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The article is dedicated to the connection of parliamentarism and democracy. It examines the private relationships of these categories. The article analyzes the critical theory of parliamentarism by K. Schmitt. The history of the evolution of parliamentarism testifies to a series of victories and failures of this institution, which gave rise to a mass of its forms and varieties. In the end, it is concluded that parliamentarism has similar features with democracy and is considered to be a sign of the development of democracy. Respect the rights and freedoms of citizens, as well as the high level of development of civil society. To overcome the difficulties of the development of parliamentarism, it is necessary to take consistent measures to reform this institution ; Պառլամենտարիզմի և ժողովրդավարության կապին նվիրված հոդվածում վերլուծված է Կ. Շմիտտի պառլամենտարիզմի քննադատական տեսությունը: Պառլամենտարիզմի էվոլյուցիայի պատմությունը վկայում է այս ինստիտուտի մի շարք հաղթանակների և պարտությունների մասին, որոնք հիմք են տվել դրա բազմաթիվ ձևերի և տեսակների: Եզրակացվում է, որ պառլամենտարիզմը ժողովրդավարության զարգացման, մարդու և քաղաքացու իրավունքների և ազատությունների հարգանքի նշան է և խոսում է քաղաքացիական հասարակության զարգացման բարձր մակարդակի մասին: Պառլամենտարիզմի զարգացման դժվարությունները հաղթահարելու համար անհրաժեշտ է հետևողական միջոցներ ձեռնարկել այս ինստիտուտը բարեփոխելու համար: ; В статье, посвящённой связи парламентаризма с демократией, проанализирована критическая теория парламентаризма К. Шмитта. История эволюции парламентаризма свидетелсьтвует о череде побед и поражений данного института, породившей массу его форм и разновидностей. Делается вывод, что парламентаризм является признаком развитости демократии, уважения прав и свобод человека и гражданина и говорит о высоком уровне развития гражданского общества. Чтобы преодолеть трудности развития парламентаризма, необходимо принять последовательные меры по реформированию этого института.

This article discusses the recent debate between Jürgen Habermas and Wolfgang Streeck on the relationship between capitalism and democracy in Europe. The article recounts Streeck's analysis of the financial crisis, the transformation of the tax state into the debt state, and the development of the EU towards an international consolidation state, which informs Streeck's call for a retreat from Europe to the nation-state as the last line of defense against neoliberal capitalism. The article proceeds to sketch Habermas's criticism of Streeck's argument, and it illustrates how Habermas' proposal for a reconstitution of the EU as a supranational democracy is motivated by foundational concerns in his critical theory of society. Finally, the article argues that the debate results in an unresolved dilemma: while only a democratized EU can reestablish the supremacy of politics over globalized markets, the EU is more likely to become further entrenched as an international consolidation state.

This paper is a tentative approach towards a comparative analysis of the revolutionary process in Chile and Nicaragua. History and structural differences between the Chilean and the Nicaraguan social formations are scrutinized. A reflection on the Marxist-leninist notion of revolution and the concept of democracy is axial in both cases studies

Russisk påvirkning av presidentvalget i 2016 har skapt frykt for manipulasjon av valg i Vesten. Både EU og USA forventer at trusselen vedvarer, og at nye metoder og kapasiteter utvikles. Artikkelen beskriver hva valgpåvirkning er, og hvordan slik påvirkning gjennomføres. Den gjør en systematisk gjennomgang av litteratur om beskyttelse av valg, og funnene sammenfattes i seks temaer med til sammen 38 mulige tiltak for å hindre valgpåvirkning: 1) bevisstgjøring; 2) forebygging; 3) samarbeide og koordinering; 4) beskyttende tiltak; 5) aktive mottiltak og avskrekking; 6) forskning, læring og kompetansebygging. Alle tiltak krever nøye vurdering av økonomiske, politiske, juridiske, praktiske og andre implikasjoner, samt særlig forholdet til demokrati og ytringsfrihet. Avslutningsvis påpekes fire problemstillinger som særlig aktuelle for videre vurdering: 1) bevisstgjøring via medier, samt målrettet mot partier og valgorganisasjon; 2) en helhetlig gjennomgang av trusler, sårbarhet og beskyttelsestiltak, særlig datasikkerhet; 3) forskning og utvikling; 4) avskrekking og eksponering av påvirkning. Mange tiltak er inngripende, særlig i forhold til demokrati, ytringsfrihet, sensur og selvsensur, og de viktigste utfordringer, begrensninger og kritikk mot restriktive tiltak gjennomgås. Vi må unngå at tiltak for å beskytte demokratiet i seg selv undergraver demokratiet.
Abstract in English:How Can Elections Be Protected Against Foreign Interference?Russian interference in the 2016 US presidential election have caused fear for manipulation of elections in the West. Both the EU and the US see this as a persistent threat and expect new methods and capabilities to emerge. This article describes election interference and how it has been conducted. It reviews literature about protection of elections, and summarises the findings in six themes with a total of 38 possible measures: 1) awareness, 2) prevention, 3) cooperation and coordination, 4) protective measures, 5) active countermeasures and deterrence, 6) research and competence building. All measures require careful consideration of economic, political, legal, practical and other implications, and especially consequences for democracy and freedom of speech. Finally, four issues are proposed as particularly relevant for further consideration: 1) awareness through media, and also especially targeted at political parties and the election organisation, 2) a comprehensive assessment of threats, vulnerabilities and protective measures, especially in terms of data protection, 3) research and development, 4) deterrence and exposure of interference. Many of the measures are far-reaching when it comes to democracy, freedom of speech, censorship and self-censorship, and the article reviews challenges, limitations and critique of such restrictive measures. It is essential that measures to protect democracy in themselves do not undermine democracy.