Suchergebnisse

Abstract
The article analyses theoretical aspects of a city brand definition, applying cases of various brands of Lithuanian cities. A brand is any sign or symbol which helps to distinguish goods or services for one person from the goods or services of another, and which may be represented graphically. The brand can be a variety of symbols, their combination, and other visual manifestations of information, such as words, names, slogans, letters, numbers, drawings, emblems; or spatial characteristics of the product itself – its image, packaging, shape, color, color combination or a combination of all these. City development usually includes an image dimension. The common ground for this is that a well-known toponym often generates events, investments, etc. Many cities are actively positioning and promoting their strategic intentions. Often times a city brand is associated with its fight for investment, tourist numbers, or successful businesses.

Objective: To scrutinize relevant theories applicable to city visual branding; to look through various definitions of the city branding and envisage some advantages and disadvantages they might pose; and to analyze various case studies so that we could summarize the methodologies of why and how we could better position our local products globally.

Methodology: The case study methods were used as part of a complex study and combined with in-depth interviews as well as benchmarking methods from various sources. In-depth interview method was used to obtain expert opinions on the subject. The in-depth interview method helped to analyze logo usage, goals, define pros and cons, and evaluate the results of logo design in urban development. This method was chosen to collect detailed and authentic material based on the attitudes and experiences of those involved in such a creative process.

Findings: The conclusion was reached that since a place prompts a lot of variables, in the future we need to consider more numerous components, such as population, industries, landscape, economies or history, etc. The hypothesis was confirmed about the variables of the city to be further considered for (re)branding, such as the cost, semantic complexity, societal charge, and the dynamics (changeability, or rigidity). As for the methodologies, we arrived at the conclusion that the best way to create a viable city brand is a collaboration between different stakeholders.

Value Added: The article adds to European experts' suggestion of rethinking the concept of design itself, as until now a one-sided approach to design as a means of schematizing a product has prevailed. This approach, even regulated by Lithuanian law, does not cover the whole process of creating and implementing an idea. "Design is a problem-solving approach that focuses on the user during its development. It can be applied in both the public and private sectors to promote innovation in products, services, processes and even legislation," says Dr Anna Whicher, expert on design policy and strategy of the European Commission. In other words, design has been increasingly integrated into the science, business, social and service sectors to maximize innovation.
As many as 63 percent of Lithuanian businesses do not use design solutions (product design, stylization or business strategy development) at any stage of production. This figure is below the EU average, where almost half of all businesses already integrate design solutions into their operations. Lithuania is also one of the 13 countries in Europe (out of 28) that does not have design policy documents or a community uniting organization, such as design centers in Great Britain, Denmark, Estonia or other countries. The paper invites Lithuania to re-think its design development policies at large, paying attention to urban design solutions in particular.

Recommendations: In further research, while selecting potential expert for city logo development, it is recommended that priority should be given to (a) responsible experts in strategic / territorial and national policy making or related activities, (b) experts with knowledge of sustainable development, (c) independent sustainable development analysts / consultants / private and academic or who have implemented specific project-based SDs both nationally and internationally. The stakeholders in this process should be representing: 1) Public Sector, 2) NGOs, 3) Private Sector, 4) Academy and 5) Independent Experts.

Relevance of the research topic is due to the need of developed and developing states of the world in renaissance and improvement of industrial policy as a key instrument of economic development strategy in a globalizing world. Formulation of the problem. The efficiency of industrial policy in countries with different level of development depends on the fact how principles the policy is based on take into consideration the starting national conditions and requirements and trends of global market. For the countries with the same levels of income it is possible to determine the common directions of industrial development strategies and efficient tools of industrial policy. Under similar starting conditions differences in approaches to industrial policy may also determine the differences in results of its implementation; under different starting conditions they can entail the smoothing out of economic performance and a rapid convergence of economies.Analysis of recent research and publications. Some issues on industrial policy implementation in the countries of the world were investigated by both domestic and foreign scholars: A. I. Amosha, A. Andreoni, K. Warwick, V. P. Vyshnevsky, V. M. Heyets, G. Cresti, J. Lin., V. I. Liashenko, A. Noman, I. Nubler, K. Ohno, H. alazar-Xirinachs, E. Starikov, J. Stiglitz, V. Treichel, K. Shwab. Selection of unexplored parts of the general problem. In spite of the multiple attempts to generalize the approaches and instruments of industrial policy for groups of countries the search of optimal design of industrial policy is still going on, what makes the adoption of important industrial development regulations complicated and is the reason of bitter discussions between the branches of authorities in the course of formation of Strategy of Ukrainian industrial complex development, legislative regulation of «industrial visa-free» and export duties on some types of feedstock. Setting the task, the purpose of the study. The purpose of the study is generalization of the experience of industrial policies in countries with different levels of economic development and justification of the need to use it in setting the basic principles of domestic industrial policies. Method or methodology for conducting research. In the research we used general and specific scientific methods of analysis, synthesis, induction and deduction, historical, comparison, dialectical method of knowledge; also methods of statistical analysis, monographic research for countries' experience, expert assessment method for elaboration the recommendations on industrial policy implementation in transformation economies. Presentation of the main material (results of work). The industrial policy of three groups of countries – with high, middle and low income – are studied due to their historical development. Socioeconomic and institutional conditions of countries, where the implementation of a certain type of industrial policy had positive or negative results, were determined. The analysis of the Ukrainian industrial performance and industrial policy showed that the policy should be revised according to the relevance of instruments and measures to the challenges of internal and global environment. The priority directions of industrial development are determined and the key principles of industrial policy in Ukraine are justified based on foreign experience. The field of application of results. The results of this research can be applied in the process of industrial regulatory framework formation, in the Concept of state industrial policy and the Strategy of industrial development elaboration by central executive authorities, and in the preparation of relevant sections of programs of regions' socioeconomic and cultural development. Conclusions according to the article. In the study it is determined that these are the protectionism measures and innovation activity stimulation which are the base of the modern industrial policies in the countries with a high level of development; the middle-income countries should prioritize innovation and technology policies; the low-income states including Ukraine should focus on industrial modernization, import substitution, and the integration into global value chains in order to accelerate their socioeconomic development and strengthen the competitiveness over the world markets.

The methodological approach to the assessment of parity of trade relations is proposed. The analysis of the volume of export and import, their commodity structure is considered as a traditional cost approach to assess the equivalence of foreign trade operations of the country. The use of branding tools in assessing the technological or status level of trade relations between countries is substantiated. The mechanism of calculating the indicator of territorial branding and the indicator of branding of the country per capita is demonstrated. The efficiency of the brand-oriented format for the development of the national economy has been proved. In order to increase the competitiveness of the national economy, adoption and implementation of brand-oriented development strategy by Ukraine is recommended. Background. Contemporary globalization determines the development strategy of each country, affects the change in the economic behavior of its subjects of business and the nature of consumer behavior, which is perceived as a tendency to seek benefits that would ensure the competitiveness of domestic goods, services, companies producing and providing them, territories, in within the limits of which the economic activity is carried out. Countries compete in the search for resources, highly skilled specialists, but the world market of goods and services remains the main area of competition, where the destiny of national economies is resolved in relation to their specialization, cooperation, socioeconomic efficiency and establishes the geopolitical role of the country in the world «scenario» of development. The assessment of foreign trade relations between the countries serves as an indicator of compliance with modern geo-economic challenges, and a comparative analysis of this assessment demonstrates the equivalence of trade relations between countries. Branding as a sign of modern trends in the promotion of goods, services, companies, even territories by the countries proves the efficiency and reliability of its use, the long-term nature of its results, the wide range of its implementation, which makes it considered as a tool for assessing the parity of trade relations between countries. This proves the relevance of the chosen topic of study, distinguishes its scientific and practical tasks. Analysis of research and publications. The issue of the parity of foreign trade relations between the countries of the world attracts research institutions, in particular the National Institute for Modern Studies, many domestic and foreign scientists. Thus, Parakhonsky B. and Yavorskaya G. [1] thoroughly study the theoretical aspects of Ukraine's strategic partnership; Professor Rainert E. explores strategies of mutual trade relations between countries as a factor for their enrichment [2]. There are many analytical studies on establishing the parity of economic relations of some countries through the analysis of exports and imports, their commodity and geographic structure. The unexplored part. At the same time, the above-mentioned researches are kept untouched in the light of modern tendencies, where branding is of key importance, the role of which is devoted to this article. The purpose of this study is to develop a methodological approach to assessing the parity of foreign trade relations between countries using branding as an instrument for managing the competitiveness of the national economy and an indicator of compliance with modern trends in economic development. Based on the purpose of the study, let's single out the following tasks: 1) Determination of the methodological approach to the assessment of the parity of foreign trade relations between countries; 2) Demonstration of his individual results; 3) Formulating the role of branding in the formation of parity between countries. Material and methods. The fulfillment of this scientific study is guided by the following general criteria: conceptual, that providing the possibility of obtaining integrated conclusions; systematic, that showing results in dynamics; objectivity, on the basis of which it is possible to check and control the research; comprehensiveness, which allows to reveal the general laws and to design the necessary direction of the following actions; publicity, whose competence permits the existence of other views on the proposed approach.

Purpose
Despite the increased recognition and emphasis on corporate social responsibility (CSR) as a topic and highly formalised CSR control systems, numerous well-publicised problems and scandals often involving multinational enterprises (MNEs) continue to emerge. These companies are mostly extrinsically motivated in CSR. They operate with highly formalised CSR systems that, in many cases, miss the prevention of anti-social and illegal behaviour. This might reflect the failure of extrinsic CSR to integrate the ethical dimension and/or the failure of intrinsic CSR to formalise and thus benefit from economies of scale. Currently, the conviction is growing that if CSR is to have a meaningful impact, it should be a matter of intrinsic motives, morale and ethical values rather than a formalised management tool. This research aims to focus on a sample of small and large companies in Switzerland, aiming at a comparison of key motives for CSR related to actual CSR implementation, performance and company size.


Design/methodology/approach
The study examined two groups: seven owner-managers of small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and seven managers of MNEs. Each group met for two focus group discussions that were qualitatively and visually analysed using MAXQDA.


Findings
The results show that CSR implementation in the examined Swiss SMEs is more related to moral commitment than to profit maximisation. These companies are often driven by soft assets, such as networks, by the nexus of mission and value set; by a system of initiatives and integrated behaviour; by proximity and informal, flat organisational structures; by the aspiration and ambition of craftsmanship or excellent service (instead of profit); by community involvement; by recruiting from the local community; by the willingness to grow slowly and steadily; by the avoidance of atomic markets; and finally, by the mental set up and sociological tradition of the stewardship concept. This contrasts with the extrinsically motivated approach of the MNEs under research. While MNEs follow their approach of "ethics for the firm that must pay", the findings here identified potential transition cases of "ethics in the firm" and "ethics of the firm" within Swiss SMEs. This is consistent with others, resembling the need of this dichotomy to be revised.


Research limitations/implications
The cross-sectorial approach limits the degree to which motives can clearly be attributed to actual CSR performance or company size.


Practical implications
The results imply that policymakers, public institutions, scientific community, etc. should be careful when establishing systems that favour financial returns from CSR engagement, because, first, other research showed that a behaviour attributed to extrinsic motives is mostly perceived as dishonest and misleading, for instance, consumers. Second, extrinsic motivation might crowd out morale and paying lead actors for behaving altruistically or philanthropically might decline their intrinsic motivation. Notably, the crowding out of intrinsic motivation by extrinsic incentives is a phenomenon well-researched not only in regard to CSR but in various other areas linked to human behaviour. This has important implications for nearly every business operation, especially for mergers and acquisitions, as well as for the growth of businesses.


Social implications
It seems unsuitable to support social goods in intrinsic CSR by the implementation of a system of financial incentives (or consequences). Thus, an economic cost-benefit is inappropriate where CSR needs an ethical stand. The difference between extrinsic and intrinsic CSR is very difficult to bridge – both have powerful incentives and drivers preventing a potential cross-over.


Originality/value
In sum, this study showed that CSR is meaningful and justifiable even if it is not profitable in the first place or implemented in and managed through formalised systems. This leads to two conclusions: first, care should be taken when emphasising the extrinsic approach in relation to social goods and second, the cost of a possible mismatch in a climate of ethical principles might be substantial for societies' moral inclination.

Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to provide a critical and informative exploration of the emerging roles and rising influence of the Global South in shaping the future of global governance. Specifically, it inquires into the following questions: How is the Global South impacting the way we govern globally? What are the pushers, pulls and weights to the futures of global governance? Using Jim Dator's alternative futures archetype, what is the future of global governance? What are the emerging issues and trends?


Design/methodology/approach
– It uses Sohail Inayatullah's futures triangle to map the drivers – the pushes, pulls and weights of global governance and Jim Dator's archetypes – continued economic growth, collapse, conserver and transformation – to imagine and construct alternative futures of global governance.


Findings
– The futures triangle analysis maps and reveals three diverse but causally linked Global South narratives of global governance. The pulls of the future include the Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa leading the way, and emerging economies reinforcing the pluralization of global governance discourses and systems. New governance regimes create new global governance dynamics and North – South relations. Their increasing social, political and economic clout leads to new governance structures. The Global South's rising human development index, economic growth, decreasing financial reliance, the rise of minilateralism and South – South cooperation is a push of the present. Weights are recurring financial constraints, their lack of technical capacity, existing international laws, stagnating bureaucracy, poverty, domestic issues and state centrism (among others). Four alternative global governance scenarios emerge: a harmonious world is everybody's business – a state-centric and economic growth global governance future. Here, the dynamics of global governance remain the same as zero-sum thinking informs the rules of the game. In dangerous transitions and the rise of the rest, however, the status quo is disrupted as power shifts rapidly and detrimentally. Then, in mosaic of the old structure, the South embraces protectionism, and the old vanguards return. Finally, in all boats rise substantially, power is redistributed as emerging states gain larger, formal (and informal) leadership roles in global governance. The global world order is re-designed for the Global South. A world parliament is created and stronger regional confederation or unions emerge.


Research limitations/implications
– This paper extensively utilizes existing and emerging literature, official reports, blogs, interviews, books and other digital texts on global governance. The sources relevance is analyzed using the futures triangle tool and dissected to present four detailed scenarios using Dator's alternative futures archetype. This study seeks to initially explore alternative futures of global governance from the perspective of the Global South. While some studies have approached the topic, only a few authors have addressed global governance using futures tools and methods. The goal of this research is to map and explore some alternative futures of global governance. The paper is less useful in predicting what lies ahead. Its intention is to highlight the "rise of the different" and to create a space for more meaningful conversations on global governance.


Practical implications
– This research could provide futurists, policy-makers, international relations scholars and global governance advocates some alternative narratives, frameworks and images of global governance. While it does not offer any specific structures and solutions, it offers a number of emerging issues and perspectives from the Global South that decision-makers and institutions might want to consider as they rethink global governance.


Social implications
– This paper highlights the emerging roles and perspectives of the Global South in global governance. It identifies some "trading zones" and "emerging issues" that may inspire actors to create new global governance spaces, innovate alternative narratives and design new frameworks of global governance.


Originality/value
– It maps and constructs some plausible scenarios of global governance that emphasize Global South perspectives while using futures tools and methods.

Ik heb er lang over gedaan, ik ben er nog steeds niet achter. Ik houd het er maar op dat Harrie
Jansen stelt dat kwalitatief onderzoek en kwantitatief onderzoek niet wezenlijk van elkaar
verschillen. Het zijn beide vormen van wetenschappelijk onderzoek en dus moeten ze zich aan de
regels van wetenschappelijk onderzoek houden. Maar wat hij daarbij aandraagt, dat lijkt mij niet
zo sterk.Ten eerste het uitgangspunt dat er een objectieve werkelijkheid bestaat. Volgens mij is dat een handige afspraak tussen volwassenen om de kinderen op te kunnen voeden. We kunnen dingen aanwijzen, en die noemen we koe, stoplicht of vies, en daarmee kun je leren hoe met de dingen om te gaan. De wetenschap van het alledaagse leven met zijn levenslessen, wie genoeg televisiekijkt wordt vanzelf een wijsneus.Maar als het gaat om wetenschap, dan wordt het toch wel wat ingewikkelder. Wat doet dat objectieve bij de werkelijkheid? Blijkbaar is de werkelijkheid te gewoon, te verwarrend of niet de echte werkelijkheid? Ceci is inderdaad geen pijp, maar een woord! Tenminste volgens de afspraak in de alledaagse werkelijkheid.Maar belangrijker volgens mij is de vraag die veel dichter bij het verschil tussen soorten onderzoek staat: is de werkelijkheid van de chemie gelijk aan die van de fysica, het recht of de economie? Zijn dat aparte werkelijkheden, deelwerkelijkheden, overlappende werkelijkheden of toch een en dezelfde werkelijkheid, zodat de kennis van het recht niet strijdig mag zijn met die van de chemie? Een werkelijkheid van objecten (dingen, processen) of vele werkelijkheden, met eigensoortige dingen en processen, waarvan hun eigenaardigheden alleen via eigensoortige methoden kunnen worden ontworsteld? Hoe kijken we eigenlijk tegen het onderwerp van onderzoek aan, is de werkelijkheid eigenlijk niet een denkbeeld, of beter een geheel waar in bepaalde kringen gedeelde ideeën over bestaan?'Wij zijn ons brein' geeft een context om onderzoek te doen naar depressies, en die verschilt nogal van 'U bent wat u eet'.Ten tweede het uitgangspunt dat wij mensen zintuigen hebben, of beter dat de werkelijkheid waarneembaar is. Het eerste wat het wetenschappelijk onderzoek kenmerkt, is dat het iets gedaan heeft aan waarneming. De alledaagse ervaring is immers dat de mens wel zintuigen heeft, maar die van de buurman staan wat vreemd afgesteld! De kennis moet dus worden ontdaan van alledaagse waarneming, dat geeft alleen maar ruzie en onenigheid. Waarneming is ook veel te passief, je moet wel een beetje gericht bezig zijn: je moet observeren, zodat je een eigenschap kunt vaststellen of een kenmerk meten. De werkelijkheid, zou ik zeggen, is juist niet goed waarneembaar, daarom wordt er in allerlei beroepen zoveel werk van gemaakt om vast te stellen hoe het ermee zit (het is weliswaar geen pipe, maar wel zeer droog, althans voor plantjes en bejaarden, we raden luchtbevochtiging aan). In deze professionalisering van de waarneming zit een vorm van standaardisering, de Engelse duim, de Rijnlandse duim en die van de buurman zijn vervangen door een uitwisselbaar instrument. Afspraken dus, en die afspraken koppelen twee wezenlijke eigenschappen van observeren: concepties en dimensies.Bij concepties gaat het om eigenschappen van de onderzochte of beoogde werkelijkheid (kenmerk zoals bedoeld volgens de theorie) en bij dimensies gaat het om eigenschappen van de empirie (kenmerk zoals bepaald door het instrument).Wetenschap is dus inderdaad een spel zonder grenzen, want we hebben er een (blik op de) werkelijkheid bij verzonnen: de empirie. Wat Harrie zintuigen noemt, is dus inderdaad geen pipe, maar een professionele theorie over wat je kunt meten of bepalen met een archief van observaties, die van de eigenschappen zoals bepaald. Daarmee hebben we in het wetenschappelijk onderzoek te maken met twee versies van de werkelijkheid die we onderzoeken: de werkelijkheid zoals die in onze ideeën bestaat (en die we zouden willen begrijpen, meten en verklaren) en de werkelijkheid zoals die via onze instrumenten kan worden geobserveerd. Je kunt niet zonder de een of de ander: meten met instrumenten wordt een zinloos ritueel als er niet een probleem over de werkelijkheid achter zit; denken over de wereld wordt erg vrijblijvend als er niet waarnemingen bij worden betrokken.

The history of the painted image has involved various metamorphoses from cave, to architecture, to easel and most recently the radical hybridisation of expanded multimedia forms. Through each age the shedding of one aspect of the image; ritual, spirituality, portability, has resulted in a shift from sacred static images towards profane ephemeral events. This transformation has intensified over the last century where the repeated announcement of the death of painting has seen painting reborn as a mode of radical self-questioning. This paper takes an overview of painting's morphology by way of Martin Heidegger's discussion of picturing and representation in his essay "The Age of the World Picture" (1938). By focusing on the history of picturing, an understanding of "original aesthetics" and its apprehensions can be developed, for comparison with contemporary art in its "post-medium condition". The new ontological paradigm of contemporary art therefore demands another discourse, a "post-aesthetics" that overcomes the subjective bias of modern philosophical aesthetics in favour of a primary relationship to things and their mode of presence in the world. As a result, contemporary expanded painting is shown to be a radical revision of art, a moment of ontological "presencing" favouring spatial environments and temporal events that reveal "what is" and "what matters" in a contemporary techno-scientific age. As a result ontological aesthetics could indicate what is good at the boundary between people, communities, technology and the earth, in short, a politics of being. In the politics of being, which is most appropriate to the expanded work of art, politics is linked to the polis, the place where culture emerges into a world, and where things unfold according to the sense of possibility that a world grants. Art is intimately involved in an alternative politics of being when it poses another way of dealing with beings, people, objects, and things, that result in new economies and temporalities indicating the possibility of something beyond our habitual understanding of the world. Expanded painting as the exemplar of contemporary art is an ontological cut in our understanding of art and the world. It slices through the contemporary understanding of presence and delivers a monstrous thickness, no longer supported by a surface as substrate, but instead compelled by the phenomenal experiences of the world, and is thereby multiplied exponentially and existentially.


Santrauka


Tapyto atvaizdo istorija apima įvairias metamorfozes, pradedant urvais ir baigiant architektūra, molbertais, o pastaruoju metu – radikalia išplėstinių multimedijų formų hibridizacija. Bet kuriame amžiuje nunykdavo tam tikras atvaizdo aspektas; ritualai, dvasingumas, portatyvumas sakralius statiškus atvaizdus pakeitė profaniškais trumpalaikiais įvykiais. Ši transformacija suintensyvėjo pastarajame amžiuje, kai buvo pakartotinai paskelbta, esą tapyba mirė, atgimstant tapybai kaip radikaliai saviklausai. Šiame straipsnyje pateikiama tapybos morfologijos apžvalga, remiantis Martino Heideggerio apmąstymais. Susitelkiant į atvaizdų istoriją, gali būti išplėtota "originaliosios estetikos" ir jos suvokimo samprata, lyginant su šiuolaikiniu menu ir jo "postmedijine būkle". Todėl nauja šiuolaikinio meno ontologinė paradigma reikalauja kito – "postestetikos" – diskurso, įveikiančio subjektyvų moderniosios filosofinės estetikos šališkumą pirminio santykio su daiktais ir su jų buvimo pasaulyje būdo atžvilgiu. Iš to išplaukia, kad šiuolaikinė išplėstinė tapyba pristatoma kaip radikalus meno peržiūrėjimas, ontologinio "esamumo" akimirka, palaikanti erdvines aplinkas ir laikinius įvykius, atveriančius "tai, kas yra" ir "tai, kas vyksta" šiuolaikiniame technikos ir mokslo amžiuje. Tad ontologinė estetika gali nurodyti, kas yra gera ties žmonių, bendruomenių, technologijų ir Žemės ribomis, trumpai tariant, atskleisti būties politiką. Šioji yra pati tinkamiausia išplėstiniams meno kūriniams; politika yra susieta su polis – ta vieta, kurioje kultūra iškyla į pasaulį ir kurioje pagal pasaulio teikiamą galimumą skleidžiasi daiktai. Menas yra glaudžiai įtraukiamas į alternatyviąją būties politiką, iškeldamas naują būtybių, žmonių, objektų ir daiktų santykiavimo būdą. Tai lemia naujose ekonomikose ir laikiškumuose nurodomą galimybę kažko, kas yra anapus mūsų pasaulio įprastinio supratimo. Išplėstinė tapyba kaip šiuolaikinio meno pavyzdys yra ontologinis įtrūkis mums suprantant meną ir pasaulį. Ji aptinkama suprantant šiuolaikinį buvimą, yra labai reikšminga ir nebėra palaikoma paviršiaus kaip substrato; veikiau įtikinamų fenomenalių pasaulio patirčių, taip dauginamų išoriškai ir egzistenciškai.

Europe, both collectively and nationally, has long been a major power in outer space, with countries maintaining an array of facilities for satellite launches, satellite production and research. Like many other elements of European power, space capability is not a fully unified project, but rather arises through the accumulation of a confused mixture of national and multinational entities and efforts. The major national players in space are the four European states with the largest economies: France, Germany, Italy and the UK. At the collective level, there are two principal organizations: the 25 nation EU and the 17 nation European Space Agency (ESA). In addition, other joint European projects involve sets and subsets of national governments and multinational organizations. While European space activities have focused on civil and commercial applications, over the past several years European states and Europe collectively have recognized the need to add a security dimension to their space programs. This has been a slow and halting process. Even today, European states jealously guard their military space capabilities; they are often wary of inter-European cooperation and more so of collective endeavours. That mindset is beginning to change, however, spurred in large part by the revolution in military space power in the USA, where the increased exploitation of space assets for both tactical and strategic purposes has provided an undisputed edge on the battlefield. In particular, several European nations -- individually, bilaterally or multilaterally -- are for the first time pursuing programmes for earth imaging and communications satellites dedicated to military use. The pressures for more cooperation in military space activities also stem from the trend towards collectivism in foreign affairs and defence policy that began with the articulation of the EU Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), and its European Defence and Security Policy (ESDP). Since the 1990s, European militaries cooperate ever more closely on the ground, on the seas and in the air. The European Commission has pledged 3.96 billion to be spent on security and space in the period 2007-13. A second, but no less important driver has been Europe's desire to build capabilities that are independent of the USA -- a trend that has its roots in the end of the cold war but which has accelerated in recent years as European views about US unilateralism have hardened and US restrictions on space technology transfer have tightened. While European states have a growing desire for information from sources other than the USA, no European country could itself hope to finance a space programme that could deliver such information. The EU is therefore increasingly becoming a locus for new space efforts, such as the massive and complex Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES) program. At the same time, there remain a number of constraints -- from political to economic -- on the development of European military space power. Space, while important for modern warfare, is not at the top of the list of EU capability priorities, which is dominated by more immediate needs such as airlift, sealift and transport helicopters. Military leaders, even in Europe's leading space power, France, continue to balk at paying for expensive, dedicated satellite-based capabilities, including the navigation, positioning and timing services to be provided by Europe's flagship Galileo programme. However, the more the EU becomes the tool of choice for the security and military operations of its members, and the more it seeks to profile itself as a global actor, the further it will be driven towards the use of space for security and military purposes. If the trend continues, the EU will most probably progress from operating dual-use assets and distributing data from national networks to deploying collectively owned technology for the exploitation of space for security purposes.NB. Adapted from the source document.

Reseñas críticas: Gender, growth and trade: The miracle economies of the postwar years. Por David KUCERAReseñas críticas: New frontiers of democratic participation at work. Obra dirigidaReseñas críticas: Le travail dans l'histoire de la pensée occidentale. Por Daniel MERCURE y Jan SPURK (directores)Libros recientes: Des banes de 1'école aux postes de travail… Chronique d'une ségrégation annoncée. Por Thomas COUPPIÉ y Dominique EPIPHANELibros recientes: Flexibilités et performances. Stratégies d'entreprises, régulations, transformations du travail. Obra dirigida por Rachel BEAUJOLIN‐BELLETLibros recientes: L'organisation de la production et du travail: vers un nouveau modèle? Obra dirigida por Gregor MURRAY, Jacques BÉLANGER, Anthony GILES y Paul‐André LAPOINTELibros recientes: Santé mentale et travail. L'urgence de penser autrement I'organisation. Obra dirigida por Michel AUDETNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Actas. Conferencia Internacional del Trabajo, 91. a reunión, Ginebra, OIT, 2003. Disco CD‐ROMNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Aplicación de las normas internacionales del trabajo, 2004. Informe de la Comisión de Expertos en Aplicación de Convenios y RecomendacionesNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Aplicación de las normas intcrnacionak'S del trabajo, 2004. Documento informativo sobre ratificaciones y actividades normativasNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Promover el empleo. Políticas, capacitación, empresas. Conferencia Internacional del TrabajoNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Condidones de trabajo en el sector pesquero. Una norma general (un convenio complementado con una recomendación) sobre el trabajo en el sector pesqueroNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Economic security for a better worldNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: En busca de un compromiso equitativo para los trabajadores migrantes en la economía globalizadaNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Les fonds sociaux: Réflexions et perspectives nouvelles. Por Philippe GARNIER y Marc VAN IMSCHOOTNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Fuentes y Métodos. Estadísticas del Trabajo. Complemento del Anuario de Estadísticas del TrabajoNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Volumen 4. Empleo, desempleo, salarios y horas de trabajo (registros administrativos y fuentes conexas)Nuevas publicaciones de la OIT: The global seafarer. Living and working conditions in a globalized industry.Nuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Indkadores Claves del Mercado de Trabajo (ICMT). Tercera editiónNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Key indicators of the labour market 2001–2002Nuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Jobs after war: A critical challenge in the peace and reconstruction puzzle. Obra dirigida por Eugenia DATE‐BAH. Programa InFocus de la OIT sobre Respuesta a las Crisis y ReconstructiónNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Organizarse en pos de la justicia social. Informe global con arreglo al seguimiento de la Declaratión de la OIT relativa a los principios y derechos fundamentales en el trabajoNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Policies for small enterprises. Creating the right environment for good jobsNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Por una globalizatión justa. Crear oportunidades para todos. Informe de la Comisión Mundial sobre la Dimensión Social de la GlobalizatiónNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Por una globalizatión justa. El papel de la OIT. Informe del Director General sobre la Comisión Mundial sobre la Dimensión Social de la GlobalizatiónNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Las práctical óptimas en los sistemas de trabajo flexible y sus efectos en la calidad de la vida laboral en las industrias químicas. Informe para el debate de la Reunión tripartita sobre las prácticas óptimas en los sistemas de trabajo flexible y sus efectos en la calidad de la vida laboral en las industrias químicasNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Preventing and responding to violence at work. Por Kimberly Ann ROGERS y Duncan CHAPPELLNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Protectión en los puertos. Repertorio de recomendaciones práctical de la OIT Le Travail Décent Points de vue philosophiques et spirituels. Obra dirigida por Dominique PECCOUD. OIT, Consejo Mundial de Iglesias e Instituto Internacional de Estudios LaboralesNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: La violencia en el trabajo en el sector de los servicios y medidas para combatir este fenómenoNuevas publicaciones de la OIT: Women seafarers. Global employment policies and practices. Obra colectiva realizada en colaboración con el Seafarers International Research Centre (Cardiff, Reino Unido)

The objective of this article is to speculate on the urban restructuring process in China's transition to a market economy. Previous studies suggest that a broad theoretical framework is much needed to develop hypotheses for further empirical studies. This paper draws its insights from relevant studies on contemporary capitalist cities, in particular, political economy analysis of the urban process and capital switching, the structure of building provision and the creation of a rent gap, and institutional analysis of property rights. Summarily, it suggests that the basic logic of production in the context of a socialist city requires a specific way of coordinating — through economic planning and a specific configuration — the state work‐unit system. Manifested in the production of the built environment was project‐specific development. The structural tendency to disinvest in developed land has engendered a rent gap, which has laid the foundation for the phase of redevelopment in reforming socialist economies. Urban restructuring in the recent emerging market economy, which mainly involves decentralization, reorganizing the production of the built environment, and an increasing local‐global link through overseas capital, is understood through this perspective. The post‐reform built environment is characterized by land‐use restructuring and polycentric development. It is argued that the physical reshaping of Chinese cities can be understood with respect to the redefinition of property rights, hence, capturing the rent gap by the main actors — state work‐units, municipalities, the central state, real‐estate investors, original residents and farmers. By its nature, the process favours big builders who have either de facto rights over existing urban land property or huge capital that enables them to 'wipe out' small owners. Western experience of gentrification reminds us that social problems may be created during the process, which calls for continuing insights to shed light on urban restructuring in post‐reform China.L'objectif de cet article est de spéculer sur le processus de restructuration urbaine durant la période de transition de la Chine à une économie de marché. Les études précédentes suggèrent qu'un modèle théorique large est absolument nécessaire pour développer des hypothèses pour des études empiriques additionnelles. Cet article tire ses idées des études des villes capitalistes contemporaines, en particulier des analyses d'économie politique du processus urbain et du tranfert de capitaux, de la structure de la provision de bâtiments et de l'écart entre les loyers, et de l'analyse institutionnelle des droits de propriété. Succintement, cet article suggère que la logique fondamentale de la production dans le contexte d'une ville socialiste demande une méthode particulière de coordination — par la planification économique et une configuration spécifique — le système d'unité de travail de l'état. Le développement spécific de certains projets était manifeste dans la production de l'environnement urbain. La tendance structurelle au désinvestissement des terres développées a produit un écart dans les loyers, qui a créé une base pour une phase de redéveloppement des économies socialistes en réforme. La restructuration urbaine dans l'économie de marché naissante, qui implique principalement la décentralisation, la réorganisation de la production de l'environnement urbain, et, de plus en plus, un lien entre le local et le global grâce au capital d'outremer, peut être comprise dans cette perspective. L'environnement urbain d'après les réformes est caractérisé par la restructuration de l'aménagement du territoire et le développement polycentrique. Cet article soutient que le remaniement physique des villes chinoises peut être compris par rapport à la redéfinition des droits de propriété, et l'écart des loyers est donc accaparé par les agents principaux — les unités de travail de l'état, les municipalités, l'état central, les investisseurs immobiliers, les résidents d'origine et les fermiers. Vu sa nature, ce processus favorise les gros entrepreneurs qui ont soit les droits de facto aux terres urbaines existantes soit des capitaux considérables qui leur permettent de 'liquider' les petits propriétaires. L'expérience occidentale d'embourgeoisement nous rappelle que les problèmes sociaux peuvent être créés durant ce processus, qui demande une attention continue afin d'expliquer la restructuration urbaine dans la Chine d'après les réformes.

SummaryFACTORS INFLUENCING OPTIMUM SIZE AND DECISION‐MAKING IN CO‐OPERATIVE FARMSThe dualistic character of co‐operation as an economic and a social phenomenon leads to different measurements of its individual features and to a compromise as practical solution. Large size in co‐operatives leads to economies of scale, but diseconomies may result through high costs of administration and alienation occurring at a smaller size than in industry. Small size, on the other hand, has the inconvenience of social immobility. Optimum size — both economically and socially — depends on many factors and cannot be fixed once and for all. A categorization of agricultural co‐operatives according to their degree of integration shows no rigid delimitation between service and farming co‐operation, but rather a smooth transition and a wide choice of closely related types. Co‐operation implies a gain of security against a loss of formal freedom in decision‐making.The individual farmer has only limited and decreasing space for decision‐making. In farming co‐operatives, decision‐making depends upon economic type, integration, Government planning, members' abilities and activity, and the efficiency of the democratic set‐up. Members' active participation promotes the co‐operative and enriches the member's life, thereby furthering fuller identification. This can only be achieved if the needs and wishes of the co‐operators are considered as much as possible, i.e if Government interference is restricted to the necessary minimum.RésuméTAILLE OPTIMUM DES EXPLOITATIONS AGRICOLES COOPÉRATIVES ET PRISE DE DÉCISION: FACTEURS DÉTERMINANTSLe caractère dualiste de la cooperation en tant que phénomène économique et social implique des mesures différenciées de chacun de ces traits et conduit dans la pratique à un compromis. La grande dimension de ces coopératives entraine des économies d'échelle, mais aussi des déséconomies par l'intermédiaire des coûts de fonctionnement, de meme qu'une certaine aliénation, facteurs connus dans l'industrie mais travaillant dans l'agriculture déjà sur une échelle moindre. Une taille plus restreinte présente, par ailleurs, un lourd handicap d'immobilité sociale. La taille optimale, tant du point devue économique que social, dépend de nombreux facteurs et ne peut être déterminée vine fois pour toutes.Une catégorisation des coopératives agricoles en function de leur degré d'intégration montre qu'il n'existe pas dédelimitation stricte entre la coopération de production et celle de service, mais plutôt une transition régulière et un grand éventail de types étroitement reliés. La cooperation implique un gain de sécurité compensant la perte de la liberté, surtout formelle, de décision.La sphére de décisions de l'exploitant individuel est également limitée et va décroissant. Dans les fermes coopératives, la prise de décision dépend du type économique, du degré d'intégration, de la planification gouvernementale, de la compétence et de la participation des adhérents, de l'efficacité de la structure démocratique. — Une participation active des adhérents aide au développement de la coopérative et enrichit la vie de ses membres, favorisant ainsi une plus grande identification. Ceci ne peut être menéà bien que s'il est tenu compte, dans toute la mesure du possible, des besoins et des souhaits des coopérateurs et si les interventions gouvernementales se réduisent au stricte minimum.ZusammenfassungFAKTOREN OPTIMALER BETRIEBSGRÖßE UND DES ENTSCHEIDUNGSPROZESSES IN GENOSSENSCHAFTSFARMNDer dualistische Charakter der Genossenschaften als eines ökonomischen und eines sozialen Phänomens führt zu unterschiedlichen Maß‐stäben für ihre einzelnen Merkmale und zu einem Kompromiss bei den praktischen Lösungen. Größere Ausmaße der Genossenschaften ergeben Betriebsgrößenvorteile, aber auch —nachteile wegen des Verwaltungsaufwands und der Entfremdung, und das bereits bei einer niedrigeren GröBenordnung als in der Industrie. Geringe Betriebsgröße andererseits hat den wesentlichen Nachteil sozialer Immobilität. Die optimale Größe —ökonomisch und sozial — hängt von vielen Faktoren ab und kann nicht ein für alle mal festgelegt werden. Kategorisiert man die landwirtschaftlichen Genossenschaften nach dem Grad der Integration, so besteht keine starre Abgrenzung zwischen Dienstleistungs‐ und Produktionsgenossenschaften, vielmehr ein allmählicher Übergang und ein weites Spektrum eng verwandter Typen. — Genossenschaftliche Zusammenarbeit bedeutet einen Gewinn von Sicherheit auf Kosten eines Verlustes an formaler Entscheidungsfreiheit.Auch der selbständige Bauer hat nur einen begrenzten und schrumpfenden Raum für eigene Entscheidungen. In Produktionsgenossenschaften hängt der Entscheidungsprozess von folgenden Faktoren ab: Wirtschaftsbetrieb, Integration, staatliche Planung, Fähigkeiten und Aktivität der Mitglieder, Effizienz der demokratischen Struktur. Die aktive Teilnahme der Mitglieder fördert die Genossenschaft und bereichert das Leben der Mitglieder und führt damit zu stärkerer Identifikation. Diese jedoch kann nur eireicht werden, wenn die Bedürfnisse und Wünsche der Mitglieder soweit wie möglich berücksichtigt werden, d.h. wenn das Eingreifen der Regierung auf das notwendige Minimum beschränkt ist.