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The institutions responsible for the security of those societies developed in the last two decades in the European Union. The Council of Europ accepted the first safety strategy in the history of this international organization. Terrorist attacks made taking forceful steps necessary. The process of creating union troops mainly in combat groups became significant. The creation of this group is the most important military initiative undertaken by the European Union. Since 2010 they have been working in rotation groups and with the ability to react quickly during a crisis outside European territory. Poland is taking part in this process with an increasingly active contribution to strengthen its position within EU structures. Poland is part of the Weimarsk and Visegrad combat group with other countries. There is no sign yet of the creation of a unileteral European army in the coming years. The European Union undertakes supplementary tasks in relation to military operations run by the United Nations and NATO. ; The institutions responsible for the security of those societies developed in the last two decades in the European Union. The Council of Europ accepted the first safety strategy in the history of this international organization. Terrorist attacks made taking forceful steps necessary. The process of creating union troops mainly in combat groups became significant. The creation of this group is the most important military initiative undertaken by the European Union. Since 2010 they have been working in rotation groups and with the ability to react quickly during a crisis outside European territory. Poland is taking part in this process with an increasingly active contribution to strengthen its position within EU structures. Poland is part of the Weimarsk and Visegrad combat group with other countries. There is no sign yet of the creation of a unileteral European army in the coming years. The European Union undertakes supplementary tasks in relation to military operations run by the United Nations and NATO.

The leading goal of this paper is to attempt to answer the question whether gender and ethnic origin have an influence on the international professional career of an individual. Since 1989 Poland has been affected by the changes taking place worldwide in the wake of rampant globalisation. The country's accession to the European Union has opened new labour markets, an opportunity that Polish people are eagerly taking advantage of. At the same time, Poland has become home to international corporations, which have transformed its economy to a considerable extent. These processes involve the active participation of women. Their social position, professional opportunities, as well as related expectations and challenges have undergone a substantial change. The first part contains an overview of literature on gender and ethnic origin and discusses the most significant concepts related to culture and its dimensions according to G. Hofstede, as well as with culturally-conditioned social roles. The second part presents the results of the author's research on the influence of gender and ethnic origin on international professional career, taking into account the research method applied. The final part indicates possible practical implications and potential directions for further research. (fragment of the text) ; Głównym celem artykułu jest próba odpowiedzi na pytanie, czy płeć i pochodzenie etniczne mają wpływ na przebieg międzynarodowej kariery zawodowej jednostki. W nurt zmian zachodzących na świecie, związanych z postępującą globalizacją, Polacy włączyli się po 1989 r. Wejście Polski do Unii Europejskiej otworzyło nowe rynki pracy, z czego Polacy chętnie korzystają. Jednocześnie do Polski przybyły korporacje międzynarodowe, w zasadniczy sposób zmieniając sposób dotychczasowego modelu funkcjonowania gospodarki. W procesach tych aktywnie uczestniczą kobiety. Ich pozycja społeczna, możliwości zawodowe i związane z tym oczekiwania oraz napotykane wyzwania uległy zasadniczej zmianie. W części pierwszej dokonano przeglądu ...

The author explores the problem of territorial reorganization of the metropolitan area within the Canadian evolutionary federal system, taking as an example the cities of Toronto and Montreal. The results of the research indicate that adaptation strategies, applied by states aiming at empowering the metropolis, depend on the general level of the territorial units' autonomy. The existence of strong local self-government favours creation of intercommunal cooperation structures without dissolution of current local territorial units. Territorial reorganization in the case of states with a low level of local autonomy may facilitate elimination of former local units by theirs amalgamation in new, larger metropolitan self-government structures. As far as this context is concerned, Canada constitutes a very interesting study case. Taking into consideration Canadian evolutionary federal system, highly limited local autonomy of the cities, and its mix of European and American traditions, one can observe almost all the above-mentioned dimensions of reform and adaptation strategies. Advanced and institutionalized intercommunal cooperation, developed in Toronto and Montreal in the middle of the 20th century, was interrupted by amalgamation imposed by provincial government, which resulted in creation of new, enlarged metropolitan cities of Toronto in 1998 and Montreal in 2002. In both cases the amalgamation has not been accepted by a part of the population and destabilized cooperation in these metropolitan areas. The trouble with amalgamation led to abandonment of further structural and territorial reforms, which were replaced by functional ones, taking the form of special agreements between Toronto and Montreal and their respective provinces (Ontario and Quebec), giving them both new competences and financial resources. Regardless of any difficulties in pursuing an appropriate metropolitan regime and the suitable position for the metropolis in the structure of a political and territorial system, both cities have achieved strong economic performance and high quality of life.

The paper attempts to indicate the variables that define the framework of EU policy towards Egypt in 2012–2014, and to analyse the scope of the new approach to mutual relations in terms of politics. Particular attention is given to the mechanism of various instruments applied by different EU policies and their implementation in the context of political developments in Egypt. These considerations allow the author to draw conclusions on the future possibilities for the European Union to continue its activities within the framework of cooperation in Egypt, taking into consideration the necessity to agree on common interests and to implement an adopted stand- point. ; The paper attempts to indicate the variables that define the framework of EU policy towards Egypt in 2012–2014, and to analyse the scope of the new approach to mutual relations in terms of politics. Particular attention is given to the mechanism of various instruments applied by different EU policies and their implementation in the context of political developments in Egypt. These considerations allow the author to draw conclusions on the future possibilities for the European Union to continue its activities within the framework of cooperation in Egypt, taking into consideration the necessity to agree on common interests and to implement an adopted stand- point.

Common awareness of threats and dangers, which has become an integral part of nature and mankind, has caused the situation when determination to guarantee safety makes this value timeless. According to H. Kissinger the notion of safety is nowadays 'the foundation of every human action'. That is why, in literature, one can see a very wide scope of safety categories in its defining. The aim of the article is the attempt to explain the notion and to show the essence of safety. Taking into consideration ambiguity of the notion of safety, attention has been directed to its description as the state. At the same time, safety has been described as a process where the state of safety and its organization are subjects of dynamic transformations proportionally to changes in safety conditions. Importance of geopolitical evolution and the progress of science and technology in the last decade of 20th century for transformation of views concerning creation of contemporary national security has been stressed. Realities of 21st century cause that safety of society depends mainly on global and national security. That is why the synthesis of contemporary description of national security has been presented, taking into consideration social category, functional and structural meaning. The attempt of theoretical presentation of the term of safety leads to fundamental conclusions. Firstly, safety undergoes the laws of social systems movements. Secondly, the phenomenon should be analysed thoroughly, noticing its subjective, objective and spatial diversity. ; Common awareness of threats and dangers, which has become an integral part of nature and mankind, has caused the situation when determination to guarantee safety makes this value timeless. According to H. Kissinger the notion of safety is nowadays 'the foundation of every human action'. That is why, in literature, one can see a very wide scope of safety categories in its defining. The aim of the article is the attempt to explain the notion and to show the essence of safety. Taking into consideration ambiguity of the notion of safety, attention has been directed to its description as the state. At the same time, safety has been described as a process where the state of safety and its organization are subjects of dynamic transformations proportionally to changes in safety conditions. Importance of geopolitical evolution and the progress of science and technology in the last decade of 20th century for transformation of views concerning creation of contemporary national security has been stressed. Realities of 21st century cause that safety of society depends mainly on global and national security. That is why the synthesis of contemporary description of national security has been presented, taking into consideration social category, functional and structural meaning. The attempt of theoretical presentation of the term of safety leads to fundamental conclusions. Firstly, safety undergoes the laws of social systems movements. Secondly, the phenomenon should be analysed thoroughly, noticing its subjective, objective and spatial diversity.

The Middle East, as one of the most strategic and, at the same time, confl icting areas both in the twentieth and the fi rst two decades of the 21st century, occupies a key place in the foreign policy of the United States. It is the region where, in various forms, American political, economic and military interests are being realized through competition the other actors in the international arena, taking actions to make the states clients of the United States, strengthening dependencies and links with the countries of the region (including Israel), taking initiatives to look for new allies or using military force as a means of implementing foreign policy in the Middle East, as exemplifi ed by the Gulf War, US involvement in Libya and Syria or the war with the so-called Islamic State. The essence of the Middle Eastern US policy has become a kind of sinusoidal variation in reaching for the instruments characteristic for the policy of hard and soft Wilsonianism. While the policy of Barack Obama towards the Middle East was marked by using soft power and an abandonment of the New Crusade and war on terrorism, characteristic for the administration of George W. Bush, Donald Trump presents an uncompromising strategy in accordance with the slogan Make America Great Again and the strategy of building American World Order in the Middle East.

Zmiany polityczne na Ukrainie dokonują się w szczególny sposób. Są one efektem rywalizacji różnych grup politycznych, ale także bywają wymuszane przez ruchy obywatelskie takie, jak pomarańczowa rewolucja czy Euromajdan. Autor artykułu podejmuje próbę analizy przyczyn, przebiegu i obecnych oraz przyszłych konsekwencji zmian systemu sprawowania władzy na Ukrainie. W oparciu o analizę systemową dokonuje szczegółowej analizy kolejnych zmian w systemie politycznym Ukrainy, wskazując na ich niekonstytucyjność i naruszenie zasad demokratycznego państwa prawa. ; Political changes in Ukraine are taking place in a peculiar way. They are the outcome of the competition between different political groups on the one hand, but they are also enforced by such social movements as the Orange Revolution a Euromaidan on the other. The author of this paper analyzes the reasons, the course and the present as well as future consequences of the changes in the system po\{er in Ukraine. On the basis of systemic analysis, he examines the subsequeril changes in the political system of ukraine in detail, indicating that they are unconstitutional and in breach of the principles of a democratic state of law. author also presents his forecast concerning the long-term outcomes produced by taking instrumental advantage of the temporary dominance enjoyed by vari groups of politicians and the threats related to the implementation of changes the political System of the state by means which go beyond the realm of law.

Taking under consideration Remi Brague's point of view in a discussion of the European identity, the author of the article searches for a new insightful consideration on the problem of 'being European'. In the cultural perspective the individual sense of belonging, creating an identity, depends on both historical and conscientious mechanisms, thus on the changeable factors affecting the individualities entangled in a struggle for 'being European'. Therefore Brague introduced, instead of a 'stable idea of Europe' which European-to-be can relates to, the cultural form of 'Roman attitude' which remains crucial for creating the 'European identity'. Actually, to put it bluntly, becoming an 'heir of Rome' is indispensable to become 'European', to exercise 'Roman attitude'. ; Taking under consideration Remi Brague's point of view in a discussion of the European identity, the author of the article searches for a new insightful consideration on the problem of 'being European'. In the cultural perspective the individual sense of belonging, creating an identity, depends on both historical and conscientious mechanisms, thus on the changeable factors affecting the individualities entangled in a struggle for 'being European'. Therefore Brague introduced, instead of a 'stable idea of Europe' which European-to-be can relates to, the cultural form of 'Roman attitude' which remains crucial for creating the 'European identity'. Actually, to put it bluntly, becoming an 'heir of Rome' is indispensable to become 'European', to exercise 'Roman attitude'.

Numerous reports and analyses of voter turnout levels have recorded the global trend of declining participation by citizens in national elections. One of the most important results of poor participation of citizens in electoral processes is the serious legitimization deficit. Governments in many countries try to prevent that by taking various measures to solve the problem of falling turnout and to increase the level of the electorate's involvement. In Poland, the low turnout level has been the subject of many scholarly discussions aimed at finding solutions to the problem of poor civic participation. The main goal of this study is to assess the various methods of increasing voter turnout which are used in different countries, including Poland. ; Numerous reports and analyses of voter turnout levels have recorded the global trend of declining participation by citizens in national elections. One of the most important results of poor participation of citizens in electoral processes is the serious legitimization deficit. Governments in many countries try to prevent that by taking various measures to solve the problem of falling turnout and to increase the level of the electorate's involvement. In Poland, the low turnout level has been the subject of many scholarly discussions aimed at finding solutions to the problem of poor civic participation. The main goal of this study is to assess the various methods of increasing voter turnout which are used in different countries, including Poland.

Nowosad Inetta, Społeczno-kulturowe uwarunkowania demokratyzacji edukacji na Tajwanie [Social and cultural preconditions for the process of democratization in Taiwanese education]. Kultura – Społeczeństwo – Edukacja nr 2(14) 2018, Poznań 2018, pp. 137–154, Adam Mickiewicz University Press. ISSN 2300-0422. DOI 10.14746/kse.2018.14.12. The article focuses on changes introduced in Taiwan's education since 1949, which reflect the social changes taking place in this country. Special attention is drawn to the origin and the course of two particularly important processes, i.e. democratisation and taiwanisation, which have radically changed the face of education, revealing Taiwan's 'balancing' between the East and the West. While depicting their essence, also complex links with Taiwan's policies towards China and its orientation onto economic growth were taken into account. ; Nowosad Inetta, Społeczno-kulturowe uwarunkowania demokratyzacji edukacji na Tajwanie [Social and cultural preconditions for the process of democratization in Taiwanese education]. Kultura – Społeczeństwo – Edukacja nr 2(14) 2018, Poznań 2018, pp. 137–154, Adam Mickiewicz University Press. ISSN 2300-0422. DOI 10.14746/kse.2018.14.12. The article focuses on changes introduced in Taiwan's education since 1949, which reflect the social changes taking place in this country. Special attention is drawn to the origin and the course of two particularly important processes, i.e. democratisation and taiwanisation, which have radically changed the face of education, revealing Taiwan's 'balancing' between the East and the West. While depicting their essence, also complex links with Taiwan's policies towards China and its orientation onto economic growth were taken into account.

The purpose of this paper is to analyze the specificity of institutional changes taking place in the framework of European integration, with particular emphasis on the crisis. Have these changes been increasingly often introduced by non-democratic methods in order to improve their efficiency? Regardless of whether they are gradual (incremental) or radical, are they implemented as a result of informal and discreet agreements reached in the restricted circles of the political and official elite, and bypassing citizens? Can one refer to national democracy without harming the progressing integration of the Old Continent? The analysis is based on two examples – the amendments to EU treaties concluded by the establishment of the Lisbon Treaty in 2007 and expanding the powers of the European Central Bank at the time of the eurozone crisis. ; The purpose of this paper is to analyze the specificity of institutional changes taking place in the framework of European integration, with particular emphasis on the crisis. Have these changes been increasingly often introduced by non-democratic methods in order to improve their efficiency? Regardless of whether they are gradual (incremental) or radical, are they implemented as a result of informal and discreet agreements reached in the restricted circles of the political and official elite, and bypassing citizens? Can one refer to national democracy without harming the progressing integration of the Old Continent? The analysis is based on two examples – the amendments to EU treaties concluded by the establishment of the Lisbon Treaty in 2007 and expanding the powers of the European Central Bank at the time of the eurozone crisis.

Film actors, theatre actors? The Polish actors' market in recent yearsThe author of the paper analyzes the career paths of Polish film and theater actors in recent years, taking account of social and institutional changes in Polish theater and cinema after 1989. On this basis, current three strategies present in the acting profession are identified: Courtier, Byplay and Celebrity. These three groups are highlighted depending on actors' artistic achievements and accu- mulated symbolic capital. The main thesis of the article is that leading film actors, who are most successful on the big screen, forsake engagement in theater. While describing this regularity, the author provides specific examples of actresses and actors - eg. Magdalena Cielecka, Andrzej Chyra, Jacek Poniedziałek and Agnieszka Grochowska. The article concludes with considerations about the various reasons why Polands market for film actors and the theater market have split in recent years. ; Film actors, theatre actors? The Polish actors' market in recent yearsThe author of the paper analyzes the career paths of Polish film and theater actors in recent years, taking account of social and institutional changes in Polish theater and cinema after 1989. On this basis, current three strategies present in the acting profession are identified: Courtier, Byplay and Celebrity. These three groups are highlighted depending on actors' artistic achievements and accu- mulated symbolic capital. The main thesis of the article is that leading film actors, who are most successful on the big screen, forsake engagement in theater. While describing this regularity, the author provides specific examples of actresses and actors - eg. Magdalena Cielecka, Andrzej Chyra, Jacek Poniedziałek and Agnieszka Grochowska. The article concludes with considerations about the various reasons why Polands market for film actors and the theater market have split in recent years.

The main purpose of this article is to present the role of the diplomatic mission of Jan Zawadzki to the North European courts in 1633 and the role it played in shaping and implementing the foreign policy plans of Wladyslaw IV. In relation to the literature on the subject so far, an innovative approach to the subject of this mission is to transfer the perspective of research from Zawadzki's stay at individual courts, in favor of a comprehensive analysis of his mission. Research conducted in this way shows that the king already had a very complexed vision of his actions on the European arena at the time of taking the throne of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, as evidenced by the mission of Jan Zawadzki.

The multicultural and multiethnic character of Śląsk Opolski frequently leads to emotionally heated disputes over such symbols of the past as historical monuments, anniversaries of historical events, cemeteries, signs with topographic names and so on, which is reflected in regional policy. History and collective memory are obviously used by the politicians of Śląsk Opolski (both by political parties and minority organizations) for their current political purposes, in order to achieve certain political interests (such as winning or retaining voters) by means of exerting an influence on the regional community or selected groups and by shaping certain attitudes and behaviors. The author refers to concrete examples of debates held in the region to explain the phenomenon of the politicization of history. She ponders the role of researchers, including political scientists, in preventing the politicization of the past and emphasizes the necessity for their taking a stand in the process of forming regional historical policy. ; The multicultural and multiethnic character of Śląsk Opolski frequently leads to emotionally heated disputes over such symbols of the past as historical monuments, anniversaries of historical events, cemeteries, signs with topographic names and so on, which is reflected in regional policy. History and collective memory are obviously used by the politicians of Śląsk Opolski (both by political parties and minority organizations) for their current political purposes, in order to achieve certain political interests (such as winning or retaining voters) by means of exerting an influence on the regional community or selected groups and by shaping certain attitudes and behaviors. The author refers to concrete examples of debates held in the region to explain the phenomenon of the politicization of history. She ponders the role of researchers, including political scientists, in preventing the politicization of the past and emphasizes the necessity for their taking a stand in the process of forming regional historical policy.

Europeanism exceeds the political and social mindset, it also provides the way of thinking about Europe, the Europeans, their identity, culture and homogeneity, which is paradoxically constituted on the basis of heterogeneity ("unity in diversity"). One may distinguishes two contrary approaches towards the UE: Euroscepticism and Euroenthusiasm The first orientation is very vivid in the British society and it is reflected not only in the words of politicians but also in the mood of the nation, expressed in the Brexit referendum. The latter orientation is common among Poles who enjoy the privilege of joining to the exclusive club. The European and citizenship education reflect these antagonistic approaches. The aim of the paper is an attempt to reconstruct and analyse the contemporary debate on citizenship education in the perspective of European Union. The analyse of educational trends about Europe and Europeanism is significant if Brexit is taking into the consideration. ; Europeanism exceeds the political and social mindset, it also provides the way of thinking about Europe, the Europeans, their identity, culture and homogeneity, which is paradoxically constituted on the basis of heterogeneity ("unity in diversity"). One may distinguishes two contrary approaches towards the UE: Euroscepticism and Euroenthusiasm The first orientation is very vivid in the British society and it is reflected not only in the words of politicians but also in the mood of the nation, expressed in the Brexit referendum. The latter orientation is common among Poles who enjoy the privilege of joining to the exclusive club. The European and citizenship education reflect these antagonistic approaches. The aim of the paper is an attempt to reconstruct and analyse the contemporary debate on citizenship education in the perspective of European Union. The analyse of educational trends about Europe and Europeanism is significant if Brexit is taking into the consideration.