This research addresses women's empowerment and their agency for social change within the field of development studies. It is a topic that has been relevant at the national and international levels, in governmental, academic and civil society settings. The goal is to analyze two prototypes of women's empowerment: empowerment from above, resulting from the participation of poor women in anti-poverty governmental programs (such as Oportunidades and Hábitat in Mexico) and empowerment from below, resulting from participation in social movements. The comparative analysis intends to show the contrasts between those two empowering processes and their capacity to modify women's objective and subjective social condition, along with changes in their family and community's social condition. In order to examine the different aspects of empowerment, three theoretical and practical approaches are considered from a gender perspective: a) the Marxist-feminist structural thought according to which women's empowerment is contingent on the elimination of structural inequalities, b) the social-liberal approach, which is the dominant paradigm of contemporary capitalism that promotes the elimination of institutional barriers to gender equality by increasing developmental opportunities for women, and c) the feminist-postmodern school of thought, which emphasizes the need to raise women's consciousness in order to acquire power within and become active agents of change. Preliminary field research was carried out in order to identify six women with experiences that correspond to a high degree to one of the two prototypes: three who have participated in governmental programs designed to empower women and break the intergenerational transmission of poverty, and three who have participated in social movements. The three social activists that were selected and volunteered to participate in this study have been involved in resistance movements to the construction of large dams in the state of Jalisco. In-depth interviews were applied to all six women in order to carry out a "course of life analysis". The findings indicate that empowerment from above temporarily enhances the material condition of women and their families (in terms of economy, health and education) and it contributes to the reshaping of gender relations within the household, without raising a self-conscious awareness. In contrast, the case studies of empowerment from below suggest that participation in social movements helps women to develop the ability to raise their voices, speak out against social injustice and become social subjects willing to increase their collective power over the institutions that oppress them in terms of class and gender. At the same time, the field research suggests that heavy involvement in social movements can lead to physical and emotional stress ; La presente investigación se inserta en el campo de los estudios del desarrollo y pretende abordar un tema que ha sido de gran interés en contextos gubernamentales, académicos y de la sociedad civil, tanto a nivel local, como nacional e internacional: el empoderamiento de las mujeres y su agencia para el cambio social. El objetivo del estudio es analizar dos tipos prototípicos de empoderamiento femenino: el empoderamiento desde arriba que se gesta a través de la participación protagónica de mujeres pobres en el contexto de los programas de gobierno para el combate a la pobreza (Oportunidades y Hábitat) y el empoderamiento desde abajo de actoras clave en el contexto de los movimientos sociales (conflictos socioambientales). El análisis comparativo pretende establecer los contrastes en torno a los procesos de empoderamiento y sus alcances para generar cambios en la condición social, material e inmaterial, de las mujeres, sus familias y sus comunidades. El enfoque aquí propuesto recoge la perspectiva de género e incorpora tres perspectivas teórico-prácticas que abordan distintos elementos importantes del empoderamiento femenino: la línea de pensamiento estructural feminista-marxista, según la cual el empoderamiento femenino requiere de la eliminación de las desigualdades estructurales, la visión liberal-social para la equidad de género que promueve la eliminación de barreras institucionales que impiden a las mujeres aprovechar sus oportunidades de desarrollo y que forma parte del paradigma dominante del capitalismo contemporáneo y, por último, la postura feminista-posmoderna que enfatiza la necesidad de promover en las mujeres la toma de conciencia sobre su poder potencial para su transformación en sujetos sociales. A partir del análisis de curso de vida y entrevistas a profundidad de las mujeres participantes, se concluye que el empoderamiento desde arriba mejora temporalmente la condición material (económica, salud y educación) de las mujeres y sus familias, se renegocian algunas relaciones de género pero no se da una toma de conciencia sobre sí. En el contexto de los movimientos sociales, se observa un deterioro del bienestar físico y emocional, pero las mujeres logran alzar la voz para convertirse en sujetos sociales que buscan un aumento de su poder colectivo sobre las instituciones que las oprimen, como clase y como género. ; Producción Científica de la Universidad Autónoma de Zacatecas UAZ
The aim of this article is to investigate the impact of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) on the appropriation of materials and energy in XUAR (PRC). To do this, I propose a critical contrastive analysis of official historiographical narratives: narratives about the official inclusion of the conquered territory of the Uyghur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang (XUAR-PRC) at the borders of the Qing Empire in the 18th century; the Final Communiqué of the Bandung Conference; the modernizing speeches imposed by the PRC on the territory of XUAR through the developmental narratives that accompany the BRI.The autochthonous socio-environmental systems have been subjected, since the inclusion of the territory into the Chinese borders, to mechanisms of colonialism implemented by external agents. This process has given rise to an interethnic conflict and a process of gentrification of the territories resulting from an extractivist and capitalist model of natural resource management (agriculture, gas, oil). The BRI, based on the development of transport and logistics infrastructures, reflects a strategy that aims to promote PRC's role in global relations: it enhances international investment flows and commercial outlets for Chinese products, through land and sea routes, trying to reestablish the ancient Silk Roads, and promotes the creation of new roads, in order to connect a wider number of territories and countries —around sixty—.In turn, this research aims to reveal the impact of the imposition of the PRC neo-colonialist economic and extractive model, as well as the future consequences, on indigenous populations and management models. In terms of methodology this requires reconstructing the poverty narrative of Uyghur peoples, including accounts of their exclusion, ejection from the original areas, and a special emphasis on autochthonous outlook on their environment and how Modernity invades their natural and human space.Local and regional sociopolitical tensions have, in the final third of the twentieth century, forced or encouraged Uyghur emigration from XUAR and from the PRC, leading to the creation of distant exile communities. Through the inclusion of Uyghur studies (Jacobs, 2016; Leibold, 2007; Millward, 2007, 2018; Sautman, 2000; Thum, 2012, among others), in a wider panorama of decolonial studies (Escobar, 2016; Restrepo, 2016; Santos y Meneses, 2014, Ortega Santos y Olivieri, 2020, etc.), academia still faces the need to continue researching the socio-environmental impact of the modernization policies imposed by the PRC and its impact on the forms of autochthonous management of human and natural resources of the territory of XUAR. This, under Chinese domination in its different historical stages, has become a scenario of socio-environmental conflicts: economic, political and identity consequences return the image of a colonized territory (Millward, 2007, 2018; Sautman, 2000; Olivieri, 2020; Roberts, 2020), subjected to continuous extraction and repression processes by the central government. This institutional constraint, in recent years, has been legitimized by the PRC central state within the international community by accusing Uyghurs —culturally Muslims by majority— of terrorism, and thus including the whole oppression policies in the global scenario of GWOT (Roberts, 2020). This strategy hides the extractive-colonial interests that China has on the indigenous land of Uyghurs and other turkic peoples —such as Kazakhs, which represent more than a million people living in the territory—.Post-coloniality and national independence in a global scenario have presented the overwhelming need to rethink Asia in all its political and cultural complexity, and to launch projects —such as the one proposed at the Bandung Conference (1955), in which China played a leading role— that promote a supra-national unity respectful of plurality (Peña, 1956; Yoon, 2018); however, it seems now necessary to analyze how Bandung narratives coexist with those of a sinocentric megaproject (Pérez, 2014), with modernizing and developmental neo-colonial purposes (Islam, 2019). The BRI proposes reestablishing connections between Europe, Asia and Africa —that is, reviving old geoschemes (Millward, 2018) from a neo-colonial perspective (Clarke, 2017). Those links allegedly propose an economic supra-national development plan on an intercontinental scale, with the aim of modelling a scenario of revived cultural and human contacts, as well as commercial exchanges—. Nevertheless, the PRC's BRI underlies the imposition of its economic and cultural model and the application of measures of natural resources extraction on the affected regions. The current conflict in XUAR may be seen as socio-environmental for: 1. The economic divide between Han/Uyghur-North/south in the region, is also a divide between agrarian and commercial-urban economies; 2. The PRC development strategy is focused on urbanization, but within XUAR, the Uyghur south has been largely left out of urban-based development, or controlled by the predominantly Han organization of the Bingtuan (Production Construction Corps) which is now developing colonies in southern XUAR that largely excluded local Uyghurs from the benefits of housing and commercial opportunity; 3. XUAR has a systemic water deficit, and dire prospects within decades as climate change melts the glaciers on whose melt water the region currently relies.Since the annexation of the territory of XUAR, the Government has been launching policies aimed at developing a greater control and power over the Uyghur historical region which represents a fundamental enclave both for natural resources extraction and for geopolitical strategies of Chinese politics and trade. The conquest and the subsequent mechanisms of coloniality have imposed in XUAR changes in the modes of management and those related to the natural environment, turning "particular ecosystems" into "modern forms of nature" (Escobar, 2016). Throughout this research, the term "coloniality" will be understood as a process that has certainly transformed the forms of domination deployed by Modernity, but not the structure of the center-periphery relations worldwide. In this particular case study, we are confronted with a scenario where decolonization has not happened; in fact, it is still denied, by the government itself, that there has been a colonization per se. Therefore, coloniality here is built from the creation of denialist and inclusionist discourses, which nullify the possibility of the subjects' —in broad terms: the land of XUAR and those who inhabit it— very existence. Since then, the ways of life of the subaltern groups, in all aspects, are subject to the Modern/Colonial model, it is necessary to re-dignify the community attempts of survival and resistance, as ones of subjects oppressed by the mechanisms of capitalist modernity.Through this article I aim to reveal the Uyghurs perspective on how the official narratives about "development" and "modernity" proclaimed by the BRI, besides the monetary growth, hide colonial and oppressive control politics, and whose consequences are exclusion, repression, and even elimination of autochthonous identities in order to impose control over their territories and resources. So, jointly with a deep bibliographical and theoretical reflection, the very voices of exiled Uyghurs are here anonymously presented, based on Participatory Action Research (PAR) and Community Based Participatory Research (CBPR). ; El objetivo de este trabajo es el de investigar el impacto de la Iniciativa Belt and Road (BRI) en la apropiación de materiales y energía en la Región Autónoma Uigur de Xinjiang (XUAR) de la República Popular de China (RPCh). Para ello, propongo un análisis contrastivo crítico de las narrativas historiográficas oficiales: narrativas sobre la inclusión oficial del territorio conquistado de la Región Autónoma Uigur de Xinjiang en las fronteras del Imperio Qing en el siglo XVIII; el Comunicado Final de la Conferencia de Bandung; los discursos modernizadores impuestos por la República Popular de China en el territorio de XUAR a través de las narrativas desarrollistas que acompañan la BRI. Los sistemas socioambientales autóctonos han sido sometidos, desde la inclusión del territorio en las fronteras chinas, a mecanismos de colonialismo implementados por agentes externos. Este proceso ha dado lugar a un conflicto interétnico y a un proceso de gentrificación de los territorios resultante de un modelo extractivista y capitalista de gestión de los recursos naturales (agricultura, gas, petróleo). La BRI, basada en el desarrollo de las infraestructuras de transporte y logísticas, refleja una estrategia que tiene como objetivo promover el papel de la República Popular de China en las relaciones globales: potencia los flujos de inversión internacional y las salidas comerciales para los productos chinos, a través de rutas terrestres y marítimas, tratando de restablecer las antiguas Rutas de la Seda, y promueve la creación de nuevas carreteras, con el fin de conectar un mayor número de territorios y países —alrededor de sesenta—. En cambio, esta investigación tiene como propósito el de revelar el impacto de la imposición del modelo económico y extractivo neocolonialista de la RPCh, así como sus consecuencias futuras sobre las poblaciones indígenas y los modelos autóctonos de gestión. En términos de metodología, esto requiere reconstruir las narrativas de pobreza del pueblo uigur, incluyendo relatos de su exclusión, expulsión de sus tierras originarias proponiendo un especial énfasis en la mirada autóctona sobre su entorno y cómo la Modernidad invade su espacio natural y humano.
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Índice La estrategia territorial europea. El criterio ambiental para una adecuada diferenciación territorial de europa. Propuesta de indicadores ambientales para la diferencia espacial. Conclusiones. Fuentes y bibliografía. Anexo. Lista de indicadores ambientales primarios.ResumenEn las últimas décadas han sido muchos los ámbitos (economía, sociedad, cultura, agricultura, desarrollo, medio ambiente, evaluación de la calidad) en los que se utilizan indicadores para aportar parámetros fiables que faciliten la evaluación de procesos y fenómenos y la toma de decisiones.La proliferación de indicadores surge como respuesta ante la necesidad de simplificar el gran volumen de información científica o técnica que existe sobre los diversos temas. Se convierten así en un instrumento de comunicación entre científicos o técnicos y gestores, planificadores, políticos o sociedad. En la mayor parte de las ocasiones se trata de un intento de simplificar realidades muy complejas como la económica, ambiental o territorial, en las que intervienen numerosos agentes y se desarrollan múltiples procesos de forma simultánea.Así pues, un sistema de indicadores eficaz deberá observar un fenómeno en un momento determinado, ofreciendo información sobre él mucho más accesible que la que procede de los niveles científico o técnico. Pero también debe permitir el seguimiento de los procesos o fenómenos que analiza. Por ello, uno de los requisitos más importantes de los indicadores incluidos en un sistema es que sean reproducibles, lo que posibilitará la evaluación temporal de fenómenos y procesos a través del análisis de un reducido conjunto de parámetros que se consideran definitorios de los mismos.Los indicadores no son sustitutos de las fuentes de datos tradicionales, sino un desarrollo y una aplicación de las mismas. Lo que sí permiten es utilizar las fuentes de datos para aplicaciones específicas, a veces bastante alejadas de los fines para los que se tomaron. Para la construcción de un sistema de indicadores fiable, resulta imprescindible disponer de buenas fuentes de datos e inventarios, y es en este punto donde mayores dificultades aparecen.A la hora de diseñar un sistema de indicadores para aplicaciones territoriales se requieren datos tanto alfanuméricos como espaciales o cartográficos, homogéneos y comparables para todo el ámbito espacial de referencia. Como se puede imaginar, la complicación se incrementa tanto más cuanto mayor y más diverso es este ámbito territorial. Pero además surge aquí el problema de la unidad territorial de referencia, la resolución del sistema de indicadores territoriales. Dependiendo de la unidad espacial seleccionada, podremos manifestar diferencias en unos procesos o no. Si abordamos el análisis tomando como referencia unidades territoriales administrativas de cierta extensión (Estados, Comunidades Autónomas o NUTS 2, siguiendo la nomenclatura europea), indudablemente obtendremos resultados estadísticos, pero difícilmente podremos derivar de ellos conclusiones territoriales válidas. Por el contrario, a medida que incrementamos la resolución de análisis, las fuentes de datos son cada vez más escasas y de más difícil acceso y elaboración.Por último, es necesario hacer una breve mención a los Sistemas de Información Geográfica (SIG) como herramientas indispensables en este trabajo, en los que se operan con múltiples variables, para las que es necesario la representación espacial. Sin los SIG resultaría casi imposible enfrentarse al reto que supone la integración de muy diferentes bases de datos y la búsqueda de modelos de representación gráfica que ilustren adecuadamente las opciones y propuestas resultantes.AbstractOver recent decades, indicators which bring forth reliable parameters that facilitate the evaluation of processes and phenomena and decision making have been used within many sectors--economic, social, cultural, agricultural, developmental, environmental and quality control. The proliferation of indicators comes about as a response to the need to simplify the great volume of scientific or technical information that exists on the different subjects. This makes it a tool for communication between scientists or technicians and administrators, planners, politicians, or society. On most occasions, it has to do with an attempt to simplify very complex realities such as environmental or territorial economics where several agents are involved and multiple processes are being developed simultaneously.An efficient system of indicators, therefore, must observe a phenomenon at a given moment and offer information on it that is much more accessible than that which comes from scientific or technical levels. But it must allow the continuation of the processes or phenomena that it analyzes as well. This is why one of the most important requirements of the indicators included in a system is that it be reproducible which makes the temporal evaluation of processes and phenomena possible through the analysis of a reduced collection of parameters that are considered to be definitive of them.The indicators are not substitutes for the traditional data resources but a development and amplification of them. What they do allow is the use of the data resources for specific applications which are sometimes rather far-removed from the purposes for which they were taken.Access to good data resources and inventories is essential to the construction of a reliable system of indicators and it is at this point where the majority of the problems arise.When it comes time to design a system of indicators for territorial applications, alphanumerical and spatial or cartographic data alike are required that are homogenous and comparable for the entire spatial reference sector. Understandably, complications increase with the size and diversity of the territorial environment. Here, the problem of the territorial unit of reference and the resolution of the system of territorial indicators arises as well. Depending on the spatial unit selected, we may or may not show differences in some processes. If we tackle the subject of analysis by taking administrative territorial units of a certain extension as a reference (states, communities, autonomous communities, or, to use the European nomenclature, NUTS 2), there would be no doubt that we could obtain statistical results but could derive valid territorial conclusions from them only with great difficulty. On the other hand, the more we increase the analysis resolution, the data resources are more and more scarce and difficult to access and elaborate.Lastly, it is necessary to make a brief mention of the Geographical Information Systems (GIS) as indispensable tools for this work in which multiple variables occur making spatial representation necessary. Without the GIS, it would be almost impossible to face the challenge involved in the integration of very different data bases and the search for graphic representations of models that adequately illustrate the resultant options and proposals.
La ostricultura en el Noroeste de México se desarrolló exitosamente, a partir de la introducción del ostión Japonés Crassostrea gigas, a la Bahía de San Quintín, Baja California en 1973. Para 1980 el cultivo ya se había extendido a los estados de Sonora, Baja California Sur, Sinaloa y Nayarit. La producción alcanzó su máximo nivel (3,282 Tm) en 1995. Lamentablemente, en 1997 hubo mortalidades masivas que afectaron entre el 60% y el 90% de los ostiones en toda la región. La producción disminuyó a 735 Tm en 1999. Desde entonces, las mortalidades han seguido ocurriendo sin que se haya determinado la causa de las mismas. Ante tal situación, el objetivo de ésta tesis fue conocer los agentes patógenos asociados a las mortalidades del ostión C. gigas, cultivado en el Noroeste de México. Para tal efecto, se realizaron recolectas de ostiones en diferentes estadios de desarrollo en los estados de Baja California, Sonora y Sinaloa a partir del 2000 durante episodios de mortalidades. Para la recolecta, se contó con ayuda de productores y del Comité de Sanidad Acuícola del Estado de Sonora. Se realizaron análisis en fresco del cuerpo blando de los ostiones, así como análisis bacteriológicos, histopatológicos, ultraestructurales por microscopía electrónica de transmisión (MET) y para la identificación de parásitos por medio de ácidos nucleicos (Reacción en Cadena la Polimerasa o PCR). Los resultados mostraron la presencia de diversos parásitos y alteraciones histológicas que fueron clasificadas de acuerdo con su patogenicidad. Se encontraron metazoarios con prevalencias promedio del 20% en tejido conectivo, glándula digestiva y folículos reproductivos. También se encontraron metacercarias y cercarias de trematodos en diferentes tejidos del hospedero sin evidencias patológicas de importancia y con prevalencias del 10%. En cuanto a protistas, se encontraron ciliados parecidos a Ancistrocoma spp. en la glándula digestiva sin evidencia de alteraciones histopatológicas relevantes y con prevalencias muy bajas (10%). También se encontraron Trichodina spp. que fueron aún más escasas. Hacia finales del estudio se encontró un protozoario en fase de esporulación parecido a Marteilia spp. (agente causal de la Marteiliosis, enfermedad letal en Ostrea edulis y Saccostrea glomerata). Sin embargo, su morfología a nivel histológico y su identificación molecular (PCR) no dieron resultados concluyentes. Por lo que se denominó Protozoario Esporulado X (PEX) en tanto se define su identidad y su potencial patogénico. Se aislaron bacterias del género Aeromonas no reconocidas como patógenas para C. gigas, además de una colonia no identificada de lento crecimiento. Los análisis en fresco e histopatológicos revelaron la presencia de erosiones branquiales de leves a severas en ostiones juveniles y adultos con prevalencias cercanas al 100% en toda la zona de estudio. Las alteraciones a nivel histopatológico, tales como, infiltración hemocitaria, picnosis y zonas necróticas sugieren una posible relación con las mortalidades observadas. El análisis por MET del tejido branquial erosionado, demostró la presencia de virus identificados como Herpesvirus. El análisis por PCR de tejidos erosionados y normales en semilla y juveniles resultó positivo al Herpesvirus del ostión (OsHV). El Herpesvirus del ostión es un agente patógeno de C. gigas y de otros bivalvos que causa mortalidades importantes en semilla y juveniles y está considerado por la legislación sanitaria nacional como sujeto a certificación. Si bien su asociación con las erosiones branquiales no es clara, su presencia y patogenicidad lo asocian con episodios de mortalidad de C. gigas, al menos en semilla y juveniles y requiere de control sanitario. El agente patógeno o condiciones ambientales asociadas a las erosiones branquiales descritas aún deben ser determinados. Se confirmó la presencia de lesiones histológicas asociadas a virus de la hipertrofia gametocítica viral, agente patógeno no considerado como causante de mortalidades masivas, lo que coincidió con su escasa prevalencia en este estudio. La carga parasitaria encontrada, amplía los registros conocidos de parásitos del ostión Japonés en México y presenta a otro que podría ser una variedad o una forma atípica de Marteilia sp o aún otra especie denominada PEX, en tanto se define o corrobora su identidad. También es posible asociar al herpesvirus y las erosiones branquiales con las mortalidades masivas ocurridas en el Noroeste de México y contribuir al entendimiento de estos episodios de mortalidad desde el punto de vista parasitológico. Finalmente se hacen algunas sugerencias sanitarias a los productores y autoridades sanitarias. Indudablemente la posible sinergia entre la carga parasitaria y las condiciones ambientales debe ser motivo de estudios posteriores. ; Oyster farming in Northwest, México, was successfully developed before the introduction of the Japanese oyster Crassostrea gigas in Bahía San Quintín Baja California in 1973. In the 80´s the culture of Japanese oysters was spread in the states of Baja California, Sonora, Sinaloa and Nayarit, his maximum production (3,282 metric tons) were reached in 1995. Unfortunately, in 1997, mass mortalities occurred affecting between 60% and 90% of the production. For 1999, the production decreased to 735 metric tons. These mortalities had continued up to date without knowing the causal factors. Then, the objective of this thesis was to determine the pathogen agents associate to the mortalities found in the Northwest of Mexico. Then, since 2000, different developmental stages of oysters were collected during the mortality period from the states of Baja California, Sonora and Sinaloa. This task was supported by the producers and Comité de Sanidad Acuícola from Sonora. After collection, gross examination of fresh flesh was carried out. Different analysis such as bacteriological and histopathological analysis was performed. Beside gross examination, a fine examination using transmittance electron microscopy (TEM) was performed. Specific molecular analyses using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) were performed to detect the pathogens. The results showed presence of different parasites and histological abnormalities, which were classified according to their pathogenic effect. Metazoaries, supposedly copepods and acarus, (20% average prevalence) were found causing moderated lesions in connective tissue, digestive tract and reproductive follicles. Also, it was found metacercaries and cercaries of trematodes (punctual prevalence of 10%) in different tissues of the host without evidence of important pathological abnormalities. Protists (ciliates Ancistrocoma-like) were found in the digestive tract without relevant evidences of histophatological alterations and with low prevalence (10%). The Trichodinas spp. were the lest. At the end of this study, it was found a protozoan in apparent phase of sporulation similar to Marteilia sp. This organism is the causal agent of the Marteiliosis, which is the disease that causes mortalities on Ostrea edulis y Saccostrea glomerata. However, its morphological and molecular identification as Marteilia sp were not conclusive. Thus, this parasite was called Sporulated Protozoary X (PEX) until its identification and pathogenicity be determined. Bacteria from genus Aeromonas were isolated. These bacteria are not recognized as pathogens for C. gigas. A non-identified colony containing bacteria of slow growth was also isolated. The gross examination and histopathological analyses showed the presence of gill erosions from slight to severe in juveniles and adults with a prevalence near to 100% in all the study area. The histopathological alterations such as hemocitary infiltration, picnosis, and necrotic zones indicated a possible relationship with the mortalities observed. The analyses of eroded gill tissue by TEM showed presence of Herpesvirus. This virus was corroborated by PCR. Samples from normal or erosioned tissue belonging to seed and juvenile oysters were positive for oyster Herpesvirus (OsHV). This virus is and pathogen agent of C. gigas and other bivalves, which cause important mortalities in seed and juveniles and it is considered by the national sanitary legislation as an organism subject to certification. Although its association to gill erosions is not clear, its presence and recognized pathogenicity can be associated to mortalities of seed and juveniles of C. gigas. Thus, a sanitary control is required. The pathogen agent or environmental conditions associated to the gill erosions described above need to be determined. Lesions associated to the virus causing the gametocytic hypertrophy were corroborated by histological examination. This virus is not considered the pathogen agent causing the massive mortalities, which agree with its scarce and low prevalence. The results about the parasite load increased the known register of parasites of the Japanese oyster in México and included an atypical description of Marteilia sp. or a different parasite (PEX). This study allows us to associate OsHV-1, and gill erosions with mass mortalities occurring in Northwest of México. Also, this study contributes to understand the oyster mortalities since the point of view of the parasitological. Finally, this study gives sanitary suggestions, which can contribute to the enhancement of the oyster industry in México. Future studies should address the possible synergy between the parasite load and the environmental conditions
ResumenEn este artículo examino la gratitud y la ingratitud como herramientas analíticas valiosas para determinar cómo las desigualdades sociales le dan forma a las prácticas de parentesco. Acusar a un pariente de ingratitud revela los límites y las líneas de falla del parentesco, así como también expectativas estrechamente relacionadas sobre qué debe ser dado, cómo debe ser dado y cómo debe ser recibido. Como tal, este ensayo sigue la línea de una valiosa tradición antropológica de unificar los análisis del don y del parentesco. Argumento que expresiones de y discursos sobre la gratitud y la ingratitud remiten muy de cerca a dimensiones de relaciones sociales tales como el género, la generación y la clase social, y simultáneamente revelan tensiones dentro de las relaciones de parentesco donde el deber y la obligación son cuestionados. Los ejemplos etnográficos son tomados del trabajo de campo en Ayacucho, una pequeña ciudad en los Andes peruanos, donde la crianza adoptiva informal y las relaciones tensas entre hijos adultos y sus padres ancianos suministran dos esferas relacionadas de expresiones de ideas acerca de la gratitud y la ingratitud. Analizando estos dos ejemplos, argumento que la gratitud y la ingratitud son heurísticas analíticas, útiles para identificar y centrarse sobre dimensiones de relaciones que, según se entiende, caen dentro del dominio del parentesco, y son potencialmente útiles también en otros escenarios.Palabras clave: Parentesco, crianza, niñez, el don, Perú. Abstract. Towards an Anthropology of Ingratitude: Notes from Andean KinshipAccusations of ingratitude to kin reveal much about the edges and fault lines of kinship that would otherwise not be apparent. But equally, they reveal much that is unexpected about the gift – about expectations of what should be given and how it should be received. In this article, I bring together anthropological literature on the gift and on kinship in order to argue that expressions of gratitude or ingratitude index dimensions of social relations such as gender, generation, and social class, and simultaneously reveal tensions within kinship relations where duty and obligation are contested. Examples are drawn from fieldwork where informal fostering and the fraught relations between grown children and their aging parents provide arenas for analysis of expressions of gratitude and ingratitude. Analyzing these examples, I argue for gratitude as an analytical heuristic, useful to identify and focus upon dimensions of relations understood to fall within the domain of kinship, and potentially useful in other settings as well.Key words: fostering, childhood, the gift, the Andes. 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