternative financing mechanism involving non-contributory (general tax funding) approaches to UHC in Kenya. The aim of this study was to critically assess the financial requirements of both contributory and non-contributory mechanisms to financing UHC in Kenya in the context of large informal sector populations. METHODS: SimIns Basic® model, Version 2.1, 2008 (WHO/GTZ), was used to assess the feasibility of UHC in Kenya and provide estimates of financial resource needs for UHC over a 17-year period (2013-2030). Data sources included review of national and international literature on inflation, demography, macro-economy, health insurance, health services unit costs and utilization rates. The data were triangulated across geographic regions for accuracy and integrity of the simulation. SimIns models for 10 years only so data from the final year of the model was used to project for another 7 years. The 17-year period was necessary because the Government of Kenya aims to achieve UHC by 2030. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: The results show that SHI is financially sustainable (Sustainability in this study is used to mean that expenditure does not outstrip revenue.) (revenues and expenditure match) within the first five years of implementation, but it becomes less sustainable with time. Modelling for a non-contributory scenario, on the other hand, showed greater sustainability both in the short- and long-term. The financial resource requirements for universal access to health care through general government revenue are compared with a contributory health insurance scheme approach. Although both funding options would require considerable government subsidies, given the magnitude of the informal sector in Kenya and their limited financial capacity, a tax-funded system would be less costly and more sustainable in the long-term than an insurance scheme approach. However, more innovative financing for health care as well as giving the health sector higher priority in government expenditure will be required to make the non-contributory financing mechanism more sustainable.

The law of contributory negligence is often treated as an afterthought by academics. It is routinely relegated to a position of relative unimportance in textbooks. This tendency is particularly pronounced in the commercial law sphere, apparently on the assumption that the contributory negligence doctrine is for the most part confined to "accident cases". As a result, learning regarding the law of contributory negligence in the commercial law setting is particularly underdeveloped. The goal of this article is simple. It draws attention to the fact that the contributory negligence doctrine has profound implications for commercial law litigation. It seeks to advance learning with respect to it by engaging with four issues that arise in the commercial law context. It argues, first, that the decision in Forsikringsaktieselskapet Vesta v Butcher has been implicitly overruled by recent decisions of high authority with the result that apportionment for contributory negligence is unavailable in all types of contractual claims. Second, the merits of rules for which Vesta provides and alternatives thereto are critically considered. It is argued that most existing learning on this point is contaminated with serious confusion. Third, it is asked whether the apportionment statute applies in proceedings against auditors. Legislation arguably excludes it, which is a point that has hitherto been overlooked. Finally, the article addresses the intersection between the reflective loss principle and the law of contributory negligence.

ABSTRACT: Internet crimes, also known as Cyber-crimes are act punishable by law. Nigeria government, in order to curb excessiveness of Internet crimes enacted different regulatory and prohibitory laws in support of views of some theorists who claimed that social factors increase users' vulnerability to computer and Internet attacks. Social factors such as security policy severity, security policy certainty, attitude and attachment have little or no significant relationship with the level of Internet crimes in Nigeria; involvement as a social factor has the strongest significant relationship with the level of Internet crimes in Nigeria; this is followed by commitment, belief and knowledge. Internet users can be tricked, conned and sometimes forcefully compelled to compromise and breach security metrics; security metrics are easily breached if users do not understand or employ security mechanism. Presented in this paper is the survey of the contributory factors to Internet crimes in Nigeria. Data used were gathered by questionnaire. KEYWORDS: social factors, internet crimes, cyber-crimes, security, questionnaire, Nigeria

The Nigeria pension administration started in the 1950s. The Pension Reform Act of 2004 and Revised Pension Reform Act of 2014 brought about the new pension scheme in Nigeria which is a defined contributory scheme unlike the old scheme which was largely defined benefits. This study focuses its attention on the assessment of contributory pension scheme in a bid to make inquiry on its benefits and challenges over the years. The study adopts secondary data for data collection and content analysis for the explanation data collected. The study finds out that regular upward reviews of pensions and gratuities in Nigeria without appropriate methods of financing the scheme has become a major problem, which needs prompt attention in order to alleviate the hardship of pensioners in the country and concludes that based on the challenges facing the operation of the contributory pension scheme that seem outweighing its benefits, the pension scheme may end up the way previous schemes ended as well as recommends that the Nigerian government should make a legislation and encourage the option of having the banks where the salary accounts of employees are domiciled to make pension deduction on monthly basis possible and have it remitted to the Pension Fund Administrators.

This thesis explores how social transfers promote a sustainable path out of poverty while fostering economic performance. It is showed that non-contributory social protection investments foster economic performance. The findings include non-negative effects of social transfers on household heads' labour supply in Ecuador. Investments in human capital are seen to promote higher levels of schooling. Regarding mid-term effects a positive treatment effect for social transfers on intragenerational social mobility is found. Finally, the results indicate a positive rate of return of social protection investments in Cambodia. In conclusion, social protection programmes must be seen as an investment rather than as a cost.

This paper seeks to examine waqf as a tool for bridging infrastructural deficit in Nigeria. Infrastructure has always been the bone of contention in Nigeria due to its inadequacies and couple with its role to economic growth and development. Successive administrations have done their part towards resolving the infrastructural gap but it still persists, coupled with an increasing population. However, plans and strategies such as creating rooms for Public Private Partnership (PPP), Sourcing for funds within and outside country etc have been rolled out. Though, some of these steps have further widened the expenditure profile of the government via debt servicing. Despite all this moves it is yet to fill the infrastructure deficit. Thus, this calls for a waqf system, an aspect of Islamic social finance. This paper revealed the various conceptual definition of waqf, its types, permissibility and how is to be managed. However, a government budget constraint function was introduced to analyze how waqf can contribute in bridging infrastructural deficit which was further supported by adopting a modified revenue function via assumption that it only considers the population statistics of Nigerian citizen within the ages of 15-64yrs, N20 will be contributed per week and 5% level of cash collection error rate will be considered. The study revealed that Nigeria could earned a projected amount of about N1.4b and N5.8b weekly and monthly respectively which will amount to N76b yearly if for instance the cash waqf is adopted. This means that there will be some boast on the government revenue and if such fund is expended on certain components of developmental expenditure, it will go a long way to bridge infrastructural deficit. The study recommends legislation of act setting up waqf, public awareness should be properly done etc.

This paper seeks to examine waqf as a tool for bridging infrastructural deficit in Nigeria. Infrastructure has always been the bone of contention in Nigeria due to its inadequacies and couple with its role to economic growth and development. Successive administrations have done their part towards resolving the infrastructural gap but it still persists, coupled with an increasing population. However, plans and strategies such as creating rooms for Public Private Partnership (PPP), Sourcing for funds within and outside country etc have been rolled out. Though, some of these steps have further widened the expenditure profile of the government via debt servicing. Despite all this moves it is yet to fill the infrastructure deficit. Thus, this calls for a waqf system, an aspect of Islamic social finance. This paper revealed the various conceptual definition of waqf, its types, permissibility and how is to be managed. However, a government budget constraint function was introduced to analyze how waqf can contribute in bridging infrastructural deficit which was further supported by adopting a modified revenue function via assumption that it only considers the population statistics of Nigerian citizen within the ages of 15-64yrs, N20 will be contributed per week and 5% level of cash collection error rate will be considered. The study revealed that Nigeria could earned a projected amount of about N1.4b and N5.8b weekly and monthly respectively which will amount to N76b yearly if for instance the cash waqf is adopted. This means that there will be some boast on the government revenue and if such fund is expended on certain components of developmental expenditure, it will go a long way to bridge infrastructural deficit. The study recommends legislation of act setting up waqf, public awareness should be properly done etc.

Presents results of a survey conducted in the Tcheffa valley, examining the relative importance of agricultural & pastoral activities in the area, w. emphasis on the permanent & seasonal nature of Afar & Oromo utilisation of the valley. Includes two year data pertaining to livestock populations, immigrant & resident herds, & identifies major access routes, available grazing areas, animal diseases & trends in government policy.

In most of the common-law world, legislation provides for damages to be apportioned where the claimant is guilty of contributory negligence. This legislation gives judges considerable latitude to determine the extent to which damages should be diminished for contributory negligence. It imposes what will be called a system of 'discretionary apportionment'. This paper draws attention to the fact that, although most common-law jurisdictions are, by virtue of their apportionment legislation, in the thrall of the paradigm of discretionary apportionment, there are many, varied departures from this paradigm. This paper classifies these departures (which will be called 'fixed apportionment rules'), emphasises that they conflict with the apportionment legislation and considers how the conflicts ought to be resolved. An important conclusion reached is that it can plausibly be argued that the landmark decision inFroom v Butcher, at least as it has been understood in subsequent cases, was decidedper incuriam. Froomsits uncomfortably with the apportionment legislation. Attention is then turned to the arguments for and against a discretionary system of apportionment as opposed to a system that incorporates more fixed apportionment rules. It is contended that much stands to be gained from introducing more fixed apportionment rules.

Purpose of the article: Nigeria's shift to the Defined Contributory Scheme (DCS) is more or less questionable in terms of providing economic security for the senior citizens and preventing old age poverty. The 2004 and 2014 pension reforms sought to conform to pension theory; yet, there could be greater critical risks such as inflation risk factors. This study therefore examined how inflation risk factors impact pension wealth in Nigeria. Methods: The Structured Autoregressive Distribution Lag (ARDL) to the co-integration approach is employed to determine the relationships between inflation risk factors and investment returns of selected Nigerian pension fund administrators for the period 2009–2014. Scientific aim: This study sought the evidence to support the impact of inflation risk factors on pension wealth in Nigeria following the switch to the DCS based on the theoretical link between the investment returns and inflation rate. Findings: Inflation and world oil prices adversely affected the asset returns of pension funds management bourgeoning vulnerabilities to old age poverty. Conclusions: Pension wealth of Nigerians at the cumulating phase is at high risk to inflation risk factors, and is reasonably justified with the negative relationship with the exchange rate factors and world oil prices. The study suggests that inflation, exchange rate risk, and world oil price risk must be strategically tackled with farsighted multi-faceted fiscal and monetary measures to reduce social insecurity and vulnerability to old age poverty. The government should consider promoting the flotation of inflation-indexed bonds and urgently consider imposing a guaranteed returned pension plan (GRPP) to reduce the inflation risk in the accumulating phase of the DCS, while workers should consider increasing their contributions to mitigate inflation risk factors. Insurance life annuities can also provide inflation insurance linked to inflation-indexed bonds.

Social transfer programs in developing countries are designed to contribute to poverty reduction by increasing the income of the poor in order to ensure minimal living standards. In addition, social transfers provide a safety net for the vulnerable, who are typically not covered by contributory social security. The question of how effective such programs are in achieving these aims has been the subject of numerous impact evaluations. However, the optimal design of such programs is still unclear. Even less is known about whether the adoption and implementation of transfer programs is really driven by poverty and neediness or whether other factors also have an influence. To investigate these and other research questions, we have developed a new dataset entitled Non-Contributory Social Transfer Programs (NSTP) in Developing Countries. One advantage of this dataset is that it traces 186 non-contributory programs from 101 countries back in time and presents them in panel form for the period up until 2015. The second advantage is that it contains all the details regarding the various programs' designs as well as information on costs and coverage in a coded format and thus facilitates both comparative quantitative and in-depth qualitative analyses. While describing the data we discuss a number of examples of how the dataset can be used to explore different issues related to social policies in developing countries. We present suggestive evidence that the adoption of social transfer programs is not based only on pro-poor motives, but rather that social policy choices differ between political regimes.

In spite the growing attention on the role of carbon capturing and sequestration schemes in mitigating emissions, its contribution to the deployment of renewable energy remains uncomfortably low, especially in Europe. Thus, the current study contributes to the literature by investigating how natural capital captured by biocapacity amidst carbon emission influences renewable energy deployment by controlling for the role of openness to trade and oil utilization among the European countries. Based on a panel data analysis of over the period 1990–2016, we follow rigorous econometric approaches that accommodates country-specific factors such as the cross-sectional dependence, country-specific heterogeneity, and the non-stationarity dimension of the variables. Fundamentally, the results confirm the presence of significant long-term association among variables. The empirical results also authenticate that oil utilization and carbon emissions discourage renewable energy deployment by inelastic proportions. In essence, the result suggests that energy transition advancement is propelled by the deployment of carbon sequestration techniques through the expansion of natural capital. Moreover, evidence illustrates that the productive capacity of the Europe's ecosystem and openness to trade are critical to the region's energy transition policy, thus an influential factor of renewable energy supply. Furthermore, the causality analysis reveals a feedback effect between biocapacity and renewable energy, and between trade and renewable energy. The findings offer a platform for re-invent policy implications for the region. ; © 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). ; fi=vertaisarvioitu|en=peerReviewed|

The study was prompted largely by the desire to offer some little contribution towards alleviating the myriad of problems faced by retirees of in Nigeria. The hardship and severe suffering of retirees in Nigeria is common knowledge and well documented. It is precisely these conditions that provided the need to undertake the study with the view to providing a clear road-map to a peaceful retirement under the new regime of Pension Reform Act, 2004. The study examined the failure of the Old Pension Scheme, the reasons for the failure, the innovations brought about by the New Pension Reform Act and the hope of worker?s yearning for its success, as well as the hitches still standing in the way. The study discovered that the human factor which brought about the failure of the old Act still exist to cause the failure of the new Act too. It concluded by offering tangible suggestions to Government towards realizing the objectives of the new Pension Reform Act.

Undoubtedly, stock theft increased in most South African provinces during the lockdown period, thus, the objectives of this study were to provide a systematic discourse using news aggregators and seminal authors on this subject to showcase stock theft realities, and to establish the contributory factors thereof. The non-empirical research design: Systematic review methodology was used to analyse grey literature and primary research studies peer-reviewed and published, restricted from 2019-2020, as the Coronavirus disease-2019 (Covid-19) pandemic swept South Africa by an elusive heavy storm, with 1998-2022 directed studies on this scourge, however, none sequential preference was adopted. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) and Critical Appraisal Skill Programme (CASP) were employed to ensure the trustworthiness of the findings of this study. This study establishes that the current nature of policing in South Africa is regarded as one of the notable root causes of the stock theft problem and this crime will continue to hike during the lockdown and post-lockdown periods if concerted steps are not taken urgently by the top echelons of the South African Police Service (SAPS), their actions against this practice is currently compromised or emasculated, and the consequences are clear to see. This study recommends that to effectively respond to the identified study themes; an active discourse relating to the contributory of stock theft during lockdown should be prioritised by the South African government. This multi-agency approach should include reporting of this crime, brand-marking and tattooing of livestock, embracing technological advancements to combat it effectively.