Suchergebnisse

Abstract. The purpose of the article is to explain the creation of the Slovenian debt state and its transformation
into a consolidation state after the crisis of 2008. When
the crisis struck Slovenia in 2009, the banking system
was near collapse. Through the recapitalisations of the
banking system the public debt began to grow. After a
couple of years and under the structural pressures of rating agencies and pressures from the EU, the Slovenian
state had to adopt austerity measures to consolidate its
public finances, while limiting the scope of democracy.
The main finding of the article is that the crisis of 2008
fundamentally changed the Slovenian state.
Keywords: capitalist state, consolidation state, debt,
Slovenia, democracy

A comparative study of housing policy & conditions in five European Union (EU) member states: the UK, Germany, Sweden, Spain, & Slovenia. Similarities & differences are demonstrated in a discussion of the housing regulations enacted in each country & in a series of quantitative tables illustrating: (1) rentals vs private ownership, (2) government-subsidized housing, (3) availability of homes/apartments for rent/ownership, (4) private-government housing agencies, (5) rent control laws, (6) home ownership, (7) average housing standards & quality data (eg, dwelling size & amenities), (8) annual housing unit construction, (9) house/apartment prices, (10) housing affordability index, & (11) housing debt (eg, mortgage debt per capita/GDP). It is concluded that unlike in the older EU members, with clearly detectable trends of housing value appreciation, decline, or stagnation, the housing situation in Slovenia seems to be erratic with illogical price fluctuations that are not explainable in terms of clearly identifiable factors. Adapted from the source document.

The author of the following study presents the institution of surety as it is regulated in Romanian civil law. The notion of surety (in the sense of the person offering the guarantee) is presented, as well as the legal nature of the surety contract, and its defining characteristic of an accessory guarantee as well as the conclusion of the contract and the formal and material requirements for its validity. In the following, the author presents the various types of surety regulated in Romanian civil law. Regarding the effects of the surety contract the study presents the legal consequences specifically regulated in Romania, which arise when the debtor fails to respect his obligations. In the final part of the study, the reasons for the cessation of the effects of the surety contract, are presented, with special emphasis on the death of the surety (natural person), which, contrary to the apparent meaning of the legal text, does not result in the cancellation of any debt owed by the deceased surety in virtue of the surety contract. This debt shall remain due as part of the surety's estate.

A disszertáció a rendszerváltás óta eltelt időszakban Magyarországon alkalmazott, a lakásfenntartáshoz kapcsolódó társadalompolitikai eszközöket elemzi. Az elemzés fókuszában a normatív lakásfenntartási támogatás és az adósságkezelési szolgáltatás, valamint az azok megszüntetése után a helyükbe lépő települési támogatások, ezáltal pedig a helyi pénzbeli ellátások 2015-ben bevezetett reformjának a támogatásokhoz való hozzáférésre, a rájuk fordított kiadásokra, átlagos összegükre, elosztási hatásaikra, a támogatások igénybevételeinek a feltételeire – és mindezek társadalomföldrajzi mintázatára – gyakorolt hatásai állnak. A disszertáció mindezt adminisztratív adatok és a helyi rendeletek együttes elemzésével igyekszik feltárni. A disszertáció kitér ezen kívül számos egyéb, a vizsgált időszakban a lakásfenntartást támogató társadalompolitikai eszköz elemzésére is, különös tekintettel a szociális tűzifatámogatásra, a gázár-támogatás különböző alakváltozataira, a távhőszolgáltatás kedvező ÁFA-szabályozására és a "rezsicsökkentésre". Az adósságkezeléshez kapcsolódó ellátások elemzését a hátralékosság okainak, funkcióinak, következményeinek és kiterjedésének az elemzése vezeti fel. A pénzbeli ellátások reformja következtében a lakásfenntartáshoz nyújtott támogatásban részesülő háztartások száma megfeleződött, és mivel a támogatásra fordított kiadások ennél is nagyobb mértékben szűkültek, a támogatás átlagos összege is csökkent, leginkább a leghátrányosabb helyzetű településeken. Mintegy egymillió ember élhet olyan településen, ahol semmilyen lakásfenntartáshoz nyújtott rendszeres támogatás nem elérhető. A változások a legalacsonyabb jövedelmű, és közülük is leginkább a többgyermekes családok számára jártak a legtöbb veszteséggel. Az önkormányzati rendeletek nagy része jelentős teret enged a diszkrecionális jogalkalmazásnak. Az adósságkezeléshez kapcsolódó támogatásokhoz való hozzáférés szintén szűkült, a vizsgált önkormányzatok nagy része általában a korábbiaknál szigorúbb feltételekkel nyújt kisebb összegű támogatást a ...

Zadolževanje in razdolževanje je trenutno zelo aktualna tema tako v Sloveniji, kot tudi v svetu. V magistrski nalogi smo raziskali, kako so se zadolževala in razdolževala slovenska gospodinjstva in podjetja v obdobju 2004 -2015 in trende primerjali s trendi v državah EU. Podatki kažejo, da so slovenska gospodinjstva približno polovico manj zadolžena kot gospodinjstva ostalih članic Evropske unije. Čisto drugačna pa je situacija v sektorju podjetij, saj so slovenska podjetja v krizo vstopila z visoko stopnjo zadolženosti. Opazne so tudi bistvene razlike v strukturi financiranja slovenskih in tujih podjetij. Na osnovi raziskave ugotovljamo, da so se slovenska gospodinjstva in podjetja pred krizo bolj zadolževala od subjektov v ostalih članicah Evropske unije in kasneje začela izvajati proces razdolževanja. ; Indebtedness and deleveraging is currently a very topical issue in Slovenia, and as well in the world. In this Masters thesis we have researched indebtedness and deleveraging for Slovenian householders and companies in the period 2004-2015 and compared this trends with trends in other European Union states. The data show that Slovenian householders are approximately 50 % less overindebted then hoseholders in other European Union states. Quite different is situation in the corporate sector, where Slovenian companies entered the crisis with high debt levels. We also noticed significant differences in the financial structure of Slovenian and foreign companies. Based on our research we established that before the crisis Slovenian householders and companies were borrowing more like householders and companies in other states of the European Union, and started with proces of deleveraging much later.

The lessons learned from the crisis management of the 2008 Great Recession are due to significant structural differences between the two centers of the world, the United States and the eurozone. This has been the worst and most widespread global economic downturn since the Great Depression. The crisis is over, but it seems that the crisis has long-lasting consequences. In the case of the United States, a monetary, fiscal and political union is realized, which with a single economic policy, operates as a coherent unit, uniting the three areas. GDP is rising, unemployment is at the lowest level since 1969 and government debt is the highest it has ever been which can cause problems in the long run. In the case of the eurozone, we can talk about a monetary union. The crisis has highlighted the structural flaws of the eurozone, because without a unified fiscal policy no effective economic policy can be achieved. The symptoms of the euro area crisis weren't the consequences of the global economic crisis; rather the stalling of the integration process, the lack of real convergence, and the weaknesses of monetary and fiscal policy were the problems that have been brought to the fore and exacerbated by the crisis. I consider the crisis management of the United States to be more successful, in which the single economic policy has played an important role – as long as the eurozone doesn't deepen integration, it will not be able to address vulnerabilities between its countries. For Central Europe to be competitive, it has to have the right economic policies and an independent monetary policy. The postcrisis recovery has taken place, but in order to avoid further crises and to have a faster convergence towards the eurozone, we need targeted steps which could create the opportunities.

Pravica državljanov, da sodelujejo pri opravljanju javnih zadev, je eno od tistih demokratičnih načel, ki bi moralo biti skupno vsem državam sodobnega sveta in je zapisana v uvodu Evropske listine o lokalni samoupravi (MELLS). To načelo lahko najneposredneje uresničujemo na lokalni ravni.Prenos pristojnosti, odgovornosti in finančnih virov iz države na organe lokalnih oblasti (lokalne skupnosti) je demokratičen proces (fiskalne) decentralizacije. MELLS je mednarodna pogodba, veljavna tudi v Sloveniji. Občine so v Sloveniji temeljne enote lokalne samouprave, torej predstavljajo tisto raven oblasti, ki je najbližje državljanom. Odgovorne so za zagotavljanje široke palete javnih dobrin in storitev. Z nalogo preverjamo skladnost veljavnega sistema financiranja lokalnih skupnosti (občin) v Sloveniji z osnovnimi usmeritvami iz teorije (fiskalne) decentralizacije ter z načeli MELLS. Pri tem proučujemo področje pokrivanja stroškov nalog občin, njihovo strukturo ter stopnjo medsebojne povezanosti med računsko dodeljenimi sredstvi v okviru mehanizma primerne porabe in zbranimi podatki o stroških po občinah. Na teh podlagah želimo ugotoviti, ali sistem financiranja lokalne samouprave, ki je v veljavi v Republiki Sloveniji, izpolnjuje načelo sorazmernosti virov sredstev z nalogami, ki jih lokalne skupnosti izvajajo. Glede na rezultate lahko ugotovimo, da so načela MELLS zadovoljivo vgrajena v pravni red države. Odstopanja pa ugotavljamo na finančnem področju, kjer načelo sorazmernosti ni ustrezno upoštevano. V obdobju 2010 do 2014 občine niso bile ustrezno financirane glede na njihove naloge. Povprečni stroški na prebivalca so v tem obdobju povprečno za 1,8 odstotka višji od virov na osnovi zakonsko določene primerne porabe. Občine so odvisne predvsem od dohodnine, kot deljenega davka, stopnja avtonomija glede lastnih davkov in njihovih stopenj je nizka. Odhodki občin so se v proučevanem obdobju v povprečju zmanjšali za 6 odstotkov, vendar pa skrbi, da je glavni vzrok tega zmanjšanja v znižanju investicijskih odhodkov za 17,2 odstotkov in investicijskih transferov za 21,8 odstotkov, tekoči odhodki so se znižali za 1odstotek, povišali pa so se transferni odhodki za 4,6 odstotka. Skupaj so se tekoči stroški, ki se upoštevajo pri izračunu povprečnine v razmerju 2014/2010 zvišali za 1 odstotek, sama povprečnina pa se je znižala za 2,5 odstotka. To dokazuje, da se je bistveno poslabšala naložbena sposobnost občin, kot najpomembnejši element izvajanja razvojnih nalog občine. Obseg dodeljene primerne porabe po občini pa se je v povprečju zmanjšal za 1,14 odstotka, in zaostajal za dejansko občinsko porabo. Skupna zadolženost občin je sprejemljiva in znaša 899,2 mio EUR, kar pomeni 2,41odstotka BDP, v skupnem dolgu države pa 2,8 odstotkov. Delež občinskih investicij v skupnem BDP je narastel na 2,4 odstotkov BDP. Občine so investicije financirale predvsem z lastnimi viri (55 odstotkov), s sredstvi EU (24 odstotkov) in z zadolževanjem (5 odstotkov), s sredstvi države pa 16 odstotkov investicij. Glede na določila iz nove finančne perspektive EU za obdobje 2014 - 2020 se bistveno zmanjšujejo možnosti in sredstva za sofinanciranje občinskih investicij, kar bo imelo posledice za zmanjšanje občinskih investicij. Če teh virov ne bo možno nadomestiti, lahko pričakujemo iz tega naslova negativni vpliv na BDP države in razvojnih razlik med občinami. V primerjavi z obdobjem 2007 do 2009 ugotovimo povečanje trenda negativnega razkoraka sredstev primerne porabe in stroškov za izvajanje nalog občin. To kaže na to, da je potrebno izboljšati obstoječi model financiranja. ; The right of citizens to participate in the conduct of public affairs is one of those democratic principles which should be common to all countries of the modern world. And this right is also enshrined in the introduction of the European Charter of Local Self-Government (MELLS). This principle can be most directly exercised at local level, through democratically elected local authorities. The transfer of powers, responsibilities and financial resources from the state to local authorities (local communities) is the democratic process of (fiscal) decentralization. The exercise of MELLS affect the financial relationships between the central and local authorities, since it is necessary to provide such funding of local communities that these will be effective and sufficiently independent in satisfying the public needs of the local population and increasing prosperity of society as a whole. Municipalities in Slovenia are basic units of local self-government. The thesis checks compliance of the current system of funding local communities (municipalities) in Slovenia with the basic guidelines of the theory of (fiscal) decentralization and the MELLS principles. The area of covering the costs of municipal tasks is being discussed, their structure and the degree of interconnection between the allocations in the framework of the mechanism of statutory spending and the data collected on the costs of the municipalities. Based on the results we can conclude that the MELLS principles are satisfactorily integrated into the legal system of the country. However, deviation is observed in the financial sector, where the principle of proportionality is not observed. In the period from 2010 to 2014 the municipalities had not been adequately funded according to their tasks. The average cost per capita in this period is by 1.8% more than the resources on the basis of statutory spending. Municipalities depend mainly on income tax and the rate of autonomy regarding their own taxes and their rates is low. In the observed period, expenditure of municipalities on average decreased by 6%, worrying is the fact that the main cause of the decrease is in the reduction of capital expenditures by -17.2% and capital transfers by - 21.8%, the current expenditure decreased by -1% while the transfer expenses increased by + 4.6%. Together, the running costs that are taken into account when calculating the lump sum in proportion 2014/2010 increased by + 1%, and the lump sum itself decreased by 2.5%. This demonstrates that the investment capacity of municipalities significantly worsened and this is the most important element of the implementation of the development tasks of the municipality. The volume of statutory spending of the municipality dropped by 1.14%, and lagged behind the actual municipal budget. The total indebtedness of municipalities is acceptable and amounts to 899.2 million euros which represents 2.41% of GDP, and 2.8% in the total debt of the country. The share of municipal investments in total GDP has increased to 2.4% of GDP. The municipalities financed the investments from its own resources (55%), EU funds (24%) and debt (5%), with funds from the state 16% investment. According to the provisions of the new EU financial perspective for 2014-2020, the opportunities and funding for co-financing municipal investments is significantly reducing, which will have implications on the reduction of municipal investments. If these resources will not be possible to replace, we can expect a negative impact on the country's GDP and developmental differences between municipalities. In comparison with the period 2007 to 2009, an increase in the trend of negative gap has been noticed between the statutory spending and the cost for carrying out the tasks of municipalities. This shows the need to improve the existing model of financing.

Demokratični deficit je že več desetletji stalnica akademskih razprav o Evropski uniji. Vsebina raziskovanj se je skozi čas bistveno spremenila, ohranja pa se temeljna misel, da se demokracija v Evropski uniji sooča z velikimi težavami. Zaupanje Evropejcev v Evropsko unijo je nizko, podobno velja tudi za občutek povezanosti z njenimi organi, zato je očitno, da so spremembe nujno potrebne. Z vsako večjo reformo pride do sprememb, ki bistveno vplivajo na razmerja moči med evropskimi institucijami in na njihov odnos do Evropejcev. Najvidnejše spremembe v zadnjih desetletjih so krepitev moči Evropskega parlamenta, ki se je razvil v vplivno institucijo, uvajanje institutov neposredne demokracije in druge reforme, ki jih je prinesla Lizbonska pogodba. Napredek pa je, žal, na drugi strani uravnotežen s pojavom mehanizmov in institutov, ki demokratična varovala zaobidejo. To so na primer ukrepi, ki so bili sprejeti kot odziv na dolžniško krizo evroobmočja in v velikem delu sploh ne spadajo med formalne pristojnosti Evropske unije. V svojem magistrskem delu sem analiziral in kritično ovrednotil procese, ki so bistveno vplivali na ključne organe Evropske unije, njihove spreminjajoče se medsebojne odnose ter predvidene učinke aktualnih reform. Pregledal sem širok izbor literature preteklih desetletji in predstavil različna teoretska izhodišča, na podlagi katerih avtorji skušajo opredeliti in analizirati demokratični deficit in z njim povezane tematike. Ključna ugotovitev mojega magistrskega mojega dela ni le, da so aktualne reforme premalo ambiciozne in demokratičnega deficita ne morejo odpraviti, ampak predvsem da demokratični deficit ni le kategorija akademskih razprav, temveč je zelo močno politično orodje in odločilno usmerja razvoj Evropske unije. Demokratični deficit je zato stalnica evropske demokracije in ne more nikoli biti povsem odpravljen, saj se ob razvoju Evropske unije vedno znova pojavlja v drugačnih oblikah, ki terjajo nove reforme in kritične analize akademikov, intelektualcev, državljanov, politikov in vseh drugih zainteresiranih strani. ; The democratic deficit has been a constant of all academic research on the European Union for the past few decades. While the scope of the research has changed considerably, the basic idea remains the same – democracy in the European Union is in serious trouble. Europeans' trust in the EU is low and the same goes for their connection with European institutions, therefore it is clear that changes are required. Every major reform alters the balance of power between European institutions and their relationship with European citizens. The most visible changes of the past decades are: the empowerment of the European parliament that has been transformed into an influential institution, the introduction of instruments of direct democracy and other reforms brought upon by the Treaty of Lisbon. Unfortunately, progress is balanced out by the emergence of various mechanisms and instruments that surpass all democratic checks and balances. For example, the measures that were adopted as a response to the European debt crisis were mostly not based on formal competencies of the EU. In my Master's thesis I analysed and critically evaluated the processes that crucially influenced the most significant European institutions, their ever-changing relationships and the anticipated effects of the current reforms. I examined a substantial body of literature from past decades and presented diverse theoretical starting points that the authors use to define and analyse the democratic deficit and related topics. The most significant finding of my Master's thesis is not only that the current reforms lack ambition and cannot eliminate the democratic deficit, but also that the democratic deficit is more than just a category of academic research and can often act as a strong political tool that decisively influences the development of the European Union. Therefore, the democratic deficit is a permanent element of European democracy and can never be fully eliminated as it always reappears in new forms that require constant reforms and critical analysis by academia, intellectuals, citizens, politicians and other stakeholders.

Magyarország kormánya 2015-ben nagyszabású városfejlesztési projektcsomagot indított el Modern városok program címmel. A fejlesztésekről a 23 megyei jogú város polgármesterei külön-külön találkozókon egyeztek meg a kormányfővel 2015 és 2017 között. A program teljes költségvetése mintegy 3400 milliárd forint, az abban szereplő fejlesztések a kormányzati tervek szerint 2022-ig befejeződnek. A programot elemző kutatásban az alábbi szempontok szerint vizsgáltuk a fejlesztési programot: a program európai és hazai területfejlesztési politikában betöltött szerepe, a központi költségvetésre és az önkormányzati forrásokra gyakorolt hatásai, a gazdaságfejlesztéshez és újraiparosításhoz való hozzájárulása, a program mint új városfejlesztési rezsim. A hazai területfejlesztés elmúlt évszázadában nem találtunk olyan városfejlesztési programot, mely filozófiájában és költségvetési volumenében hasonlítható lenne a Modern városok programhoz. A program előképe elsősorban az 1960-as években megjelenő, de napjainkban is gyakran alkalmazott francia etatista-dirigista megközelítés, hiszen jelentős hasonlóságot mutatnak az alkalmazott eszközök és módszerek, így pl. a tervszerződések rendszere, a központi finanszírozás és döntéshozatal. A program újszerű városfejlesztési rezsimként történő értelmezése ugyanakkor nem bizonyított: az ehhez szükséges, széles körű társadalmi bevonás alapján közösen kialakított fejlesztési célkitűzések nem voltak tapasztalhatók. A program fontos fókusza a gazdaságfejlesztés: gyakorlatilag valamennyi város érintett az iparfejlesztéssel, gazdaságfejlesztéssel kapcsolatos intézkedésekben. Az elmúlt évek megyei jogú városokat érintő kormányzati döntései közül a program meghatározó fejlesztési forrásokat biztosít az érintettek számára, városonként átlagosan kb. 150 milliárd Ft értékben valósulnak meg fejlesztések. In 2015, the Hungarian government launched a major urban development project package called Modern Cities Programme. The mayors of the 23 cities with county rights agreed on the projects in separate meetings with the head of government between 2015 and 2017. The total budget of the programme is about HUF 3400 billion, and according to the government's plans, the developments will be completed by 2022. The development programme was analysed in terms of its contribution to European and national spatial development policy, its impact on the central budget and sources of local government, its contribution to economic development and reindustrialisation, and its suitability as a blueprint for a new urban development regime. On the basis of the research results, it can be said that in the last century of Hungarian spatial development there is no urban development programme whose philosophy and budget volume is comparable to that of Modern Cities. Similar project characteristics were only found in the French state-directed programmes that emerged in the 1960s. They are still widely found today because they are very similar as to their instruments and methods, such as the system of design contracts, the importance of central funding and decision-making. However, the interpretation of the programme as a new urban regime went too far: The development goals formulated jointly on the basis of far-reaching citizens' participation showed no immediately identifiable results. As one of the programme's priorities is economic growth, practically all cities are involved in industrial and economic development measures. Among the recent government decisions taken on behalf of cities with county rights, the programme provides crucial development resources for the 23 cities, averaging HUF 150 billion per city. The central budget for the implementation of the programme in 2015 included HUF 25 billion, HUF 50 billion in 2016, HUF 152 billion in 2017 and HUF 150 billion in 2018. These amounts represent 0.41% of GDP in 2017 and 0.37% in 2018. The financial data suggest that, contrary to some opinions, funding of the programme was sufficient in spite of its disproportionate size. In conjunction with this 3400 billion HUF programme, the Territorial and Settlement Development Operational Programme (TOP) provides approximately HUF 400 billion for other or related developments of the 23 cities. It is worth noting that the volume of government consolidated debt from the 23 cities corresponds to the entire volume of urban development resources of the Operational Programme. Against this background, the government subsidies made available for cities with county rights are significant.