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Gerard P. Heather & Matthew F. Stolz (see SA 29:4/81L7842), despite the value of their comments on Hannah Arendt, do not have an adequate understanding of critical theory, especially as presented by Jurgen Habermas. Habermas provides not an antithesis but a complement to Arendt's work. He offers a post-Wittgensteinian communicative theory of action that clarifies: the normative & pragmatic character of speech & political discourse; the historically contingent, possibly systematically distorted character of speech & political discourse; & the resulting practicalities & power of ideology & legislation. In Reply to Professor Forester, Gerard P. Heather & Matthew F. Stolz (San Francisco State U, Calif) argue that Habermas & Arendt are working in different traditions -- Arendt in political theory & Habermas in critical theory. Arendt is in a tradition of seeking political understanding at the level of political discourse, rather than that of philosophical discourse, in which critical theory seeks to ground politics. Key concepts differ between the two approaches. Modified HA.

The possibility of rational social criticism is explored in philosophical terms. A need is seen for an absolute standard by which societies are to be evaluated. Natural human needs do not provide such a standard; nor does the nature of rationality as such. However, a standard may be found in the preservation of the openness of discourse that, among other things, makes social criticism possible. The possibility exists of engaging in the kind of dialogue that can eventually lead to the resolution of disagreements. This argument is applied to questions raised by feminism. W. H. Stoddard

In the confines of the study of politics, public policy analysis involves a shift from pure to applied research, thus intensifying the problem of the fact-value split inherited from positivist behavioralism. While early public policy literature concentrated on empirical policy-making processes, bypassing moral criteria, Duncan MacRae, Jr. (The Social Function of Social Science, Yale University Press, 1976) & Jurgen Habermas (Toward a Rational Society: Student Protest, Science, and Politics, Shapiro, Jeremy [Tr], Beacon Press, 1970; Legitimation Crisis, McCarthy, Thomas [Tr], Beacon Press, 1975) have elaborated on policy making & evaluation as a type of normative inquiry. According to Habermas, policy evaluation requires a critically reflective "practical discourse" open not only to experts or policy analysts but to the public at large. Such discourse is argued to be a valuable remedy for the technical-instrumental bent of applied science, but recovery of a fully noninstrumental "practical" judgment presupposes an evaluation not only of concrete policies but of the status of policy itself. Modified HA.

ABSTRACTIn the confines of the study of politics, public policy analysis involves a shift from pure to applied research, a shift which intensifies the problem of the fact‐value split inherited from positivist behavioralism. While early public policy literature concentrated on empirical policy‐making processes bypassing moral criteria, some recent writings have elaborated on policymaking and policy evaluation as a type of normative inquiry; significant steps in this direction have been undertaken by Duncan MacRae and especially by Jurgen Habermas in the context of "critical theory." According to Habermas, policy evaluation requires a critically reflective "practical discourse" open not only to experts or policy analysts but to the public at large. The paper argues that such discourse is a valuable remedy against the technical‐instrumental bent of applied science, but that recovery of a fully non‐instrumental "practical" judgement presupposes an evaluation not only of concrete policies but of the status of "policy" itself.

Fundamental tasks confronting the development of a critical, postpositivistic social science are addressed. Following Jurgen Habermas, the goal of a critical social science is an emancipatory political discourse. In contrast to the dominant neopositivistic methodologies, such a science must be able to transcend its empirical data by interpreting their meaning in both the specific context of action & a fundamental critique of society. Borrowing from Habermas, Stephen Toulmin, & Paul Taylor, a critical methodological framework that incorporates elements of evaluation research, phenomenological action theory, the systems perspective, & political philosophy, & that presents a logic of empirical & normative questions is offered. Its logic is briefly illustrated by applications to specific political issues. 2 Figures. Modified AA.

In contemporary philosophy the works of George Berkeley are considered models of argumentative discourse; his paradoxes have a further value to teachers because, like Zeno?s, they challenge a beginning student to find the submerged fallacy. And as a fina

THIS PAPER ARGUES THAT IN POLICY EVALUATION A CRITICALLY REFLECTIVE "PRACTICAL DISCOURSE" IS A VALUABLE REMEDY AGAINST THE TECHNICAL-INSTRUMENTAL BENT OF APPLIED SCIENCE, BUT THAT RECOVERY OF A FULLY NON-INSTRUMENTAL "PRACTICAL" JUDGEMENT PRESUPPOSES AN EVALUATION NOT ONLY OF CONCRETE POLICIES BUT OF THE STATUS OF "POLICY" ITSELF.

A conceptual exploration of the discourse ethics proposed by Jurgen Habermas (Moralbewusstsein und kommunikatives Handeln [Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action], Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1983). Central to this proposal is the fundamental principle of universalization, which represents a reformulation of the Kantian categorical imperative in terms of a universal procedure for validating norms rather than a universal set of norms. This does not appear to provide an escape from relativism, nor does it provide any basis for choosing specific norms. In actuality, Habermas's proposal does not offer a superior alternative to social contract theories as a foundation for law, but only when his strict distinction between the good & the just is set aside. At least one higher order value must be accepted; such a value is found in life & freedom. W. H. Stoddard