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The depth and duration of economic decline, coupled with ecological degradation, political paralysis, and institutional decay, has created an unprecedented crisis in sub-saharan Africa. Explanations for the multiple crises of African development focus on debates regarding the necessity of following market-oriented economic policies, the capacity of African states to manage either development or reform and the way in which African institutions reproduce societies that are resistant either to state-centered development or to market forces. After allowing for events that are beyond the control of policy, the three schools—neoliberal, structural-nationalist, and institutional—are used to evaluate the literature on peasant agriculture, industry, and state policy. The experience of Nigeria indicates that commercial agriculture is increasing, that structural reforms can have some positive benefits and that its hydrocarbon sector can form a basis for regional industrialization. Finally, the rise of popular democratic movement suggests how the crisis has unleashed elements of a formerly passive civil society which promise to reform authoritarianism and discipline rentier states.

Boards of directors have been substantially affected by recent changes in their legal environment. The most profound change has been in the area of director liability. New legislation and regulations and a series of court decisions increased the extent to which directors are held accountable for their actions and those of their organizations. These changes resulted in increased liability exposure for directors and a crisis in director liability insurance. Corporations have successfully developed strategies to manage the adverse consequences of these changes in the legal environment. This paper develops an extension of resource dependence theory to enable us to analyze events surrounding the director liability crisis from the perspective of the corporation. It then reviews the legal forces which have affected boards of directors. The concept of director liability is discussed, including the business judgment rule, which has historically protected the decision making discretion of boards. Indemnification and director liability insurance, which provide protection from monetary penalties against directors arising from liability suits, are also described. Recent environmental changes which have affected director protection from liability are then examined. These include legislation specifying certain director responsibilities and granting additional enforcement powers to federal regulatory agencies, court decisions which expanded the personal liability of directors in several important ways, and changes in director liability insurance policies and markets. These developments increased the liability exposure of corporate directors and precipitated the director liability crisis of 1986. Corporations responded to this threat by making changes in board composition, director compensation, and board decision making structures and processes; by developing alternative forms of director liability insurance; and by lobbying for legislation providing greater liability protection for directors. These actions are interpreted within the framework of resource dependence theory. Implications for future research are also discussed.

This essay presents a theoretical model for explaining great power cooperation in conflict management. The model refines recent cooperation theory by distinguishing between types and degrees of international cooperation. It also challenges the dominance of decisionmaking analysis in the crisis literature and supplements it with structural factors. In brief, the model suggests that whereas crisis cooperation (crisis management) is conditioned by structural elements, cooperation in normal diplomacy (conflict resolution) depends on state attributes and cognitive factors. Such a model can account for the fact that unintended wars can break out between relatively moderate and similar actors whereas immoderate and dissimilar states can manage crises effectively. At the same time the model explains why some states are able to cooperate in normal diplomacy better than others, even when more actors are cooperating.

Argues that the profession of policy analysis is suffering from a crisis of confidence that is affecting public problem solvers in general. However, critical changes in US politics -- eg, a greater personalization, demands for perfection, an emphasis on passion -- are occurring, making such analysis more difficult. Welfare policy analysis provides an example of rational policy analysis, but recent analyses in this area have been treated as irrelevant in the public debate on welfare. The end of policy analysis is in sight. M. Pflum

Military Structures Under the Test of Reality
More than other organizations, armies must manage a structurally contradictory situation : they must be capable of being immediately called upon in various types of crises while assuring that their daily life goes on in times of peace. The operation to liberate Kuwait has made it possible to analyse the capacities of military structures to adapt in times of large-scale crisis. Taking the three armed forces into consideration, the author examines the three levels of command : central level (general staff), theatre of operations and support services management.

Book Reviwes in The Article:Auerbach, Alan J. (Editor), (1988, paperback 1991), Corporate Takeovers – causes and consequences, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Bartlett, Sarah; (1991) The Money Machine – How KKR Manufactured Power and Profits; Warner Books, New YorkFell, Robert, (1992), Crisis and Change – the maturing of Hong Kong's financial markets, Longman, Hong KongMantle, Jonathan; (1992), For Whom the Bell Tolls – the lesson of Lloyd's of London; Sinclair‐Stevenson, LondonSheridan, Thomas and Nigel Kendall(1992), Corporate Governance – an action plan for profitability and business success, Financial Times and Pitman, LondonSpicer, Barry, Robert Bowman, David Emanuel and Alister Hunt, (1991), The Power t o Manage – restructuring the New Zealand Electricity Department as a State Owned Enterprise, Oxford University Press, Auckland, New ZealandStevens, Mark (1992) The Big Six; Simon and Schuster, New York.Vernon, Raymond; (1992) Are Foreign‐owned Subsidiaries Good for the United States? Group of Thirty Occasional Paper No. 37; Group of Thirty, 1990 M Street, Washington, DC 20036, USA.David, Fred R., (1991) Concepts of Strategic Management, Macmillan Publishing Company, New York.Institute of Directors; Corporate Governance Series; Institute of Directors, London, 1992Kirdar, Uner (editor), (1992), Change – threat or opportunity for human progress? Volume 3, Globalization of Markets, United NationsRugman, Alan M. and Main Verbeke, (1990), Global Corporate Strategy and Trade Policy, Routledge, London.Shapiro, Alan C., (1991) Modern Corporate Finance, Macmillan Publishing Company, New York.

Book reviewed in this article:GREAT BRITAIN ANDJohn Blair and Nigel Ramsay, eds., English medieval industries: craftsmen, techniques, productsScott L. Waugh, England in the reign of Edward IIIBruce Campbell, ed., Before the Black Death: studies in the'crisis'of the early fourteenth century Alan Dyer, Decline and growth in English towns, 1400‐1640 Hugh Cunningham, The children of the poor: representations of childhood since the seventeenth centuryDavid Crossley and Richard Saville, eds., The Fuller letters: guns, slaves and finance, 1728‐1755Jim Holderness and Michael Turner, eds., Land, labour and agriculture, 1700‐1920: essays for Gordon MingayAdrian Randall, Before the Luddites: custom, community and machinery in the English woollen industry, 1776‐1809Richard Brown, Society and economy in modern Britain, 1700‐1850Keith D. M. Snell, Church and chapel in the north midlands: religious observance in the nineteenth centuryJames A. Jaffe, The struggle for market power: industrial relations in the British coal industry, 1800‐1840David Neave, Mutual aid in the Victorian countryside: friendly societies in the rural East Riding, 1830‐1914Clive Dewey, The passing of BarchesterAlun Howkins, Reshaping rural England: a social history, 1850‐1925Stephen Coleman and Paddy O'Sullivan, eds., William Morris and'News from nowhere': a vision for our timeSteven Morewood, Pioneers and inheritors: top management in the Coventry motor industry, 1896‐1972Alec Cairncross, ed., The Robert Hall diaries, 1954‐61Dennis Brailsford, Sport, time and society: the British at playGeoffrey Jones and M. W. Kirby, eds. Competitiveness and the state: government and business in twentieth‐century BritainAlice Russell, The growth of occupational welfare in BritainPhilip Brook Manville, The origins of citizenship in ancient AthensAlan Harvey, The economic expansion of the Byzantine empire, 900‐1200Daniel Goffman, Izmir and the Levantine world, 1550‐1650Stuart Woolf, ed., Domestic strategies: work and family in France and Italy, 1600‐1800David Sven Reher, Town and country in pre‐industrial Spain: Cuenca, 1550‐1870Bruce M. S. Campbell and Mark Overton, eds., Land, labour and livestock: historical studies in European agricultural productivityDavid Christian, Living water: vodka and Russian society on the eve of emancipationE. Kingston‐Mann and T. Mixter, eds., Peasant economy, culture, and politics of European Russia, 1800‐1921Stephen Constantine, ed., Emigrants and empire: British settlement in the dominions between the warsChristopher Clark, The roots of rural capitalism: western Massachusetts, 1780‐1860W. B. Stephens, Sources for U.S. history: nineteenth‐century communitiesJ. P. Ronda, Astoria and empireArthur F. McEvoy, The fisherman's problem: ecology and law in the California fisheries, 1850‐1980Roger L. Ransom, Conflict and compromise: the political economy of slavery, emancipation, and the American Civil WarRobert A. Margo, Race and schooling in the South, 1880‐1950: an economic historyMichael J. French, The U.S. tire industry: a historyJames Harvey Young, Pure food: securing the Federal Food and Drugs Act of 1906Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: industrial workers in Chicago, 1919‐1939Henry R. Nau, The myth of America's decline: leading the world economy into the 1990sCarole Shammas, The pre‐industrial consumer in England and AmericaWilliam Lazonick, Competitive advantage on the shop floorMichael Veseth, Mountains of debt: crisis and change in Renaissance Florence, Victorian Britain, and postwar AmericaMary O'Furner and Barry Supple, eds., The state and economic knowledgeF. Bostock and G. Jones, Planning and power in Iran: Ebtehaj and economic development under the ShahPeter Duus, Raymon Myers, and Mark R. Peattie, eds., The Japanese informal empire in China, 1895‐1937W. Dean Kinzley, Industrial harmony in modern japan: the invention of a traditionJohn G. Clark, The political economy of world energy: a twentieth‐century perspectiveWilliam J. Barber, ed., Perspectives on the history of economic thought. Vol. 5 Themes in pre‐classical and marxian economics. Vol. 6 Themes in Keynesian criticism and supplementary modern topicsRobert Higgs, ed., Arms, politics, and the economy: historical and contemporary perspectivesO. F. Hamouda and B. B. Price, Verification in economics and history: a sequel to 'scientifizationCharles Harvey and Jon Press, eds., International competition and industrial change: essays in the history of mining and metallurgy, 1800‐1950Mary B. Rose, ed., International competition and strategic response in the textile industries since 1870Bo Gustafsson, ed., Power and economic institutions: reinterpretations in economic historyAngus Maddison, Dynamic forces in capitalist development: a long‐run comparative viewSteven Tolliday and Jonathan Zeitlin, eds., The power to manage: employers and industrial relations in comparative‐historical perspectiveMaxine Berg, ed., Political economy in the twentieth centuryMats Lundahl and Thommy Svensson, eds., Agrarian society in history: essays in honour of Magnus MörnerLars Jonung, ed., The Stockholm school of economics revisited