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This article is to appear in Anttiroiko, A.-V., & Malkia, M. (Eds.), Encylopedia of Digital Government, Hershey, PA, USA: The Idea Group, 2006. ; Information systems (computers and networks) are increasingly the targets of attacks ranging from vandalism to serious crimes (Richardson, 2003). Since government systems are valuable resources for a society, it is important to protect them from such attacks. Unfortunately however, government systems can be especially vulnerable (Lucasik, Goodman, & Longhurst, 2003). This is in part because government is distributed over many locations, and it is therefore hard to protect all of its information systems well. Secondly, many government systems must be accessible to a wide range of people (even if through a government intermediary), unlike the specialized systems used in other settings, and users will include a few fools and criminals. Thirdly, governments often use popular business software, and the more popular software is, the more attacks are known against it. Finally, there are many people with antipathy or grudges against governments for one reason or another who may seek revenge by attacking its information systems and data. And with the global Internet, attackers need not be in the same country as the government they attack.

Cover -- Front Flap -- Title Page -- Copyright Info -- Contents -- Introduction The New "Most Wanted -- Chapter 1 Phreaks And Geeks -- Chapter 2 User Beware -- Chapter 3 No Business As Usual -- Chapter 4 Cool War With China -- Chapter 5 Strong-Arm Tactics -- Chapter 6 Dee-Fense! -- Source Notes -- Selected Bibliography -- For Further Information -- Index -- Photo Acknowledgments/About The Author -- Back Flap -- Back Cover

Who did it? Attribution is fundamental. Human lives and the security of the state may depend on ascribing agency to an agent. In the context of computer network intrusions, attribution is commonly seen as one of the most intractable technical problems, as either solvable or not solvable, and as dependent mainly on the available forensic evidence. But is it? Is this a productive understanding of attribution? - This article argues that attribution is what states make of it. To show how, we introduce the Q Model: designed to explain, guide, and improve the making of attribution. Matching an offender to an offence is an exercise in minimising uncertainty on three levels: tactically, attribution is an art as well as a science; operationally, attribution is a nuanced process not a black-and-white problem; and strategically, attribution is a function of what is at stake politically. Successful attribution requires a range of skills on all levels, careful management, time, leadership, stress-testing, prudent communication, and recognising limitations and challenges. Adapted from the source document.