Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Babulgaon-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 519 ha in Babulgaon-1 microwatershed in Humnabad taluk of Bidar district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought prone with an average annual rainfall of 811 mm of which about 609 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 109 mm during north-east and the remaining 93 mm during the rest of the year. Entire area is covered by soils. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to seven soil series and 17 soil phases (management units) and six Land Use Classes. The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 2nd week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. Entire area is suitable for agriculture. About 58 per cent of the soils are moderately deep to very deep (75- >150 cm) and 42 per cent are moderately shallow to very shallow (25-75 cm) soils. Entire area has clayey soils at the surface. About 89 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils and 11 per cent gravelly soils (15-35 % gravel). About 44 per cent of the area has soils that are very high (>200mm/m) in available water capacity, 2 per cent medium (100-150 mm/m) and about 54 per cent low (50- 100 mm/m) and very low (0.75%) in organic carbon. Major area of 83 per cent has soils that are low (57 kg/ha) in about 2 per cent area. About 2 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is low (20 ppm). Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in about 10 per cent area. Entire area is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in iron. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils. About 30 per cent area has soils that are deficient (0.6 ppm). The land suitability for 19 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitab le (S1) Moderately suitabl e (S2) Highly suit abl e (S1) Moderately suitabl e (S2) Sorghum 228 (44) 43 (8) Sapota - 18 (3) Maize - 43 (8) Jackfruit 58 (11) - Red gram - 256 (49) Jamun 10 (2) 277 (53) Sunflower 228 (44) 44 (8) Musambi 10 (2) 277 (53) Cotton 166 (32) 91 (17) Lime 10 (2) 277 (53) Sugarcane - 28 (5) Cashew 17 (3) - Soybean 228 (44) 58 (11) Custard apple 17 (3) 311 (60) Bengalgra m 228 (44) 18 (3) Amla 17 (3) 311 (60) Guava - 18 (3) Tamarind 10 (2) 269 (52) Mango 10 (6) - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in microwatershed. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in supplementing the income, provide fodder and fuel, generate lot of biomass, of which would help in maintaining ecological balance and help in mitigating climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Babulgaon-1 Microwatershed (Raipalli sub-watershed, Humnabad taluk, Bidar district) is located in between 17040' – 17042' North latitudes and 77012' – 77015' East longitudes, covering an area of about 519.22 ha, bounded by Mustari, Udbal, Chitgoppa and Bilkhera villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Babulgaon-1 Microwatershed in Raipalli sub-watershed, Humnabad taluk and Bidar district are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 55.4 to 44.6 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age group of 18 to 30 populations is around 71.4 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 92.0 per cent. Social groups belong to scheduled caste (SC) and scheduled tribe (ST) was around 20 per cent. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among 60 per cent. About 40 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 70 per cent. Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 50 per cent of sample households. Institutional participation is only 7.1 per cent of sample households. Women participation in decisions making of agriculture production of households was found. Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 2.0 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small and medium farmers. The irrigated land account for 62.8 per cent and rainfed land is 42.1 per cent of total cultivated land of the sample farmers. 2 Agriculture is the main occupation among 54.2 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 33.3 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.18843 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication. The average value of farm assets is around Rs.250 per household, only 10 per cent of sample farmers are having weeder. The average value of livestock is around Rs.40033 per household; about 61.5 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 810.2 grams (1637.0 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 70.0 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs 26634 per household. About 90.0 per cent of farm households are below poverty line. The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs. 1451. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 1080 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 487243 per year for the total area of 519.28 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 4530/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in red gram (Rs. 11328) followed by soybean (Rs. 2924), bengal gram (Rs. 2547) and sunflower (Rs. 1320). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in redgram (Rs. 58317) followed by bengal gram (Rs. 45420), sunflower (Rs. 32457) and soybean (Rs. 21202). Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is red gram (74.3 %) followed by bengal gram (14.4 %) sunflower (7.1 %) and soybean (4.2 %). In Babulgoan 1 micro watershed, major soils are soil of Hindupur (BGN) series are having very deep soil depth cover around 43.9 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing red gram (69.5 %), bengalgram (17.1 %), sunflower (8.4 %) and soybean (5.1 %). Devarahalli (KDM) are also having shallow soil depth 3 cover around 27.8 % of area, main crops is red gram. Kallipura (RMP) soil series having very shallow soil depth cover around 5.8 % of areas, in these area main crops is red gram. The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for red gram ranges between Rs. 55182/ha in RMP soil (with BCR of 1.20) and Rs. 30326/ha in BGN soil (with BCR of 1.37). In bengal gram the cost of cultivation in BGN soil is Rs. 25076//ha (with BCR of 1.10) In soybean the cost of cultivation in BGN soil is Rs 29680/ha (with BCR of 1.10) and sunflower the cost of cultivation in BGN soil is Rs28572/ha (with BCR of 1.05). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in red gram (0 to 20.7 %), bengal gram (55.1 %), soybean (49.4 %) and sunflower (40.7 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kotanpalli Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 622 ha in Sedam taluk of Gulbarga district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 839 mm, of which about 639 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 109 mm during north-east and the remaining 91 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 597 ha (96%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 16 ha (3%) by quarry and about 9 ha (1%) by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 4 soil series and 9 soil phases (management units) and 2 land use class. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 2nd week of June to 3rd week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. About 96 percent of area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. About 26 per cent soils of the microwatershed has soils that are shallow (25-50 cm) to moderately shallow (50-75 cm) in depth and 70 per cent area are deep (100-150 cm) to very deep (>150 cm) in soil depth. About 96 per cent area of the microwatershed has clayey soils at the surface. About 96 per cent area is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 9 per cent area is medium (101-150 mm/m) and 17 per cent area is low (51-100 mm/m) in available water capacity. About 1 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) sloping lands and 95 per cent area is very gently (1-3% slope) sloping lands. An area of about 64 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 32 per cent area is moderately (e2) erode. An area of about 96 per cent soils are slightly (pH 7.3-7.8) to strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) in soil reaction. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in 6 per cent area is 337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 99 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 7 per cent of soils in the microwatershed. The land suitability for 19 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 433(70) 59(9) Sapota - - Maize - - Jackfruit - - Redgram - 492(79) Jamun - 433(70) Sunflower 433(70) 59(9) Musambi 433(70) - Cotton 433(70) 59(9) Lime 433(70) - Sugarcane - - Cashew - - Soybean 433(70) 59(9) Custard apple 433(70) 59(9) Bengal gram 491(79) 106(17) Amla 433(70) 59(9) Guava - - Tamarind - 433(70) Mango - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel, generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also help in mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Kotanpalli micro-watershed (Adki sub-watershed, Sedam taluk, Gulbarga district) is located in between 1706' – 1708' North latitudes and 76020' – 76022' East longitudes, covering an area of about 622.47 ha, bounded by Adki, Jawaharnagara and Kotanpalli villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and eco system services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for The Kotanpalli micro-watershed (Adki subwatershed, Sedam taluk, Gulbarga district) are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 57.9 to 42.1 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 47.3 per cent to the total population. Literacy population among the all sample households. Social groups belong to general castes is around 90.0 per cent. Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 60.0 per cent. About 70 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. About 20.0 percent of farm households are having MGNREGA card for rural employment. Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 80.0 per cent. Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 50.0 per cent. Women participation in decisions making for agriculture production was found. Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 0.99 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The total cultivated area by dry land condition of the sample farmers. Agriculture is the main occupation among 26.3 per cent and Agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 68.4 per cent of the sample households. 2 The average value of domestic assets is around Rs 16675 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication. The average value of farm assets is around Rs 4363 per household; about 30 per cent of sample farmers are having weeder. The average livestock value is around Rs 47750 per household; about 66.7 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 866.8 grams (1856.7 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 30 per cent of sample farmers are consuming less than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs 20615 per household. About 90 per cent of farm households are below poverty line. The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs 2412 per household. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs 679 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs 405098 per year for the total area of 622.47 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs11806 / ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in sugarcane (Rs 39239) followed by redgram (Rs. 15957), bengalgram (Rs. 9383), groundnut (Rs. 7848) sorghum and greengram are negative return. The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs 2898/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in sorghum (Rs 4314) and groundnut (Rs 1482). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in sugarcane (Rs 123500) followed by redgram (Rs. 62678), bengalgram (Rs. 55862), greengram (Rs. 32909), sorghum (Rs. 26301) and groundnut (Rs. 24050). Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is redgram (47.4 %) followed by bengalgram (16.1 %), sugarcane (15.9 %), greengram (11.8 %) and sorghum (8.7 %). In Kotanpalli Microwatershed, major soils are Dhandothi (DDT) series are having very deep soil depth cover around 35.5 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing groundnut (12.5 %) bengalgram (19.8 %), redgram (27.1 %), 3 sorghum (14.3) and sugarcane (26.3 %). Adki (ADK) soil series are having shallow soil depth cover around 71.0 % of areas; crops are bengalgram (13.0 %) and greengram (37.2 %) and redgram (49.8%). The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for bengal gram ranges between Rs. 35231/ha in ADK soil (with BCR of 1.06) and Rs.22849/ha in DDT soil (with BCR of 1.64). In red gram the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 29704/ha in DDT soil (with BCR of 1.43) and Rs. 27609/ha in ADK soil (with BCR of 1.76). In green gram the cost of cultivation in ADK soil Rs 25409/ha (with BCR of 0.94). In groundnut the cost of cultivation in DDT soil is Rs.31054/ha (with BCR of 1.30). In sorghum the cost of cultivation in DDT soil is Rs 21582/ha (with BCR of 1.20) and sugarcane the cost of cultivation in DDT soil is Rs 90142/ha (with BCR of 1.44). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications are deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in bengal gram (35.9 to 53.6 %), greengram (44.2 %), redgram (14.2 %), groundnut (49.4 %), sorghum (69.3 %) and sugarcane (56.2 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Raipalli-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 847 ha in Raipalli-2 microwatershed in Humnabad taluk of Bidar district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 811 mm of which about 609 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 109 mm during north-east and the remaining 93 mm during the rest of the year. About 97 per cent area is covered by soils and 3 per cent by rock lands. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 9 soil series and 20 soil phases (management units) and 6 land use classes. The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 2nd week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 19 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. About 80 per cent area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture and 20 per cent is not suitable for agriculture. About 31 per cent of the soils are moderately deep to very deep (75- 150 cm), 54 per cent are shallow to very shallow (25-50 cm) and 12 per cent moderately shallow (50-75 cm) soils. Entire area of the microwatershed is clayey at the surface. About 92 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils and 5 per cent gravelly soils (15-35 % gravel). About 17 per cent of the area has soils that are very high (>200mm/m) in available water capacity, 4 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m) and about 76 per cent low (50- 100 mm/m) and very low (0.75%) in the entire microwatershed area. Major area of 83 per cent has soils that are low (57 kg/ha) in about 3 per cent area in available phosphorus. About 17 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium. An entire area is low (1.0 ppm) in available boron Entire area is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in iron. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils. About 35 per cent area has soils that are deficient (0.6 ppm). The land suitability for 19 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 146(17) 179 (21) Sapota - 80(9) Maize - 179 (21) Jackfruit 32 (4) 39 (5) Red gram - 325 (38) Jamun 32 (4) 185(22) Sunflower 146(17) 179 (21) Musambi - 218 (35) Cotton 146(17) 179 (21) Lime - 218 (35) Sugarcane - 179 (21) Cashew - 179 (21) Soybean 146(17) 218(26) Custard apple 80 (9) 284 (34) Bengalgram 146(17) 180 (21) Amla 80 (9) 284 (34) Guava - 80 (9) Tamarind 32(4) 185 (22) Mango - 32 (4) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the six identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in microwatershed. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges that would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass. This would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contributes to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Raipalli-2 micro-watershed (Raipalli sub-watershed, Humnabad taluk, Bidar district) is located in between 17037' – 17040' North latitudes and 77011' – 77014' East longitudes, covering an area of about 404 ha, bounded by Mustari, Ainapur, Kodambal and Chitgoppa villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Raipalli-2 micro-watershed (Raipalli subwatershed, Humnabad taluk, Bidar district) are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 56.3 to 43.8 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age group of 18 to 30 populations is around 56.2 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 81.3 per cent. Social groups belong to other backward caste is around 80.0 per cent. Fire wood and liquefied petroleum gas is the source of energy for a cooking among 60.0 per cent. About 20.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system among all the sample households. Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 30 per cent of sample households. Rural migration to urban centre for employment is preventing among 6.3 per cent of farm households. Women participation in decisions making for agriculture production are among all the households were found. Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 1.9 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The accounted of rainfed land is 77.8 per cent and irrigated land is 22.2 per cent of sample households. 2 Agriculture is the main occupation among 27.1 per cent and agriculture is the main occupation agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 29.2 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 18680 per households. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication. The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 400000 per household, around 10 per cent of sample farmers having tractor. The average value of livestock is around Rs. 24583 per household; about 67 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 917.7 grams (2142.2 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 40.0 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs.26412 per household. Among all sample farm households are below poverty line. The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.2148. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 2558 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 2097167 per year for the total area of 846.77 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 6636/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum red gram (Rs. 3480) followed by paddy (Rs. 3430) and sugarcane (Rs.1954). The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 880/ ha/year in paddy. The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in red gram (Rs. 47115), paddy (Rs. 33058) and sugarcane (Rs. 2394). Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is red gram (78.0 %) followed by sugarcane (11.2 %) and paddy (10.8 %). In Raipalli 2 micro watershed, major soils are Madargi (MDG) series is having shallow soil depth covers around 3.5 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing redgram. Babulgoan (BGN) soil series are having very deep soil depth covers around 17.3 % of area; the crops are redgram (14.8 %) and sugarcane (85.2 3 %). Bhadrapur (BDP) series is having very shallow soil depth covers around 16.4 % of area; Kadambal series is having shallow soil depth cover around 30.6 % and Mustari series is having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 11.7 % of area; the crop is redgram. Udwah series is having moderately deep soil depth cover around 5.6% of area major crop are paddy. The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for redgram range between is Rs. 34389/ha in MST soil (with BCR of 1.31) and Rs. 24214/ha in KDM soil (with BCR of 1.12). In paddy cost of cultivation in DGR soil is Rs. 32138/ha (with BCR of 1.14) and sugarcane cost of cultivation in BGN soil is Rs. 7166/ha (with BCR of 1.27). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in redgram (9.1 to 46.4 %), sugarcane (99.2 %) and paddy (69.6 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Shethalli-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 503 ha in Shethalli-2 microwatershed in Yadgir taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as droughtprone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 99 per cent is covered by soils, 1 per cent by rock lands, habitation and water bodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 13 soil series and 18 soil phases (management units) and 7 land use class. The length of crop growing period is 120-150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. Entire land area of the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. About 150 cm) soils. About 85 per cent of the area has clayey soils, 8 per cent loamy soils and 6 per cent sandy soils at the surface. An area of about 93 per cent has non-gravelly and 6 per cent are gravelly soils. About 59 per cent of the area has soils that are very high (>200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 9.0) in soil reaction. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon. An area of 36 per cent has soils that are low (57 kh/ha) in available phosphorus. About 67 per cent medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 32 per cent high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in about 12 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in about 13 per cent area of the microwatershed. About 30 per cent area has soils that are deficient (4.5 ppm). Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. Entire area of the microwatershed is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in available zinc. The land suitability for 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Shethalli-2 microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 10 (2) 387 (77) Sapota - 27 (5) Maize 10 (2) 91 (18) Guava - 27 (5) Red gram - 313 (64) Pomegranate - 323 (64) Bajra 10 (2) 399 (80) Jackfruit - 27 (5) Ground nut - 113 (23) Jamun - 298 (59) Sunflower - 323 (64) Musambi - 323 (64) Cotton - 397 (79) Lime - 323 (64) Bengalgram - 397 (79) Cashew - 25 (5) Chilli - 397 (79) Custard apple 10 (2) 399 (80) Tomato 10 (2) 91 (18) Amla 10 (2) 399 (80) Drumstick - 336 (67) Tamarind - 298 (59) Mulberry - 40 (8) Marigold - 397 (79) Mango - 2 (<1) Chrysanthemum - 397 (79) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc. Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Shethalli-2 micro-watershed (Yadgir taluk and district) is located in between 18019' – 1807' North latitudes and 740 5' – 7409' East longitudes, covering an area of about 502.83 ha, bounded by Badehalli, Balacheda, Kadechoora and Sowrashtrahalli villages. with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analysed. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Shethalli-2 micro-watershed in Yadgiri taluk and district are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 57.6 to 42.4 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age group 18 to 50 of population is around 55.6 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 61.1 per cent. Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) are around 50 per cent. Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking around 96.7 per cent sample households. About 43.3 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. About 13.3 per cent farm households having MGNREGA card for rural employment. Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 90 per cent. Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities to around 40 per cent of sample households. Women participation in decisions making are around 77 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 1.92 ha indicates that majority of farm households belong to small and medium farmers. They account for dry land of 57.7 ha among the total cultivated land among the sample households. 2 Agriculture as the main occupation is only 23.6 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 43.8 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.13109 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication. The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 184433 per household, about 20.0 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough. The average value of livestock is around Rs. 26552 per household; about 65.85 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 1117.5 grams (2647.4 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 80 per cent of sample households are consuming more than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs. 30126 per household. About 90 per cent of farm households are below poverty line. The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.4224. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. Rs.4967 ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum cotton (Rs.10438) followed by redgram (Rs.9374), maize (Rs.6440), groundnut (Rs. 4861), sorghum (Rs.2070) and paddy is negative returns. The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs.2856/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum sorghum (Rs. 5207) followed by paddy (Rs.3705), maize (Rs.1482) and groundnut (Rs.1029). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The value of per hectare water used and value of water was maximum in red gram (Rs.47212) followed by cotton (Rs.39025), maize (Rs.30183), paddy (Rs. 28926), groundnut (Rs.27916) and sorghum (Rs. 25511). Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is redgram (50.71 %) followed by cotton (27.88 %), sorghum (10.32%), groundnut (9.63 %) and maize (1.46 %). The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for cotton ranges between Rs.40780/ha in marginal farmers (with BCR of 1.09) and Rs.17985/ha in medium farmers (with BCR of 1.37). 3 In redgram the costs of cultivation range between Rs.35897/ha in marginal farmers (with BCR of 1.04) and Rs25330/ha in medium farmers (with BCR of 1.11). In groundnut the cost of cultivation range between is Rs. 43673/ha in small farmers (with BCR of 1.21) and Rs. 18483 in semi medium farmers (with BCR of 1.20). In maize the cost of cultivation is Rs.42960/ha in small farmers (with BCR of 1.18). In paddy the cost of cultivation is Rs.32772/ha in small farmers (with BCR of 1.01). In sorghum the cost of cultivation range between is Rs. 21800/ha in small farmers (with BCR of 1.44) and Rs. 11725/ha in medium farmers (with BCR of 1.31). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not practicing soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthening institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthening agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in cotton (29.4 to 71.1 %), redgram (22.5 to 42.2 %), groundnut (30.0 to 63.9 %), maize (70.2 %), paddy (70.5 %) and sorghum (58.0 to 82.4 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Eine Hauptquelle des vom Menschen verursachten klimaschädlichen Distick-stoffoxids (N 2 O), das auch Lachgas genannt wird, sind landwirtschaftliche Böden. Im Hinblick auf die ansteigende Weltbevölkerung ist mit einer Erhöhung der landwirtschaftlichen Produktion zu rechnen - mit weitreichenden Auswirkungen auf den Stickstoffkreislauf. Allerdings sind noch immer nicht alle Stickstoffflüsse und Umbauprozesse in Böden bis ins Detail verstanden, im Speziellen die Denitrifikation als einer der Schlüsselprozesse. Bei der Denitrifikation wird Nitrat (NO 3 - ) über Nitrit (NO2-) und Stickstoffmonoxid (NO) zu N 2 O und schließlich zu Di-Stickstoff (N 2 ) umgesetzt, wobei N 2 O parallel entstehen und verbraucht werden kann. Die Politik befasst sich angesichts des Klimawandels und dessen Folgen mit Maßnahmen zur Reduzierung der Treibhausgase gerade im Agrarbereich. Um die Emissionen von Klimagasen vorhersagen zu können, werden prozessbasierte Modelle verwendet, die mit Hilfe von Feldstudien eingeschätzt und verbessert werden sollen. Weiterhin können beispielsweise Isotopomermessungen dazu beitragen, die N 2 O- Prozesse im Boden besser zu verstehen. Diese Arbeit beinhaltet verschiedene Untersuchungsergebnisse zum Thema "N 2 O- Emissionen landwirtschaftlicher Böden" und liefert hilfreiche Informationen, die dazu beitragen, die Wissenslücke bezüglich der N 2 O- Prozesse und deren Einflussfaktoren zu füllen. In einer ersten Teilstudie wird der Langzeiteffekt unterschiedlicher Bodenbearbeitung (pflugbasiert vs. pfluglos) einerseits auf die Vorräte und die Verteilung organischen Kohlenstoffs und des Gesamtstickstoffs und andererseits auf die Jahresemission von N 2 O und die jährliche Methanaufnahme beschrieben und diskutiert. Dabei sollte insbesondere untersucht werden, wie sich die Bearbeitung auch auf die Variation der Gasflüsse und auf die Faktoren, die die zeitliche und räumliche Variabilität bedingen, auswirkt. Zusätzlich wurden mit dem "Denitrification- Decomposition"-Modell (DNDC) die bei den Feldversuchen erfassten N 2 O-Emissionen und Ernteerträge der zwei Bearbeitungsvarianten modelliert. Damit sollte die Eignung des Modells im Hinblick auf die Beschreibung und Vorhersagbarkeit der Emissionen und Erträge der unterschiedlich bewirtschafteten Böden getestet werden. Des Weiteren werden zwei Laborexperimente zur Identifizierung von Produktions- und Reduktionsprozessen des N 2 O während der Denitrifikation in Ackerböden mit Hilfe stabiler Isotope präsentiert. Der erste Versuch zielte durch die zeitgleiche Erfassung der N 2 O- Produktion und -Reduktion darauf ab herauszufinden, ob die Isotopensignaturen des emittierten N 2 O unter der nicht-homogenen NO 3 - - und Denitrifikationsverteilung im Boden geeignet sind, die involvierten Prozesse besser zu beschreiben. Der zweite Versuch sollte neben dem Einfluss der initialen Bodenfeuchte auf die N 2 - und N 2 O- Flüsse auch dazu dienen festzustellen, inwieweit die Isotopensignaturen des emittierten N 2 O und des NO 3 - im Boden die N 2 -Flüsse und das Verhältnis von N 2 O/N 2 widerspiegeln und ob die Isotopensignaturen des N 2 O als Werkzeug zur Untersuchung der Denitrifikation im Boden geeignet sind. Für die Untersuchung des Einflusses der Bodenbearbeitung wurden die Versuchsstandorte Garte Süd und Hohes Feld bei Göttingen ausgewählt. Die lössbasierten Parabraunerden unterliegen seit über 40 Jahren der konventionellen (pflugbasierten) und der reduzierten (pfluglosen) Bodenbearbeitung, mit den jeweiligen Bearbeitungstiefen von 25 bis 28 und 5 bis 8 Zentimetern. Über einen Zeitraum von zwei Jahren wurden die N 2 O- und Methan- Flussraten mittels Haubenmethode sowie einige Bodenparameter (Wassergehalt und mineralischer Stickstoffgehalt) wöchentlich gemessen und Wetterdaten (Temperatur und Niederschlag) täglich erfasst. Zusätzlich wurde zu Beginn der Untersuchung eine Bodeninventur durchgeführt. Ernteerträge wurden getrennt für die Flächen, Jahre und Bodenbearbeitungsvarianten bestimmt. Für die Modellierung wurde ein Testmodel, basierend auf der Parametrisierung einer Variante der ersten Teilstudie (Garte Süd, pflugbasiert) generiert, welches die erfassten Daten (N 2 O-Emissionen, Erträge, Bodenwasserdynamik) am besten beschrieben hat. Diese Parametrisierung wurde dann an den anderen Varianten als zurückblickende Simulation angewendet. Die beiden Laborversuche fanden in England am Institute of Grassland and Environmental Research, North Wyke, statt. Mit Hilfe eines speziellen Denitrifikations-Inkubationssystems unter Ausschluss des N 2 wurden zwölf mit Ackerboden gefüllte Zylinder eingebaut und nach Über- und Durchströmen mit einem Helium/Sauerstoff Gemisch wurde Glukose (400 kg C ha-1) und Kaliumnitrat (75 kg N ha-1) bei einem wassergefüllten Porenvolumen von 85% über ein mittig angebrachtes zweites Gefäß von oben zugegeben. Nach 7,5 Tagen wurde statt des Helium/Sauerstoff Gemisches reines Helium verwendet, um eine vollständige Denitrifikation zu gewährleisten. Die Gasflüsse (N 2 O, N 2 und Kohlenstoffdioxid) und Isotopensignaturen (δ 18 O-N 2 O, δ 15 N bulk -N 2 O, δ 15 N α , δ 15 N β und die 15 N Positionspräferenz) des emittierten N 2 O wurden über einen Zeitraum von 13 Tagen erfasst. Bei dem zweiten Laborversuch wurde ein Teil der Bodenproben bei trockenen (20% wassergefülltes Porenvolumen), der andere Teil bei deutlich feuchteren Bedingungen (75% wassergefüllter Porenvolumen) über einen Zeitraum von vier Wochen vorinkubiert. Anschließend wurden alle Proben auf denselben hohen Wassergehalt (85% wassergefülltes Porenvolumen) eingestellt, in die Versuchsanlage eingebaut, unter Helium/Sauerstoff Atmosphäre gesetzt. Nach Zugabe von Glukose (400 kg C ha-1) und Kaliumnitrat (75 kg N ha-1) (90% wassergefülltes Porenvolumen) wurden die Gasflüsse und Isotopensignaturen analog zum ersten Versuch zehn Tage lang untersucht. In diesem Versuch wurde nach sechs Tagen die Sauerstoffzufuhr gestoppt. Die Ergebnisse der ersten Studie ergeben, dass die jährlichen N 2 O-Flüsse und Methan-Aufnahmen der untersuchten Ackerböden mehr von den Bodeneigen-schaften, dem Klima und der Bewirtschaftung abhingen als vom Bearbeitungs- system. Winteremissionen machten bis zu 50 Prozent der jährlichen N 2 O-Emissionen aus und die Jahresemissionen spiegeln die Unterschiede der Jahresniederschläge wieder. Außerdem hat sich das jahrzehntelange Pflügen auf die Verteilung des organischen Kohlenstoffs im Bodenprofil ausgewirkt, jedoch nicht auf den Gesamtkohlenstoffvorrat der gepflügten und minimal bearbeiteten Flächen. Unterschiede der Gesamtkohlenstoffvorräte zwischen den Flächen lassen sich auf den unterschiedlichen Tongehalt zurückführen. Die standortspezifische Kalibration hat sich als essenzielle Voraussetzung für die Modellierung der N 2 O-Flüsse und Ernteerträge herausgestellt. Insgesamt zeigen die Ergebnisse, dass die Kalibration mit experimentellen Daten und verfügbaren Literaturangaben zu annähernder Übereinstimmung zwischen modellierten und gemessenen Erträgen und den jährlichen N 2 O- Emissionen geführt hat. Es wurden jedoch große Abweichungen bezüglich der modellierten und gemessenen N 2 O-Emissionen im Jahresverlauf festgestellt. Die Pedotransferfunktionen das Denitrifikationsteilmodell des verwendeten DNDC Modells bedürfen daher weiterer Verbesserungen. Die dritte Studie legt dar, dass die N 2 O- Isotopologen den zeitlichen Verlauf der beobachteten N 2 O- und N 2 -Flüsse widerspiegelten und hilfreiche Prozess-informationen lieferten. Die eindeutige Identifizierung der Quellprozesse wurde durch das Auftreten mehrerer Faktoren behindert und konnte abschließend nicht aufgeklärt werden. Dennoch wies der zeitgleiche Anstieg der 15N-Positions-präferenz und der δ 18 O-N 2 O-Signaturen auf die N 2 O-Reduktion zum N 2 hin. Der bedeutende Einfluss der Wiederbefeuchtung eines Bodens auf die N 2 O-Emissionen belegt die vierte Studie. Der Versuchsansatz zeigt, dass das zeitgleiche Erfassen von N 2 - und N 2 O-Flüssen und der Isotopensignaturen von NO 3 - und N 2 O zusammen mit der Modellierung der Isotopenfraktionierung Einblicke in die räumliche Verteilung von N Spezies und der mikrobiellen Aktivität im Boden erlaubt. Insgesamt bleibt festzuhalten, dass sich kein genereller Einfluss der betrachteten Bodenbearbeitungssysteme auf den Nettoaustausch des N 2 O gezeigt hat und dass die Modellierung der N 2 O-Gesamtemissionen der zwei Bodenbearbeitungs-systeme mit den gemessenen Werten übereinstimmte. Die Nutzung stabiler Isotope hat das Verständnis der N 2 O-Produktions- und -Verbrauchsprozesse verbessert und die initialen Feuchtebedingungen haben die Emissionen und die Isotopensignaturen während der Denitrifikation in einem Ackerboden beeinflusst. ; One of the main anthropic sources of nitrous oxide (N 2 O) emissions, being an important greenhouse gas (GHG), is arable soil. With respect to the increasing world population an enhanced agricultural production with large- scale impacts on the nitrogen (N) cycle is most likely. Anyway, not all N flows and transformations in soils are yet fully understood, in particular denitrification as one of the key processes. Denitrification transforms nitrate (NO 3 - ) via nitrite and nitric oxide to N 2 O and finally into dinitrogen (N2) and both production and consumption of N 2 O take place simultaneously. The policy is engaged in developing mitigation strategies especially with respect to the agricultural sector to reduce GHG. To predict those emissions process-based models were used and field studies help to evaluated and improve them. Furthermore, for instance isotopomer measure-ments contribute to a better understanding of N 2 O processes in soils. This thesis presents results with respect to N 2 O emissions from arable soils and provides information which contribute to fill the gap of knowledge with respect to pathways and influencing factors of N 2 O emissions from arable soils. Firstly, the long-term effect of different tillage (conventional vs. reduced) systems on the stocks and the distribution of soil organic carbon and total nitrogen and on the annual N 2 O emission and the methane (CH 4 ) uptake are described and discussed, particularly with regard to spatial and seasonal variation of N 2 O and CH 4 flux rates and the factors that control the spatial and temporal variability of the flux rates. Additionally, those N 2 O emissions and crop yields were modeled using the denitrification- decomposition (DNDC) model, in order to test the usefulness of the model in describing and predicting crop growth and N 2 O emissions of differently managed soils. Secondly, two laboratory experiments using stable isotope approaches are presented dealing with the production and consumption processes of N 2 O during denitrification in arable soils. The first laboratory study aimed to simultaneously measure production and consumption of N 2 O during denitrification in order to determine whether the N 2 O isotopologue signatures of emitted N 2 O under the condition of non-homogenous distribution of NO 3 - and denitrification in soil could be used to better define the processes involved. The second laboratory experiment intended to determine the impact of antecedent soil moisture on N 2 and N 2 O fluxes, to evaluate how N 2 fluxes and the N 2 O/N 2 ratio are reflected by the isotopic signatures of emitted N 2 O and of NO 3 - in soil and thus to test isotopologue signatures of N 2 O as a tool to study denitrification in soil. With respect to the effect of different tillage systems two long-term experimental sites Garte Süd (G) and Hohes Feld (H), both located near Göttingen, Germany, were selected. The loess derived Haplic Luvisols have been managed under conventional (CT) and reduced tillage (RT) for about 40 years with maximum tillage depths of 25 - 28 cm and 5 - 8 cm, respectively. N 2 O and CH 4 fluxes (closed chamber method), physical and chemical properties (e.g. water content, mineral N content) were measured weekly and climate data were collected on a daily basis for two subsequent years. Additionally, at the beginning of the investigation a soil inventory was accomplished. Crop yields were determined separately for sites, tillage systems and years. For the modeling a test was performed based on a model parameterization to best describe the case G-CT. This parameterization was then applied to the other cases as a retrospective simulation. Laboratory experiments were conducted at the Institute of Grassland and Environmental research, North Wyke, UK. Twelve replicate cylinders filled with arable soil were placed in a specialized denitrification incubation system (DENIS), where they were sealed inside chambers to avoid the influx of N 2 . Atmospheric N 2 was removed by flushing the headspace and cylinders with a helium-oxygen mixture and glucose (400 kg C ha-1) and potassium nitrate (75 kg N ha-1) were applied to the soil surface via a secondary vessel fitted to the center of each lid leading to a final water-filled pore space (WFPS) of 85%. After 7.5 days oxygen (O2) was shut off in order to achieve totally anaerobic denitrifying conditions. Gas fluxes (N 2 O, N 2 and carbon dioxide) and isotope signatures (δ 18 O-N 2 O, δ 15 N bulk -N 2 O, δ 15 N α , δ 15 N β and 15 N site preference) of emitted N 2 O were determined over a period of 13 days. For the second laboratory experiment one batch of soil samples was kept dry (20% WFPS) and another was incubated under wet conditions (75% WPFS) for a period of 4 weeks. Then both batches were adjusted to the same high water content of 85% WFPS, placed in the DENIS and incubated for 10 days under a helium-oxygen atmosphere. When atmospheric N 2 was removed by flushing the system, potassium nitrate (75 kg N ha-1) and glucose (400 kg C ha-1) were added leading to a final WFPS of 90% in each soil core. Gas fluxes and isotope signatures of emitted N 2 O were determined over a period of 13 days whereas after 6 days O2 was shut off. Results of the first study indicates that the annual N 2 O fluxes and CH 4 uptakes of the investigated arable soils were influenced rather by soil properties as well as climate and short-term management effects than by tillage systems. Winter emissions accounted for up to 50% of annual N 2 O fluxes and cumulative annual N 2 O fluxes were reflected by precipitation level. Moreover the two long-term tillage systems resulted in a different soil carbon distribution whereas total carbon stocks did not differ between tillage systems but due to different clay contents between sites. Site specific calibration within the second study has shown to be an essential requirement for the modeling of N 2 O emissions and crop yields. Altogether the results indicates that calibration with experimental data and available literature data may result in approximate agreement between modeled and measured crop yields and annual N 2 O emissions. Anyway, modeled and measured annual distributions of N 2 O emissions were not accurate. Thus, the pedotransfer functions and the denitrification sub-model of the used DNDC model may need further improvement. The third study shows, that the N 2 O isotopologue values reflected the temporal patterns observed in N 2 O and N 2 fluxes and gain helpful process information even if due to the occurrence of several factors the evaluation of identifying source processes is hampered and could thus not be fully explained. Anyway, the simultaneous increase in SP and δ 18 O-N 2 O was found to be indicative of N 2 O reduction to N 2 . The fourth study demonstrates the important effect of rewetting soil on N 2 O emissions. The approach of combining measurement of N 2 and N 2 O fluxes and isotopic signatures of NO 3 - and N 2 O with isotope fractionation modeling gives insight into the spatial distribution of N species and microbial activity in soils. Summarizing the results, the long-term effect of conventional and reduced tillage on the net exchange of N 2 O was low and the modeling of N 2 O emissions from arable soils with differing tillage quite good. Using stable isotope approaches improved the understanding of N 2 O production and consumption processes and antecedent soil moisture conditions effected emissions and isotopologue distribution of N 2 O during denitrification in an arable soil.
The current pressure on water resources is such, that water scarcity is now an important issue in regions with abundant water resources like the Tropics. These regions are characterized by high precipitation rates almost all year long. This results in a relatively large availability of water resources. However, these water resources are not always equally distributed in time or space, which causes periods and puts areas under water stress in tropical regions. Added to this is the challenge related to the access to these water resources, resulting in a reduced availability in general terms. Costa Rica is a clear example of a country in the Tropical regions, where water scarcity is, actually, on the top of the water agenda. Costa Rica is in the torrid tropical region in Central America, yet it experiences periods of shortage in its available water resources at the end of the dry season. This affects all water sectors, specially agriculture and drinking water supply systems. This situation has been magnified by global change, with a greater demand of resources from population growth, impermeabilization of recharge areas due to urbanization, and reduction of resources due to climate change. To adapt to the situation, it is necessary to conduct an evaluation of suitable water management tools for the country's environmental conditions in a systematic way. This work focuses on one of these tools: managed aquifer recharge (MAR) MAR techniques are a promising approach to address the defined problems, by storing the excess of available water resources during the rainy season in suitable aquifer systems for later use during the dry season. MAR techniques present certain advantages compared to surface storage: less losses through evaporation, less demand of superficial area, among others. In order to determine if MAR techniques are suitable for Costa Rica and will help overcome the temporary water scarcity challenge, three main topics at different scale are investigated. First, at a country scale, the search of suitable areas for specific MAR techniques within the country is carried out based on physical criteria. Second, at a research scale, it is reduced to a basin level. For this case, the assessment of a MAR project based on the first stage of the Australian MAR guidelines is done. This consists of a checklist of five critical elements, which constitutes the base for the assessment of a MAR project. Third, the research is taken into a laboratory scale, where the research focuses on an injection well in an unconfined aquifer system. For the first topic, suitable areas for the implementation of MAR technique spreading methods are identified in Costa Rica by conducting a geographical information science-multi-criteria decision analysis (GIS-MCDA) approach. This is based on four criteria: hydrogeological geoaptitude, terrain slope, top soil texture, and drainage network density. By carrying out a GIS-MCDA, the country is classified into suitable and unsuitable. Based on this method, 61 % of the country is suitable for spreading methods. Among the higher ranked suitable areas are the ones located in the northern and northwest regions. The ranking of the country based on spreading methods by means of a GIS-MCDA method is a first course of action to determine where further research is needed. In the second research level, the feasibility of a MAR project was assessed in the Machuca River basin. This river basin was chosen because: the drinking water supply systems (WSS) do not meet the actual demand, there is government interest to research new water supply alternatives and there is enough basic information on this water basin. To evaluate the feasibility of a MAR project in the basin, the first stage of the feasibility assessment proposed by the Australian MAR guidelines was performed. This consists of a checklist of five critical elements: 1) sufficient demand, 2) adequate recharge source, 3) suitable aquifer, 4) space to treat and, 5) human capability. For an easier analysis of the whole river basin, it was divided into five locations based on the superficial aquifer water levels. It was concluded that a MAR project seems viable in this river basin in the Coyolar and Orotina locations. Regarding the MAR technique to be applied in the MAR project at the Machuca River basin, two considerations were taken: the previously determined suitability and the local conditions. First, the entire Machuca River is ranked as suitable for surface infiltration (MAR spreading method) based on the results from the country scale analysis. The Coyolar and Orotina locations are ranked as having a moderate suitability (between 0.4-0.6). Second, the best material aquifer for recharge in these two locations are the fractured lavas and alluvium located under clay layers. For these two reasons (moderate spreading methods suitability and local conditions), it was decided that direct injection MAR techniques (aquifer storage and recovery – ASR) will be more appropriate for these two locations. At the laboratory research scale, the effect of the well screen length on the injection rate for an unconfined aquifer was corroborated under controlled laboratory conditions. This is one of the first experiments on the topic to the best of the author's knowledge. One of the main findings of the laboratory research is the almost neglectful effect on the injection rate for screen lengths above 80 % of the saturated thickness in an unconfined aquifer. The effect on the screen length is notable in the injection rate for open screen length under 80 % of the total aquifer thickness (95 % of the maximum achievable injection rate) and it increases for open screen lengths under 40 % (90 % of the maximum achievable injection rate). Based on the experimental results, it is recommended to use a screen length of 40 % of the saturated aquifer thickness for ASR wells and of 80 % for injection wells. This assessment shows that MAR techniques are suitable for Costa Rica's environmental conditions. Further on, the assessment at the basin level shows MAR techniques as a promising solution to overcome water scarcity issues. The laboratory scale aquifer-well interactions show promising results regarding the effect of the screen well in the injection rate. Still, more research is needed in this field regarding other aquifer types. Based on all these findings, MAR techniques are an appropriate tool for the integrated water management in the tropical regions. ; Der gegenwärtige Druck auf die Wasserressourcen ist so groß, dass Wasserknappheit sogar in den Tropen zum Thema wird. Diese Regionen sind von hohen Niederschlagsraten geprägt, was zu einer relativ großen Verfügbarkeit von Wasserressourcen führt. Diese sind jedoch nicht immer zeitlich und räumlich gleich verteilt, was temporären und/oder regionalen Wasserstress verursacht. Darüber hinaus hängt die Herausforderung auch mit dem Zugang zu diesen Wasserressourcen zusammen, was zu einer allgemein reduzierten Verfügbarkeit führt. Costa Rica ist ein Beispiel für ein tropisches Land, in dem Wasserknappheit in den letzten Jahren zunehmend an Relevanz gewonnen hat. Costa Rica leidet gegen Ende der Trockenzeit fast jedes Jahr an einem temporären Wassermangel. Dies betrifft alle Wassersektoren, insbesondere die Landwirtschaft und die Trinkwasserversorgung. Diese Situation wird durch den globalen Wandel verstärkt, mit einer größeren Nachfrage nach Ressourcen aufgrund von Bevölkerungswachstum, der Verhinderung von Grundwasserneubildung durch Urbanisierung und Versiegelung und, nicht zuletzt, den Klimawandel. Um sich an diese Situation anzupassen, ist es notwendig, eine systematische Evaluierung geeigneter Wasserbewirtschaftungsinstrumente für die Umweltbedingungen des Landes durchzuführen. Die vorliegende Arbeit konzentriert sich auf eines dieser Werkzeuge: Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR). MAR-Techniken stellen einen vielversprechenden Ansatz dar, um die zuvor definierten Probleme anzugehen, indem die überschüssigen Wasserressourcen während der Regenzeit in geeigneten Grundwasserleitersystemen zur späteren Nutzung in der Trockenzeit gespeichert werden. MAR-Techniken bieten im Vergleich zur Oberflächenspeicherung gewisse Vorteile, unter anderem geringere Verdunstungsverluste und geringeren Raumbedarf. Um zu bestimmen, ob MAR-Techniken für Costa Rica geeignet sind und dabei helfen können, die zeitlichen Wasserknappheitsherausforderungen zu überwinden, wurden drei Hauptthemen in unterschiedlichen Skalen untersucht. Die Suche nach geeigneten Gebieten für spezifische MAR-Techniken im Land erfolgte zunächst auf der Grundlage von physikalischen Kriterien. Als Zweites wurde die Forschungsskala auf ein Beckenniveau reduziert. Für diesen Fall wurde die Bewertung eines MAR-Projekts auf der Grundlage der ersten Stufe der australischen MAR-Richtlinien durchgeführt. Diese basiert auf einer Checkliste mit fünf kritischen Elementen, welche die Grundlage für die Bewertung eines MAR-Projektes bilden. Zuletzt wurde die Untersuchung im Labormaßstab durchgeführt, wobei sich die Experimente auf Injektionsbohrlöcher in einem ungespannten Grundwasserleitersystem konzentrierten. Für das erste Thema wurden in Costa Rica geeignete Bereiche für die Implementierung von MAR-Technik-Verteilungsmethoden mithilfe eines GIS-basierten Multikriterien- Entscheidungsanalysen-Ansatzes (GIS-MCDA) identifiziert. Dieser basierte auf vier Kriterien: Hydrogeologie, Geländegefälle, oberste Bodentextur und Drainagenetzdichte. Durch die Realisierung eines GIS-MCDA wurde das Land in geeignete und ungeeignete Gebiete eingeteilt. Mit dieser Methode wurden 61 % des Landes als geeignet für die Beckeninfiltration befunden. Gut eingestufte Gebiete liegen hierbei größtenteils im Norden und im Nordwesten. Das Ranking-Verfahren des Landes mit Hilfe einer GIS-MCDA-Methode ist eine erste Vorgehensweise zur Bestimmung weiterer Forschungsgebiete. In der zweiten Forschungsstufe wurde die Machbarkeit eines MAR-Projekts im Machuca-Einzugsgebiet untersucht. Dieses Flussgebiet wurde aus folgenden Gründen gewählt: Die Trinkwasserversorgungsanlagen erfüllen die tatsächliche Nachfrage nicht, weshalb es auch im Interesse der Regierung liegt, nach Alternativen für die Wasserversorgung zu forschen. Darüber hinaus ist die Region geologisch gut erschlossen und die Informationsdichte ist ausreichend hoch. Um die Realisierbarkeit eines MAR-Projektes im Einzugsgebiet zu bewerten, wurde die erste Stufe der Machbarkeitsbewertung anhand der Checkliste an fünf kritischen Elementen durchgeführt: 1) ausreichende Nachfrage, 2) angemessene Wiederaufladungsquelle, 3) geeigneter Grundwasserleiter, 4) Raum für Maßnahmen und 5) Humanressourcen. Um die Analyse des gesamten Flusseinzugsgebietes zu vereinfachen, wurde es in fünf Bereiche eingeteilt, die auf den oberflächennahen Grundwasserständen basieren. Es wurde der Schluss gezogen, dass ein MAR-Projekt in diesem Flussgebiet an den Standorten Coyolar und Orotina nachhaltig erscheint. In Bezug auf die MAR-Technik, die in einem MAR-Projekt am Machuca-Flussbecken angewendet werden soll, wurden Überlegungen angestellt hinsichtlich der zuvor ermittelten Eignung und der örtlichen Gegebenheiten. Zunächst wurde der gesamte Machuca-Fluss aufgrund der Ergebnisse der Länderanalyse als geeignet für die Oberflächeninfiltration eingestuft. Die Coyolar- und Orotina-Standorte wurden mit einer moderaten Eignung eingestuft. Weiterhin wurde festgestellt, dass die für die Grundwasseranreicherung geeignetste Formation die Kies- und Bruchlavenlagen darstellen, die sich unter einer Tonschicht befinden. Aus diesen beiden Gründen (moderate Eignung für Beckeninfiltration, und lokale Hydrogeologie) wurde entschieden, dass MAR-Techniken mit direkter Injektion (Aquifer Storage and Recovery - ASR) für diese beiden Standorte geeigneter sind. In der kleinsten Untersuchungsskala wurde der Einfluss der Filterlänge auf die Injektionsrate für einen freien Grundwasserleiter unter kontrollierten Laborbedingungen bestätigt. Dies ist eines der ersten Experimente zu diesem Thema nach bestem Wissen des Autors. Eines der Hauptergebnisse der Laborforschung ist der fast vernachlässigbare Effekt auf die Injektionsrate bei Filterlängen von über 80 % der gesättigten Mächtigkeit in einem freien Grundwasserleiter. Die Wirkung auf die Filterlänge ist bei der Injektionsrate für offene Filterlängen unter 80 % der gesamten Grundwasserleiterhöhe (95 % der maximal erreichbaren Injektionsrate) und bei offenen Filterlängen unter 40 % (90 % der maximal erreichbaren Injektionsrate). Basierend auf den experimentellen Ergebnissen wird empfohlen, eine Filterlänge von 40 % der gesättigten Grundwasserleiterhöhe für ASR-Brunnen und 80 % für Injektionsbohrungen zu verwenden. Die vorliegende Bewertung zeigt, dass MAR-Techniken für die Umweltbedingungen in Costa Rica gut geeignet sind. Darüber hinaus demonstriert die Bewertung auf der Einzugsgebietsebene MAR als eine Lösung zur Überwindung von Wasserknappheitsproblemen. Die Grundwasserleiter-Brunnen-Interaktionen im Labormaßstab zeigen vielversprechende Ergebnisse hinsichtlich der Wirkung der Filterlänge auf die Injektionsrate. Dennoch ist auf diesem Gebiet mehr Forschung in Bezug auf andere Aquifertypen erforderlich. Basierend auf all diesen Erkenntnissen sind MAR-Techniken ein geeignetes Werkzeug für das integrierte Wassermanagement in der tropischen Umwelt. ; La presión actual sobre los recursos hídricos es tal, que la escasez de agua es ahora un problema importante en áreas con abundantes recursos hídricos como las regiones tropicales. Estas regiones se caracterizan por altas tasas de precipitación casi durante todo el año. Esto da como resultado una disponibilidad relativamente grande de recursos hídricos. Sin embargo, estos recursos hídricos no siempre se distribuyen equitativamente en el tiempo y el espacio, lo que causa períodos y pone áreas bajo estrés hídrico en las regiones tropicales. Además de esto, el desafío también está relacionado con el acceso a estos recursos hídricos, lo que crea una disponibilidad reducida en términos generales. Costa Rica es un claro ejemplo de un país en las regiones tropicales, donde la escasez de agua se encuentra en lo más alto de la agenda del agua. Costa Rica está situada en la región tropical tórrida de América Central, sin embargo, experimenta períodos de escasez en sus recursos hídricos disponibles al final de la estación seca. Esto afecta a todos los sectores de agua, especialmente a la agricultura y a los sistemas de suministro de agua potable. Esta situación ha sido magnificada por el cambio global, con una mayor demanda de recursos por el crecimiento de la población, la impermeabilización de las áreas de recarga por la urbanización y la reducción de recursos debido al cambio climático. Para adaptarse a esta situación, es necesario llevar a cabo una evaluación sistemática de las herramientas de gestión del agua adecuadas para las condiciones ambientales del país. Este trabajo se centra en una de estas herramientas: la gestión de la recarga acuíferos gestionados (MAR). Las técnicas de MAR son un enfoque prometedor para abordar los problemas previamente definidos, almacenando el exceso de recursos hídricos disponibles durante la estación lluviosa en sistemas acuíferos adecuados para su uso posterior en la estación seca. Las técnicas de MAR presentan ciertas ventajas en comparación con el almacenamiento en superficie: menos pérdidas por evaporación y menor demanda de área superficial, entre otras. Con el fin de determinar si las técnicas de MAR son adecuadas para Costa Rica y ayudarán a superar los desafíos temporales de escasez de agua, se investigaron tres temas principales a diferentes escalas. Primero, en una escala de país, la búsqueda de áreas adecuadas para técnicas específicas de MAR en el país se realizó con base en criterios físicos. En segundo lugar, la escala de investigación se reduce a un nivel de cuenca. Para este caso, se realizó la evaluación de un proyecto de MAR basado en la primera etapa de las directrices australianas de MAR. Esta consiste en una lista de verificación de cinco elementos críticos, que constituye la base para la evaluación de un proyecto MAR. En tercer lugar, la investigación se lleva a escala de laboratorio, donde la investigación se centra en los pozos de inyección en un sistema acuífero no confinado. Para el primer tema, las áreas adecuadas para la implementación de los métodos de infiltración de la MAR se identifican en Costa Rica mediante un enfoque de ciencia la información geográfica y análisis de decisión multicriterio (SIG-MCDA). Esto se basa en cuatro criterios: geoaptitud hidrogeológica, pendiente del terreno, textura del suelo superior y densidad de la red de drenaje. Al realizar un GIS-MCDA, el país se clasifica en áreas adecuadas e inadecuadas. Con base en este método, el 61 % del país se consideró adecuado para métodos de infiltración. Las áreas adecuadas mejor clasificadas se encuentran en las regiones del norte y noroeste del país. La clasificación del país según el potencial de los métodos de infiltración por medio de un método GIS-MCDA es un primer curso de acción para determinar otras áreas de investigación. En el segundo nivel de investigación, se evaluó la factibilidad de un proyecto MAR en la cuenca del río Machuca. Esta cuenca hidrográfica se eligió porque: los sistemas de suministro de agua potable no satisfacen la demanda real, existe un interés del gobierno en buscar nuevas alternativas de suministro de agua y hay suficiente información básica en esta cuenca hidrográfica. Para evaluar la factibilidad de un proyecto MAR en la cuenca, la primera etapa de la evaluación se realizó sobre la base de la lista de cinco elementos críticos: 1) demanda suficiente, 2) fuente de recarga adecuada, 3) acuífero adecuado, 4) espacio para tratar el agua y, 5) la capacidad humana. Para facilitar el análisis de toda la cuenca del río, se dividió en cinco localidades en función de los niveles de agua superficiales del acuífero. Se concluyó que un proyecto MAR parece viable en esta cuenca en las localidades Coyolar y Orotina. Con respecto a la técnica de MAR que se aplicará en un proyecto MAR en la cuenca del río Machuca, se tomaron dos consideraciones: la idoneidad previamente determinada y las condiciones locales. En primer lugar, todo el río Machuca se clasifica como adecuado para la infiltración superficial (método de infiltración MAR) en función de los resultados del análisis a escala de país. Las localidades Coyolar y Orotina se clasifican con una idoneidad moderada. En segundo lugar, el mejor material acuífero para la recarga en estos dos lugares son las fracturas lavas y aluviones ubicados bajo capas de arcilla. Se decidió que las técnicas de inyección directa MAR (almacenamiento y recuperación - ASR) serán más apropiadas para estas dos ubicaciones por estas dos razones (idoneidad de los métodos de propagación moderada y condiciones locales). En la escala de investigación más pequeña, el efecto de la longitud de la pantalla del pozo sobre la tasa de inyección para un acuífero no confinado se corroboró bajo condiciones de laboratorio controladas. Este es uno de los primeros experimentos sobre el tema según el mejor conocimiento del autor. Uno de los principales hallazgos de la investigación de laboratorio es el efecto casi nulo en la tasa de inyección para longitudes de pantalla superiores al 80 % del espesor saturado en un acuífero no confinado. El efecto en la longitud de la pantalla es apreciable en la velocidad de inyección para pantalla abierta inferior al 80 % del espesor total del acuífero (95 % de la máxima velocidad de inyección alcanzable) y aumenta para longitudes de pantalla abierta por debajo del 40 % (90 % de la máxima tasa de inyección alcanzable). En base a los resultados experimentales, se recomienda utilizar una longitud de malla del 40 % del espesor del acuífero saturado para los pozos ASR y del 80 % para los pozos de inyección. La presente evaluación muestra que las técnicas de MAR son adecuadas para las condiciones ambientales de Costa Rica. Más allá, la evaluación a nivel de cuenca muestra las técnicas de MAR como una solución para superar los problemas de escasez de agua. Las interacciones entre acuíferos y pozos a escala de laboratorio muestran resultados prometedores con respecto al efecto de la pantalla en la velocidad de inyección. Aun así, se necesita más investigación en este campo con respecto a otros tipos de acuíferos. Con base en todos estos hallazgos, las técnicas de MAR son una herramienta apropiada para la gestión integrada del agua en las regiones tropicales.
Panama's economic growth has been at the top of the Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) region in recent years. The country s rapid growth has been largely pro-poor and translated into significant poverty reduction. The new Administration is well placed to tackle these challenges, with its commitment to maintaining an open and diversified economy and redressing social imbalances. Looking ahead, the country s main challenges are to maintain the current growth performance and ensure that its benefits are extended to all. The World Bank Group s (WBG) new Country Partnership Framework (CPF) seeks to support Panama s continued high growth, while ensuring inclusion and opportunities for marginalized groups, and bolstering resilience and sustainability. These themes are highlighted as priorities in the Government s 2014-2019 Strategic Development Plan (SDP) and in the WBG s Systematic Country Diagnostic (SCD). The CPF seeks to maximize over a six-year period, the comparative advantages of the WBG, through packages of innovative public and private financing options based on cutting edge global knowledge and experience.
Abstract UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya is the Technical Services Unit are carrying out Development and Small and Medium Industries Development and Human Resources through Technical Training in the field of Management, Technology, Production Process, Standards, Environment and Information. In improving the performance of the employees in that agency with the necessary changes in work procedures to improve leadership. There are so many ways to improve performance by way of leadership, from the nature of good leadership through effective leadership style so that employees can change their way of working. Because this company is a government company is bona fide and generates revenue from all areas of the required procedures for working very well ordered. Improve the ability and quality of work that the company will then be developed. Manage, serve and process are all ways good leadership to improve employee performance. Keyword:Employee,Leader, Introduction Nowadays, many people decide to become a leader. They do competition to find new innovation for their leadership and they want to be different with other leadership that had already started first. In the work of world every leader must be ready to get complain from their employees. Leadership itself is a person who has the skills or strengths, in particular skill or ability in a field that he is able to influence other to jointly undertake specific activities for the achievement of one or more goalsIntensive competition requires that manufacturers to be competitive with other manufacturers worldwide. Each company must be able to be effectively and efficiently to build an effective performance in order to achieve goals and success, then various components contained in a company should be run according with the objectives to be achieved. One component that has role very important is human resources, which is the leader/supervisor and employee/subordinates. Leadership is an organization or business. The leader of the organization must be able to use its authority in changing the attitudes and behavior of employees that want to work hard and wish to achieve optimal results. Leadership style leaders used can effect thoughts, feeling, attitudes and behavior members of the organization/subordinate (Nawawi, 2003). The sense of satisfaction in the work then the individual will display good personal organization, positive performance satisfactory companies and raised a willingness to undertake the level of labor productivity high for the organization and for improving achievement goals. The few things that can be identified from the dissatisfaction is absenteeism at work, lazy, malingering, absent from work, events strike, the use of time is not efficient and an even worse quit his job. Leadership can good or bad influence organizational climate, which in turn will direct impact on the effectiveness of the work of his subordinate. This leads to leaders must be able to create a conducive organizational climate that achieve job satisfaction, which in turn have an impact on the achievement of objectives organizational. Symptoms employee dissatisfaction can be seen from the absence of harmonious relation between the parties led to the employee, which is the leader less attention to the rights of the employees. For that leader has a very important role in improving job satisfaction employees. Based on the above, the study of the relationship style leadership and employee job satisfaction is very important to do. Definition of Leadership Leadership is one of the function of management human resources that make other people resolve work, maintaining morale and motivate subordinates (Dessler, 1997). From time to time the leadership of an attention to human, human being because of the leadership needed the limitation and advantages of certain human. On the one hand, man limited his ability to lead in other hand there are people who have excess capacity to lead. Here is the emergence of the need for leaders and leadership. Leadership the art of influencing other to directing the will, ability and effort in achieving goal leader. Leadership as an art show that activities affect others are individual, it is not the same way people or pattern between the leaders with one other. Therefore, an effective leader must be able to make purpose as the purpose of the organization, or otherwise make organizational goals into objectives and the ability of leaders lead it should result in all members of the organization felt that the purpose of the organization as a common goal. Mc Gregore in Agus Dharma (1992) says that scouting realize organizational goals and effectiveness when purpose of the organization is supported by all parties in the organization. Leadership is the power to move people and yourself toward a goal or vision particular, as well as power to transform the mobile community. Leadership the power to move people toward a goal or certain dreams. Obviously, there is someone who can move people toward a goal without it should be a true leader, but only a provocateur, even manipulator. Therefore, in addition to causing the motion, a leader is also a person who is able to produce a change or transformation in those he leads, he themselves and the system or community to which they belong. Thus, we recognize a true leader or not of the presence of motion and changes factors (A movement and Transformation Leader) as a prerequisite. Leadership is more detailed in Yulk (1998) is a process of influence, that influence the interpretation about events for followers, the choice of targets for group or organization, organization of work activities to achieves these objectives, the motivation of the followers to achieving goals, maintaining cooperation and team work, and obtaining the support and cooperation of the people who are outside the group or organization. According to Chandra (2005) a leader is a can create a situation in which his followers to step by step move towards their agreed upon with voluntary. Under this view, it is clear that a follow the leader because of his vision, mission formulation or target work. They believe in the leadership because what you want to accomplish along with his followers is a good a clear. They chose to follow because of the leaders are able to explore what has been unconsciously their dreams. This is a major factor determining success of a leader. According Arep and Cape (2002) leadership is properties that should be possessed by a leader, who in it is application to the person of consequences leaders are as follows: must take their own decision explicitly and precisely (decision making), must have the courage to accept this risk themselves, should dare to accept it is own responsibility (the principle of absolute of responsibility). Leadership Effectiveness Understanding of the effectiveness by John Ivancevich Nawawi (2003) is an assessment made in relation to achievement of individuals, groups and organization. The closer the achievement achieved with the expected performance, the more effective assessment of individuals, groups and organizations. By Drucker in Nawawi (2003), the effectiveness is to implement the right (doing the right), an achievement, effectiveness often described as "doing something right" means an activity or work that helps an organization reach the target. The effectiveness of leadership based on the theory of leadership situational (Contingency Theory). In practice, this view assume that no one leader is consistently using particular leadership style regardless of the situation it facts. This is, person's leadership effectiveness depend on its ability to "read" the situation faces and adjust his style to the situation such a way that it effectively perform these function leadership (Siagian, 2003). The success of a leader is that if he can adjust your leadership style to the situation at hand. Situational leadership as well as taking into account factors conditions, time and space play role in a determining the choice of appropriate leadership style. So the effectiveness of leadership a person is determined by the ability to recognize to appropriate nature of the conditions it faces, whether the condition contained in organization and conditions that are outside the organization but have an impact on the course of the organization (Siagian, 2003). In other words, situational leadership theory assumes no single behavioral or leadership style that can affect human behavior or members of the organization to act, to do or work in all situations. Effective leaders have the behavior or leadership style that is flexible able to diagnose situation and use behaviors or styles leadership according to the circumstances they face (Nawawi, 2003). Nature and Characteristics of Leadership According to A.Dale Timpe (1991) there are eight (8) properties improve their productivity:The ability to concentrate, The emphasis on the value of a simple, Always hang out with people, Avoid artificial professionalism, Managing change, Select the people, Avoid doing all by yourself, Dialing with failure. According to Kantz in Nawawi (2003) three characteristic effective leaders are: 1) Have the technical skills such as the ability to apply specialized knowledge in the form of skills in the art. 2) Having the human skills that include the ability work together, understand and be able to motivate others, both of individual or groups. 3) Conceptual skills such as the ability of mental or intellectual to analyze and diagnose complex situation, in particular the time to take a decision. Similarly, according to Browers and Seashore (2003) suggest three characteristic of effective leaders, consisting of: a) Support the behavior of leaders who demonstrate to ability to enhance self-esteem and feeling that are considered important by others especially that people they lead. b) Ease of interaction of leader behaviors that stimulate, member organizations to develop relationship intimate and mutually satisfying. c) Ease of work that is a leader in helping behavior members carry out the work achieve the goals, through activity of job scheduling, coordination, planning, provision of resources such as equipment, labor, material or ingredients work and technical knowledge in the work. Terms and Character of the Leader According Arep and Cape (2002), an outline of a leader should ideally have three general categories, namely: 1) The ability to analyze and draw appropriate conclusions. He must be able to analyze something of a problem, situation or particular set of circumstances and draw conclusions appropriate. 2) The ability to develop an organization and can selecting, and placing the right people to fill position in the organization. 3) The ability to create such a way that the organization concerned running smoothly towards goals, ideals and the decision of higher level to the subordinates, that the goals and the decisions that are acceptable properly. Leadership Strategy Efforts to streamline the organization's leadership must performed by using a strategy that guarantees the highest ability to achieve organizational goals. Strategy such leadership requires the ability to implement leadership functions effectively and efficiently in order to get support, without losing the respect, awe and obedience of all the members of the organization. The main strategy will only be realized if leaders in the running of social interaction with members of the group, showing the ability to understand, concerned and involved in the issues, and organization and its members. Leadership functions according to Nawawi (2003) are: Decision making function, functions of instruction, consultative function, delegates participatory function. a) Decision function Organization will only move dynamically if the leader have the power or ability to perform authority as decision-makers who will or should carried out by members of the organization. For that decision require courage because any definite decision at risk, especially if the process or mechanism is not meet the demands of the decision-making strategy implementation leadership, to be more accurate in leadership for streamline the organization, a leader must include members of the organization, according to the position and responsibilities. Inclusion can be done by provides an opportunity to provide input, such as creativity, initiatives, suggestion, opinions and feedback. Function instruction is order from a leader to realize the organization effect must be clear, both on the content terms and language that should be adjusted to the level skills or education of members who receive orders. Effective leaders don't need to be emotionally error in executing command members. Leaders must be willing to look for the causes of errors, both in execution of the order on him as well as possible caused by a lack of clear leadership in providing orders. In giving the order should be followed as well to give an explanation to members of the organization will carry on the impact or consequences that would occurs when in command is done in correctly. Thus, it can be expected to be more careful execution of the command caution and careful, because a warrant maybe quite difficult for the implementing organization members. Consultative function is streamline the organization every leader must be prepared and willing to provide opportunity for member organization to consult in resolving the issues related to work and it is not impossible to consult on issues related to personal directly or indirectly to the job. Consultative function can also mean members of the organization were opportunity convey criticism, advice, information and opinions related to the job and the organization. This function is useful for improvement leadership, especially for new decision making, thus can improve leadership in effecting organization. Participatory function is the ability of leaders to include members of the organization according to position and authority in order to participate actively in relevant activities, can be realized through work in teams to reduce individual. Willingness shoot leaders and leaders below for participate in helping member organization carry work or resolve the problem faced by provide guidance, direction, discuss, resolve urgent work together. Delegatife function is every leaders need and has power or authority and responsibility should be implemented properly, appropriately and correctly, the leader must be able to divide the work and delegation of authority, and responsibilities in timely execution of the work and fair, as well as in decision making in accordance limit the power and responsibility that has been delegated. Control in Leadership Control in leadership do to keep that effect in the activities of members of the organization has always focused on mutually agreed goals. Control also significantly members of the organization to prevent and avoid activities that deviate from the goals of the organization. If to achieve a purpose, leaders have set up a way, but in implementation found a new, more effective and possible goals can be achieved more quickly, as well as risks low, then the leader must make decisions specify the use of the new method. Control activities in leadership must start the clarity of the objectives to be achieved by the organization, either leader and members of the organization. Organizational goals perceived as a common goal can be used intensively activities affect thought, feeling, attitudes and behaviors, through the direction of the members of the organization. Activity organizing the control is carried out by dividing duty or authority and responsibility into practice. The division of task is followed by its implementation by every member of organizations that have been implemented should be decided continue to perform the role of the controlled trough coordination, monitoring and redirection. So leader effective for activities that have been implemented should be decided continue to perform the role of the controllers so that the activities do not deviated from it is original purpose. Research Methodology Data can be a company's working hours for employees. This data then needs to be processed and converted into information. If the hours worked per employee is then multiplied by the value per-hour, it will produce a certain value. If the picture of each employee's earnings and then added together, will result in recapitulation salary to be paid by the company. Payroll is the information for the owner of the company. Information is the result of a process of existing data, or data that can be interpreted as having meaning. Information will unlock everything that is unknown. Basically, this research is categorized as qualitative research, since the data are in the form of words or sentences which are separated according to each category in order to get the conclusion (Arikunto, 1996:243). In this study, entitled "Leadership in Improving Employees' Performance in UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya". Based on the question "How does the leader role in improving the employees' performance?" and "How the employees' performance can be improved through the leader role?" Qualitative data is data in the form of words or in the form of verbal statements, not the robin figures. The qualitative data obtained through a variety of data collection techniques such as interviews, document analysis, focus group discussions, or observations that have been set forth in the court record (transcript). Another form of qualitative data was obtained through shooting images or video footage. Qualitative data include: 1. Inductive, which is based on one or a number of specific data to derive a conclusion by way of generalization, or analogy or causal relationship 2. Deductive, which is a process of thinking which is based on an existing propositions to acquire new proposition as the conclusion to the syllogism, the argument consisting of three propositions (the major premise, minor premise and conclusion or conclusions) 3. Comparative namely by outlining the similarities and differences between the two data objects under study. Subjects in this study were all employees. Researchers from the source there are 43 employees working in various industries and Crafts UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya. On the subject of this study, researchers led to all employees in order to improve their performance with the leadership role that will be applied. Leadership effectiveness is influenced by many diverse and varied, several factors related to leadership effectiveness, among other: task structure, leadership awareness of employees, skills and leadership skills, leadership traits superior and subordinate relationships, management support and human resources, a position of power, subordinate effort, behavior management and external coordination, of those factors when analyzed can be made a set of factors is smaller than the initial factors, namely: leadership factors, factors boss and subordinates and environmental factors. Based on these factors can be seen how the relationship with the leadership of subordinates in decision making and problem solving. Leadership style reflect the relationship in this study is how the leader relates to subordinates in order to improve the performance of the good and positive in an institution. Effective leadership that is able to run by leaders. Will be able to streamline the organization and increase employee productivity. With the respect to this benchmark in studying leadership in effective institutions can be seen from: achieving the institution itself, employee satisfaction and development of the company itself. So, if the factors of leadership effectiveness can be carried out well and the leadership is able to apply his leadership style according to the situation and condition is going to reach benchmark of effective leadership, it has been demonstrate effective leadership and employee productivity indirectly itself will increase. Data and information collection is a process of obtaining data and preparing useful to describe that result of data collected to be use as information, for example as part of a process improvement or similar project. The purpose of data collection is to obtain information to keep on way, to make decisions about the important issues, and also to give information on the others in specific topic. In general the data collection is to answer the problems that will be discussed as well as provide information about the problem and issues. In this study the data of things that can be applied by employees is the attitude of leadership, responsibility and attitude performance. All that can be applied when the employee aware of the importance of improved performance in an institution. The effect of the attitude of a leader can also affect how the performance of its employees whether they are good or bad. Therefore, a good attitude and decisive leadership is needed in the soul of a leader so that the performance of employees and leaders to get maximum results. By applying the managerial role of the leader in the employee's performance is expected to improve the performance of employees in a company or institution. Employees can apply the leadership that has been adopted by leaders in the office working on a task or attitude in the office everyday. Given such, will appear sustainable attitude among employees and leaders that will create a good performance. The research instrument is any equipment that is used to acquire, manage, and interpretation information from the respondents who performed the same measurement pattern. Research instrument designed for one purpose and cannot be used in another study. Peculiarities of every object of research led to a researcher must design their own instrument used. Arrangement for each research instrument is not always the same as the other studies. This is because the purpose and mechanism of action in any research techniques also vary. Several types of instruments in the study were as follows: 1) Test The test is a series of questions or exercises or other tools used to measure the skills, measurement, intelligence, ability or talent possessed by individuals or groups. 2) Questionnaire or questionnaires Questionnaires are a number of written questions used to obtain information from respondents in terms of their personal statements, or the things that he knew. 3) Interview (interview) Interview is used by researchers to assess the state of a person, for example to find data on student background variables, the elderly, education, attention, attitude towards something. 4) Observation In the sense that observational studies are conducted direct observations, observations can be done with the test, questionnaire, range images, and sound recordings. Observation contains a list of the types of activities that may arise and will be observed. 5) Graduated scale (ratings) Rating or a graduated scale is a measure of the scale, subjective made. Although this produces a graduated scale data rude, but enough to give specific information about the program or person. This instrument can easily provide an overview of performance, especially in the performance of duty, which shows the frequency of appearance of the properties. In preparing the scale, which needs to be considered is how to define a variable scale. What is in question should be what can be observed respondent. 6) Documentation Documentation, from the origin of the document, which means that the written stuff. In exercising methods of documentation, research investigating the written objects such as books, magazines, documents, regulations, minutes of meetings, and so on. Register questionnaire is a series of questions posed to the respondents in order to collect information from respondents about the object being studied, either in the form of opinions, responses, or himself. As a research instrument, then these questions should not deviate from the direction that will be achieved by the proposed project, which is reflected in the formulation of hypotheses. Thus the list of questions that must be filed with the tactical and strategy so as to filter out the information required by the respondent. Questions raised by the respondent should be clear formula, so researchers will receive the right information from the respondents. Because the respondent and the interviewer can interpret the meaning of a sentence different from the intent of researchers, so that the contents of the question cannot be answered precisely. Besides, it should also be noted that where the direction is achieved, given no clear direction may not be able to formulate a list of questions adequately. Compile a draft list of questions is actually a collective work across research team members. Involvement of all members of the research team will contribute research instrument construction completion. Steps in compiling a list of questions are determination of the required information, determination of the data collection process, preparation of the research instrument, testing instrument research. Result and Discussion Basically a company or institution can run smoothly when it has a strong foundation. And foundation here in question is a leader. When a leader has a dominant role in the company or institution, then the employees will follow the rules and will get good results in the form of improved performance. Therefore, there is no doubt that the role of leadership can improve employee performance. The Leader Role in Improving Employees' Performance The role of leadership is crucial in a job. Who first determined is to choose a leader who can truly lead a company or institution. When we get a leader who deserves to lead the leader must have a vision and mission for the welfare of its employees by way of improving the performance of employees. A leader does not have to give orders to his subordinates or employees to do something, but by way of an example, the employee will follow what their leaders are doing as long as it's true. The employees' performance can be improved through leader role Leadership is one of the issues in the management which is still interesting enough to be discussed until today. Mass media, both electronic and print, often featuring opinion and conversation discuss about leadership. Leadership role and strategic importance to the achievement of the mission, vision and goals of an organization, is one of the motives that drive people to always investigate the intricacies associated with leadership. Quality of leadership is often regarded as the most important factor in the success or failure of the organization as well as the success or failure of a business-oriented organizations in both the public and, generally perceived as a success or a failure of leadership. Once the importance of the issue of the role of the leader so that the leader be the focus of interest to researchers in the field of organizational behavior. Organizations that succeed in achieving its objectives and be able to fulfill its social responsibility will depend on the leadership. When the leader is able to perform well, it is possible that the organization will achieve its goal. An organization needs an effective leader, who has the ability to influence the behavior of its members or subordinates. Leadership style is a way used by a leader in influencing the behavior of others. Leadership style is the norm of behavior that is used by a person when the person is trying to influence the behavior of others. Each style has advantages and disadvantages. A leader will use the appropriate leadership style and personality skills. Every leader in providing care to foster, promote and direct all potential employees in the environment have different patterns with each other. The difference is caused by different leadership styles also vary from each leader. Correspondence between leadership styles, norms and organizational culture is seen as a key prerequisite for the successful achievement of organizational goals. Leader etymologically derived from the word "pimpin" (lead) means guided or guided, so in which there are two parties that led (the people) and the lead (priest). Having added the prefix "pe" to "leader" (leader) means those who influence others through the process of communication so that the authority of the act is something other people achieve specific goals. Is a leader who has the ability to influence individuals and groups can work together to achieve the intended purpose. Hendry in Kartini Kartono Pratt Fairchild (2006:38-39) argues that leaders in the broad sense is a person who leads by way of initiating social behavior by regulating, indicating, organize or control efforts / attempts of others or through prestige, power or position. Anagora (1992) in Harbani (2008:5) argues, that leadership is the ability to influence others, through communication either directly or indirectly, with the intention to drive people to the understanding, awareness and happy to follow the will of the leadership of the leadership is defined as the process of influencing and directing a variety of tasks related to the activities of the group members. Leadership is also defined as the ability to affect a variety of strategies and objectives, the ability to influence the commitment and devotion to duty in order to achieve common goals and capabilities affect the group in order to identify, nurture and develop organizational culture (Stogdill in Stoner and Freeman 1989: 459-460). Elements of leadership according to Stogdill is he involvement of members of the organization as a follower, distribution of power among the leaders of member organizations, legitimacy granted to followers, leaders influence followers through a variety of ways. Leadership is an activity to influence the behavior of others so that they would be directed to achieve certain goals. Leadership is defined as the ability to move or motivate some people to simultaneously perform the same activities and focused on achieving the goal. From the above, it is basically a leader who has the ability to move others and be able to influence that person to do something in accordance with the goals to be achieved. Conclusion Leadership is one of the function of management human resources that make other people resolve work, maintaining morale and motivate subordinates (Dessler, 1997). From time to time the leadership of an attention to human, human being because of the leadership needed the limitation and advantages of certain human. On the one hand, man limited his ability to lead in other hand there are people who have excess capacity to lead. Here is the emergence of the need for leaders and leadership. The success of a leader is that if he can adjust your leadership style to the situation at hand. Situational leadership as well as taking into account factors conditions, time and space play role in a determining the choice of appropriate leadership style. So the effectiveness of leadership a person is determined by the ability to recognize to appropriate nature of the conditions it faces, whether the condition contained in organization and conditions that are outside the organization but have an impact on the course of the organization (Siagian, 2003). In other words, situational leadership theory assumes no single behavioral or leadership style that can affect human behavior or members of the organization to act, to do or work in all situations. Effective leaders have the behavior or leadership style that is flexible able to diagnose situation and use behaviors or styles leadership according to the circumstances they face (Nawawi, 2003). In this study the data as the information needed to give an overview of the research. Data is something that does not have any meaning for the recipient and is still in need of a treatment. In this case, the data can be regarded as an object and a subject of the information is useful for the recipient. Information can also be caled as a result of processing or data processing. Quality of leadership is often regarded as the most important factor in the success or failure of the organization as well as the success or failure of a business-oriented organizations in both the public and, generally perceived as a success or a failure of leadership. Once the importance of the issue of the role of the leader so that the leader be the focus of interest to researchers in the field of organizational behavior. Organizations that succeed in achieving its objectives and be able to fulfill its social responsibility will depend on the leadership. When the leader is able to perform well, it is possible that the organization will achieve its goal. An organization needs an effective leader, who has the ability to influence the behavior of its members or subordinates. Thus, a leader or head of an organization will be recognized as a leader if he can have an influence and capable of directing his subordinates towards the achievement of organizational goals. Suggestion Expectations of the employees are in the presence of a wise leader and able to adjust the structure of the company or institution can work to change the existing errors in the body corporate. In the end, that the existence of a leadership role within a company or institution can improve and enhance the performance of employees and can form a good partnership between employees and management. REFERENCE Peraturan Gubernur Jawa Timur, 2008, Organisasi dan Tata Kerja Unit Pelaksanaan Teknis Dinas Perindustrian dan Perdagangan Provinsi Jawa Timur, Surabaya. Prayoga, Sondra, 2011, The Role of Exhibition to Increase Foreign and Domestic Market Activity TIU (Technical Implementation Units) REPTC (Regional Export Training and Promotion Center) of East Java. http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEKRANASDA www.google.com www.blogspot.com
Las principales estrategias de conservación en Patagonia Sur se han efectivizado utilizando criterios geo-políticos y técnicos, considerando a los bosques de Nothofagus pumilio como unidades homogéneas sin mayores diferencias a distintas escalas de paisaje o con sus ambientes asociados. Sin embargo, se desconoce el grado de homogeneidad real de los distintos ecosistemas a distintas escalas de paisaje, y denota la necesidad de comprender las interacciones entre el ensamble de especies (ej. plantas vasculares) con el medio físico, incluyendo al hombre como agente modificador. En esta tesis se busca analizar los factores (ambientales y antrópicos) que afectan la diversidad y el ensamble de las especies de plantas vasculares (nativas y exóticas) de Tierra del Fuego en los bosques productivos de Nothofagus pumilio y sus ambientes asociados (ej. pastizales, bosques de N. antarctica) a lo largo de gradientes latitudinales-longitudinales (cuatro zonas geográficas: sur, norte, oeste y este), utilizando un enfoque multi-escala que integró tres niveles espaciales: macro-escala (regional), meso-escala (paisaje), y micro-escala (rodal). Además, se evaluó la homogeneidad entre dichos ensambles a las distintas escalas, dentro y entre los ecosistemas usualmente presentes en los predios bajo manejo forestal. Se analizó la ineficacia de las actuales estrategias de conservación de Tierra del Fuego y se propuso una estrategia que propende un equilibrio entre la producción y la conservación de la naturaleza, ej. retención de elementos naturales y seminaturales de la vegetación que se pueden integrar en los sistemas de producción y conservación a múltiples escalas espaciales. Este trabajo utilizó datos provenientes de parcelas permanentes de la Red PEBANPA (>500 parcelas) realizadas en distintos ecosistemas terrestres. Los análisis estadísticos se hicieron mediante análisis de varianza, técnicas de agrupamiento y ordenación multivariada con base en la riqueza o abundancia de las especies. Los resultados indican que, a macro-escala, cuando se comparan los ensambles de plantas de diferentes tipos de bosques entre zonas geográficas, existen diferencias significativas entre el norte, el este y el sur para los bosques de N. pumilio y N. antarctica, y entre las zonas oeste y este para los bosques de N. betuloides; por lo tanto, la ubicación de las áreas protegidas en una sola zona no asegura la protección total de las especies de plantas vasculares de la isla. Por otro lado, aunque los diferentes ecosistemas comparten especies de plantas, los ensambles fueron significativamente diferentes entre sí en casi todas las zonas, donde la influencia del clima (ej. variación de la temperatura y precipitación) explica estas variaciones más allá de los impactos antrópicos (ej. uso ganadero). A meso-escala, estas diferencias se observan a nivel de gradientes ambientales (ej. exposición) y determinados impactos antrópicos (aprovechamientos forestales > uso ganadero); no solo la zona geográfica determina la diversidad y ensambles de plantas, sino también las propiedades intrínsecas de los ambientes forestales y ambientes abiertos asociados (bosque vs. pastizales). A micro-escala, los diferentes esquemas de aprovechamientos (ej. diferentes niveles y tipos de retención) ejercen cambios en el ensamble de especies de los bosques primarios, pero estos se manifiestan diferencialmente por las diversas estructuras y componentes del rodal cosechado a niveles detallados, encontrándose que los ensambles de plantas vasculares se mantuvieron más similares a los bosques primarios en la retención agregada (parches de bosque primario dentro de una matriz de producción) que en la dispersa (árboles padres dispersos en la matriz de producción) para los bosques cosechados de N. pumilio. Se concluye que es crucial para el concepto de sustentabilidad (conservación y producción) determinar la escala y el impacto que reciben las especies en su entorno natural, y aquellos debidos al impacto antrópico, pues la exclusión de ambientes para aprovechamiento forestal o ganadería u otros impactos no garantiza la conservación de todas las especies. Gracias al enfoque de análisis a diferentes escalas (ej. arriba hacia abajo, o sea de macro-escala a micro-escala) realizado este trabajo, se puede inferir que Tierra del Fuego es un lugar donde es potencialmente aplicable emplear propuestas productivas desde el punto de vista de la conservación a través de la integración del territorio, usando un enfoque de retención de ambientes a diferentes escalas para mejorar la preservación de la biodiversidad y la productividad en los diferentes ecosistemas. El enfoque de retención en cada ambiente se debe poner en marcha a escalas espaciales, ej. a escala de rodal por parte de propietarios de tierras privados o públicos, o a escalas mayores por parte del Estado a través de reservas a media escala o el diseño de una nueva red de áreas protegidas. ; The main conservation strategies in Southern Patagonia were based on geo-political and technical criteria, considering Nothofagus pumilio forests as homogeneous units without major differences at different landscape scales or within their associated environments. However, the degree of homogeneity of the different ecosystems at different landscape scales is unknown, and highlight the need of understanding of the interactions between the assemblages of species (e.g. vascular plants) and the physical environment, including human alterations. This thesis analyse the factors (related to environment and human) that influence over diversity and assemblage of vascular plant species (native and exotic) in timber forests of Nothofagus pumilio and their associated environments (e.g. grasslands, N. antarctica forests) of Tierra del Fuego. These analyses included latitudinal-longitudinal gradients (four geographic zones: south, north, west and east), and used a multi-scale approach that integrated three spatial levels: macro-scale (regional), meso-scale (landscape), and micro-scale (stand). In addition, the homogeneity between plant assemblages were evaluated at the different scales, within and among ecosystems presented in the landscape under different forest uses. The effectiveness of the current conservation strategies of Tierra del Fuego was analysed, and a new strategy was proposed leading to balance between timber production and conservation of nature, e.g. retention of natural and semi-natural elements of vegetation that can be integrated into production and conservation systems at multiple spatial scales. This work used data from permanent plots of the PEBANPA Network (>500 plots) surveyed along different terrestrial ecosystems. The statistical analyses were made using analysis of variance, grouping techniques and multivariate management based on the richness or cover of the understory species. The main results indicated that: (i) At a macro-scale, when comparing the assemblages of plants of different forest types between geographical zones, there are significant differences between the north, the east and the south for the forests of N. pumilio and N. antarctica, and between the west and east zones for the N. betuloides forests. Therefore, the location of the protected areas in a single area does not ensure the total protection of the vascular plant species of the island. On the other hand, although the different ecosystems share plant species, the assemblages were significantly different from each other in almost all areas, where the influence of climate (e.g. variation of temperature and precipitation) explained these variations beyond human impacts. (e.g. cattle grazing). (ii) At a meso-scale, differences observed among environmental gradients (e.g. aspect) and human impacts (harvesting > cattle grazing) were found. (iii) At a ranch scale, not only the geographical area determines the diversity and plant assemblages, also the intrinsic properties of the forest environments and associated open environments (forest vs. open-lands). And (iv), at micro-scale, different harvesting schemes (e.g. different levels and types of retention) generated differential changes in the assemblage of the original species. The different retention schemes influenced over the conservation of the understory plants, where vascular plant assemblages remained more similar to primary forests in aggregate retention (patches of primary forest within a production matrix) than in dispersed ones (parent trees dispersed in the harvesting matrix). It was concluded that it is crucial for the concept of sustainability (conservation and production) to determine the scale and impact over the plant diversity of natural phenomena (e.g. natural dynamics) and differentiate those impacts related to human activities, due to the exclusion of environments for forestry or cattle use does not guarantee the conservation of all species. The analysis approach at different scales (e.g. top-down, from macro-scale to micro-scale) conducted in this thesis, allowed to propose that Tierra del Fuego can be adequate to be managed through the integration of the territory, using an approach of retention of environments to different scales to improve the preservation of the biodiversity and the productivity in the different ecosystems. The retention approach in each environment must be implemented at spatial scales, e.g. at the stand scale by private or public landowners, or at larger scales by the government through medium-scale reserves or the design of a new network of protected areas. ; Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias y Forestales
The Circular Economy model 'closes the loop' of industrial supply chains to reintegrate energy and waste by-products into the economic cycle. It thus places the spotlight on the potential of re-use, recycling, and renewable energy sources as part of the overall economy. Knowing about Circular Economy means knowing about the following three, as they are particularly relevant to the Textiles & Clothing business:Research and policies for the Circular Economy, identifying the main actors developing the conceptConcepts and models for the T&C industry, with examples of how specific ideas within the Circular Economy paradigm are particularly relevant to Business Labs.R&D and related initiatives in the T&C industry, with a listing of projects dealing with specific technologies for reducing waste, recycling textiles, etc.Finally, action strategies are listed as suggestions for TCBL business pilots to incorporate the Circular Economy in their activities.A new policy frameworkThe traditional supply chain model for industrial production claims to add value at different steps from raw materials to the end consumer, but fails to adequately account for waste and pollution. In fact, the environment is considered as an infinite resource for raw materials on the one hand, and an infinite sink in which to dump waste and chemical by-products on the other.The Circular Economy model closes the loop by re-connecting linear value chains, considering one process's waste as another process's raw material. The Ellen Macarthur Foundation defines the Circular Economy as follows:"A circular economy is one that is restorative and regenerative by design, and which aims to keep products, components and materials at their highest utility and value at all times, distinguishing between technical and biological cycles."The Circular Economy concept has recently been adopted with great emphasis by the European Commission, in a series of Communications and funding programmes launched in December, 2015. This includes proposed directives on waste, packaging waste, landfill, and electrical and electronic waste, the introduction of a specific "cross-cutting focus area" in the H2020 2016-2017 work programme, and policy frameworks for the ESIF (EU Structural and Investment Funds) with a particular eye on Smart Specialisation. Since the Circular Economy appears to be emerging as a new policy framework, it is important to underline it's significant relevance for the T&C industry. First, as a general model, the Circular Economy model transforms environmental policies from a 'punitive' to an 'opportunity' approach, and can thus be used to leverage business innovation in a positive light. Secondly, the Circular Economy provides a framework for many of the qualitative aspects related to innovative T&C approaches: systems resilience, the role of diversity, emotionally durable design, and so forth. Finally, the Circular Economy provides a unifying framework for many specific fields of research and innovation that are ongoing for some time now in the T&C sector. Research and Policies for the Circular EconomySeveral research institutes and foundations have dedicated activities or even been constituted to investigate the Circular Economy, its implications, and related business models. This includes the following organisations.The Ellen Macarthur FoundationEstablished in 2010, this foundation aims to accelerate the transition to the circular economy. The charity's work focuses on four interlinking areas: education, business and government, insight and analysis, and communications. The main global partners include: Cisco, Google, H&M, Intesa Sanpaolo, Kingfisher, Philips, Renault, and Unilever.Circle EconomyThis is a cooperative consisting of two groups: Circle of Action, with members implementing concrete initiatives, and Circle of Consciousness, with a strategic guidance function. Circle Economy is developing a roadmap to make Amsterdam the first truly circular city, and has a varied membership including Mud Jeans, Black Rock, Philips, TNO, the City of Amsterdam, FairPhone, ABN Bank, Click NL, Schipol Airport, Accenture, and KPMG.WRAPThis UK Charity has launched a new five year plan, 'Resource Revolution, Creating the Future' with a specific section on Clothing and Textiles.Circular Economy AwardsWe even have the first awards programme, sponsored by the Forum of Young Global Leaders in collaboration with Accenture.Concepts and Models for the T&C IndustryThe Circular Economy is essentially a framework model encompassing several pre-existing concepts and approaches which can be, individually, of particular relevance to the T&C sector and to the work of the TCBL Business Labs. (headings below from Wikipedia)Waste is foodHere, the logic is to consider separately the biological and technical components of a product and see how they re-fit into value chains. This applies to reasoning behind fibres, in particular to organic fibres.Diversity is strengthThis in the first instance means that diversity contributes to systemic resilience. More specifically, the emphasis is on longer-lasting products, in particular through the strategy of emotionally durable design. This relates directly to ways to address the Fast Fashion trend, ie through initiatives such as WRAP's Love your Clothes.Industrial EcologyThis approach looks at loop processes within business ecosystems. It's relevant to TCBL in that a) it looks as businesses in a more broader transactional setting that supply chains and b) the approach also focuses on social well being.Cradle to cradleThis emphasis a design approach that advocates "service-life extension of goods – reuse, repair, remanufacture, upgrade technologically" as a strategy for waste prevention, regional job creation and resource efficiency in order to decouple wealth from resource consumption. The vision is sustained by five pillars: nature conservation, limited toxicity, resource productivity, social ecology, and cultural ecology.R&D and related initiatives in the T&C IndustryThere are many on-going research and awareness initiatives currently or recently active, each with a specific relevance to Circular Economy goals and methods and many with the involvement of Euratex.ECAP: European Sustainable Clothing Action Plan (2015-2019)The overall objective of the LIFE ECAP project is to adopt a circular approach to divert over 90 000 tonnes/year of clothing waste from landfill and incineration across Europe by March 2018, and to deliver a more resource efficient clothing sector. ECAP will set targets aiming to scale up these savings by 2020 to over 540 000 tonnes/year (€111 million), and by 2030 to over 700 000 tonnes/year(€144 million).ECWRTI: Electro Coagulation for Water Recycling in Textile Industry (2015-)Textile mills can reduce their water consumption by up to 90 percent using the EColoRO concept, which consists of electrocoagulation followed by membrane filtration, to treat their wastewater without using chemicals and then reuse it.Resyntex: a New Circular Economy Concept for Textiles and Chemicals (2015-)RESYNTEX is a research project which aims to create a new circular economy concept for the textile and chemical industries. Using industrial symbiosis, it aims to produce secondary raw materials from unwearable textile waste.EcoProFabrics: Eco innovation programme (2014-)Exploring the market opportunities for a 100% recyclable polyester fabric, known as Returnity, in a range of workwear, demonstrating a fully circular supply and production chain.SET: Save Energy in Textile SMEs (2014-2016)SET project was launched to deliver real added-value solutions for European textile SMEs. SET will assist at least 150 textile companies in determining the right energy saving measures. Future legal obligations, financial incentives and technologies will also be assessed.SESEC: Sustainable Energy Saving for the European Clothing Industry (2011-2015)Based on industry-driven ideas, the SESEC project facilitates energy efficiency in the European clothing production industry. Coordinated by EURATEX, SESEC developed and offered energy efficiency tools and related training for companies to implement measures considering cost-effectiveness.ARTISAN: Reduction of energy consumption and carbon footprint in the European textile industry (2011-2014)The ARTISAN project envisioned significant reductions (at least 10%) in energy consumption and CO2 emissions of the European Textile Industry by integrating data-capturing technologies, process-based energy measurement and real-time optimization of operations. It provided enterprise management systems with services for monitoring and operational decision making, available at each supply chain partner, and, additionally, trading services for energy and carbon permits forging collaboration across supply networks.Moving the T&C industry towards the Circular EconomyThe Circular Economy will clearly influence the development of the TCBL project, in particular by providing a framework for reaching the goal of a 20% ecological footprint reduction by 2025. TCBL Business Pilots can contribute by building Circular Economy guidelines into their innovation strategies, following the three steps below:Find circularities: businesses can individually map their material and energy flows and identify points for possible circularities, together with the business advantages that can be derived.Design circular: businesses can identify aspects of their product design that can maximise the business benefits of the circular concept.Make contact: moving towards circularity by definition involves connecting with others, be they research institutions proposing new technologies or other industries interested in using by-products. TCBL provides the ideal setting for identifying new partners and building new value chains that are based on circular principles.ReferencesEuropean Parliament (2015): Circular economy: the importance of re-using products and materials, link.
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Adavalli-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 313 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 97 per cent is covered by soils, three per cent by waterbodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 9 soil series and 11 soil phases (management units) and 4 land use classes. The length of crop growing period is 150 cm). Entire area has clayey soils at the surface. About 44 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils, 45 per cent gravelly soils (15-35 % gravel) and 7 per cent very gravelly (35- 60% gravel) soils. About 40 per cent area has very low (200mm/m) available water capacity. Entire area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands. Entire area has moderately eroded (e2) lands. Entire area has soils that are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0) to very strongly alkaline (pH>9.0). The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon. Available phosphorus is low (20 ppm). Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area. Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils. The land suitability for 24 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: The Adavalli-2 micro-watershed (Koppal taluk and district) is located in between 15018' – 15019' North latitudes and 75056' – 75058' East longitudes, covering an area of about 312.58, bounded by Kavalura villages. It falls under Agro Ecological Region (AER)–3: (Deccan plateau, hot arid ecosubregion) Karnataka Plateau (Rayalseema as inclusion), hot arid ESR with deep loamy and clayey mixed red and black soils, low to medium AWC and LGP 60-90 days We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified for each watershed. Results: We found that Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 56 to 44 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age groups of population are around 63 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 74 per cent. Wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 80 per cent. About 40 per cent of households have a Yashiswini health card. Majority of farm households (80 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employments. Dependence on ration cards through public distribution system is around 100 per cent Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 20 per cent of sample households. Institutional participation is only 14.8 per cent of sample households. Rural migration to unban centre for employment is prevent among 33 per cent of farm households. Women participation is decisions making are around 40 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 5.12 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. 2 Agriculture is the main occupation among 56 per cent and agricultural labours is predominant subsidiary occupation for 39 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs 16744 per household. Mobile and television are mass popular mass communication media. The average farm assets values is around 1.05 lakhs, about 40 per cent of sample farmers are owing tractors. The average per capita food consumption is around 683 grams (1860 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 80 per cent of sample farmers are consuming less than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs 21973 per household. About 75 per cent of farm households are below poverty line. The per capita monthly expenditure is around Rs 776 per household. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs 8468 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs 2560349 per year for the total area of 312.58 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food production is around Rs 8749/ ha/year. Per ha food production services is maximum in chillies (Rs 34357/ha) followed by Bengal gram (Rs 5289/ha), Green gram (Rs. 4483/ha), Maize (Rs. 3801), sunflower (Rs. 3484) and onion (Rs. 1080/ha). The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs 4613/ ha/year of maize crop. The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in Bengal gram (Rs 41564) followed by Green gram (Rs 40906), Sunflower (Rs 20351), Maize (Rs 15217), chillies (Rs. 2438) and Onion (Rs 672). Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is onion (39.32%) followed by sugarcane (17.1%), maize (13.76 %), Bengal gram (9.83 %), green gram (8.2 %), sunflower (7.86 %) and chillies (3.93 %). In Adavalli-2 micro watershed, major soils are Muttal (MTL) series are having shallow soil deep cover around 34 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing onion (38 %), sunflower (33 %), bengal gram (19.5 %), maize (5.7 %) and chillies (3.8 %). Dambarahalli (DRL) soil series are having moderately deep soil depth cover around 7 per cent of area, major crops grown are maize. 3 Belagatti (BGT) soil series are having very shallow soil depth covers around 5.23 % of area, the major crop grown is green gram. The total cost of cultivation in the study area for maize ranges between Rs. 17038/ha in MTL soil (with BCR of 1.60) and Rs. 14774/ha in DRL soil (with BCR of 1.34). Green gram in the cost of cultivation of Rs. 20579/ ha in BGT soil (with BCR of 1.15). In bengal gram the cost of cultivation in MTL soil is Rs. 19989 /ha (with BCR of 1.26). In chillies the cost of cultivation in MTL soil is Rs. 27301/ha (with BCR of 2.17). In onion the cost of cultivation in MTL soil is Rs. 7207/ ha (with BCR of 1.1) and sunflower cost of cultivation in MTL soil is Rs. 18680/ha (with BCR of 1.07). Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in bengal gram (32.3 %), chillies (97 %), green gram (4.1 %), maize (72.5 to 83.7%), onion (98.9%) and sunflower (49.4%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Place branding strategies linking marketing to places have received increasing attention in practice and theory in the past two decades. It is generally assumed that place branding contributes to the economic, social, political and cultural development of cities, regions and countries. But there exists neither a commonly accepted definition nor a sound theoretical framework for place branding research. Studies have until now mainly focused on nations and cities, while the regional scale has rather been neglected, even more in the context of Mediterranean countries. In addition, little is yet known about the conditions, processes, and outcomes of place branding. The objective of this thesis is to contribute to the clarification of the place branding concept and to a broader understanding of this rich and complex phenomenon. The focus is on the underlying conditions, processes and dynamics of place branding in regions that contributes to territorial development. Place branding is related to local food products and tourism for sustainable territorial development in Mediterranean rural regions (in France and Morocco). The introduction chapter outlines the societal and theoretical context of place branding regarding this thesis. Place brands have emerged as attempts to respond to intertwined and multifaceted economic, political and socio-cultural challenges: to the externalities of globalisation, to local development challenges due to regionalisation and decentralisation processes, and to socio-economic tensions in the Mediterranean basin and its food domain. Accordingly, three established literature streams are mobilized: the marketing and branding of places, regional studies and sociology. It is supposed that insights from the three disciplines are needed to understand the conditions, processes and development outcomes of regional branding. This leads to three units of analysis: the first deals with place branding in a narrow sense, understanding it as marketing strategy for the development of places and their local assets based on a distinctive territorial identity; the second considers territorial development policies and public-private interactions; and the third analyses place-based, collective and embedded processes among various actors in rural areas. Chapter 2 comprises a case study of the Sud de France brand in the region Languedoc-Roussillon, which is mainly used for the valorisation and promotion of local wines, food and tourism, but also serving institutional aims. It is a study of local dynamics and the process of regional branding, leading to beneficial outcomes stemming from a public development intervention. It demonstrates various economic and non-economic benefits created by a place brand and unfolds some of its working mechanisms, such as horizontal and vertical relations among different territorial actors, a multiple stakeholder involvement, or the linkage of a place brand with its political, social and economic context. Chapter 3 is a continuation of Chapter 2, as it further investigates the kind of value that can be created by a place brand for different stakeholders, using the Sud de France case. Based on stakeholder and brand equity theory, it develops a measurement model and monitoring tool for the value of place brands. Results show that various place brand value dimensions coexist, according to the expectations of four identified key stakeholder groups. These value dimensions include economic, socio-cultural and environmental indicators. Chapter 4 offers a comparison of four regional branding initiatives in Europe, with the aim to gain insights into the general conditions, as well as context-dependent factors for successfully developing and maintaining place brands. It combines a marketing perspective with the sociology of food and endogenous rural development, and analyses strategic and operational brand management aspects, as well as contextual factors. Findings indicate the importance of various embeddedness dimensions for regional branding, such as public policies, cooperation and governance forms, territorial identity and the anchorage of local actors in their places. Chapter 5 is an explorative case study of place branding in the province of Chefchaouen, Morocco, in order to find out whether and how it would be possible to implement there a place brand as a coherent and collective territorial development project. Preconditions and various initiatives towards place branding are analysed at three action levels (macro, meso, micro). Specific attention is given to local cooperation and network activities, to leadership and political unity, being strongly related to the question of territorial governance. The main insight gained from the Chefchaouen case is that a collective place brand could be a useful tool for cross-sector cooperation, territorial governance and development, but that currently Moroccan regions still lack sufficient autonomy to fully develop their own territorial projects. The final chapter builds upon the research findings to highlight conceptual differences between diverse brands related to places. The main conclusion of this thesis is that place brands in regions – in order to be able to support agribusiness and local development – must be considered as more than mere marketing instruments, but as dynamic, collective and embedded territorial development processes. These insights lead to conceptual and theoretical, methodological, as well as policy and managerial implications, for place branding research and practice. A main suggestion for further research is to use complex systems theory to cover the complexity of place brands. ; Depuis deux décennies le marketing territorial a attiré l'attention, dans la pratique et la théorie. Mais il n'existe ni une définition généralement acceptée ni un cadre théorique solide. Jusqu'à maintenant, les travaux se sont surtout intéressés au marketing des pays et des villes, pendant que l'échelle régionale a été négligée. En outre, peu est encore connu sur les déterminants, les processus et les effets du marketing territorial. L'objectif de cette thèse est de contribuer à l'éclaircissement du concept du marketing territorial et à la compréhension de ce phénomène complexe. L'accent est mis sur les conditions, les processus et les effets des marques territoriales, qui sont ici liées aux produits de terroir et au tourisme dans des régions Méditerranéennes rurales (en France et au Maroc). L'introduction présente le contexte sociétal et théorique du marketing territorial qui a émergé comme réponse aux défis économiques, politiques et socio-culturels. Par conséquent, trois courants littéraires sont mobilisés : le marketing, la science régionale et la sociologie. On présume que les connaissances de ces trois disciplines sont nécessaires pour comprendre les déterminants, les processus et les effets d'un marketing territorial. Le chapitre 2 comprend une étude de cas de la marque Sud de France en Languedoc-Roussillon. C'est une étude des dynamiques locales et du processus de marketing territorial, qui ont conduit à des effets positifs de développement suite à une intervention publique. Ce cas montre les bénéfices divers créés par une marque territoriale et il révèle certains de ces mécanismes. Le chapitre 3 utilise le cas de Sud de France pour approfondir encore la question de la valeur qui peut être créé par une marque territoriale. Ce chapitre développe un modèle de mesure et un outil de contrôle de la valeur des marques territoriales. Les résultats montrent qu'ils coexistent de diverses dimensions de la valeur de ces marques, conformes aux attentes des parties prenantes clés identifiées. Ces dimensions incluent des indicateurs économiques, socio-culturels et environnementaux. Le chapitre 4 offre une comparaison de quatre marques régionales en Europe pour comprendre les conditions générales ainsi que les déterminants contextuels de succès de ces marques. Ce chapitre combine la perspective du marketing avec celle de la sociologie. Les résultats indiquent que plusieurs dimensions d'un encastrement jouent un rôle important pour les marques régionales, telles que l'influence des politiques publiques, les formes de coopération et de gouvernance locale, l'identité territoriale et l'ancrage des acteurs locaux dans leurs territoires. Le chapitre 5 est une étude de cas du marketing territorial à Chefchaouen au Maroc. Les préconditions et les diverses initiatives vers un marketing territorial sont analysées à trois niveaux d'action (macro, méso, micro). L'aperçu principal obtenu de ce cas est qu'une marque collective territoriale pourrait être un instrument utile pour stimuler une coopération entre différents secteurs, mais qu'actuellement les régions au Maroc manquent encore d'autonomie suffisante pour développer leurs propres projets territoriaux. Le chapitre final souligne les différences conceptuelles entre diverses marques liées aux territoires. La principale conclusion est que les marques régionales - pour pouvoir stimuler le développement agro-industriel et territorial - doivent être considérées comme plus que de purs instruments de marketing, mais comme des processus de développement dynamiques, collectifs et encastrés. Ces aperçus mènent à des implications au niveau conceptuel et théorique, méthodologique ainsi que politique et managérial pour la recherche et la pratique du marketing territorial. Une suggestion majeure pour la future recherche serait d'utiliser la théorie des systèmes complexes pour couvrir la complexité des marques collectives territoriales.
Cigarette consumption among people 15 years or older peaked in Switzerland in the early 1970's with 3,700 cigarettes per capita and per year, followed by a decline to 2,800 cigarettes per capita and per year in 1994. After a decline of the proportion of smokers from 37% in 1980 to 31% in 1992, this proportion has increased again to 33% in 1997. Women, particularly the young, and children and adolescents, have shown a continued increase in smoking prevalence, despite the focus of tobacco prevention efforts on children and adolescents. Every year, over 10,000 people die from tobacco use in Switzerland, about a sixth of all annual deaths in Switzerland, making smoking the leading preventable cause of death in Switzerland. This number is more than 20 times higher than the number of deaths caused by illegal drugs. The tobacco excise tax in Switzerland is the lowest in Western Europe. The laws governing tobacco products, their marketing and sales, are weak and have little practical effect on the tobacco industry. There is no meaningful protection of nonsmokers from the toxic chemicals in secondhand tobacco smoke, in public places or work places. A ten-country survey on people's experiences and attitudes concerning tobacco and smoking in 1989, commissioned by Philip Morris International, showed that Swiss people were aware of secondhand smoke's adverse effects on health, but only a minority favored government regulations for smoking in restaurants and workplaces. A first comprehensive 5-year tobacco prevention program, 1996 to 1999, issued by the Swiss Federal Office of Public Health lacked adequate financial resources, focus on specific interventions, cooperation between partners for tobacco prevention, and program coordination and management. It ignored the role of the tobacco industry. As a result of recent events in the US and WHO's active engagement of the tobacco industry, the draft five-year plan for tobacco prevention in Switzerland for 2001 to 2005 identifies the tobacco industry as a major obstacle to tobacco prevention. Until the recent merger of British American Tobacco (BAT) with Burrus-Rothmans in 1999, the single most important tobacco company in Switzerland was Philip Morris (PM), with a market share of close to 50% (and close to 25% for Marlboro alone). Since the merger, the tobacco market is dominated by PM and BAT, each with a market share of cigarette sales between 45% and 50%. As was the case in the US, in the early 1960's, the scientists in Swiss tobacco industry research laboratories (in this case, FTR (Fabriques de Tabac Réunies) / Philip Morris) accepted and discussed the dangerous effects of smoking on health in internal company communications. At that time, these scientists earnestly tried to find ways to reduce the carcinogenic effects of cigarettes through elimination of carcinogenic components. Contrary to privately expressed views, tobacco industry's public position in Switzerland was that there was ongoing controversy in the issue whether smoking caused diseases or not. The "controversy" was nurtured through regular media briefings and scientific meetings with carefully chosen scientists who would publicly support the industry's position, but without declaring their liaisons with the tobacco industry. Relationships with these industry "consultants" or "witnesses" were maintained through direct payments and indirectly through funding of their research. By late 1980's the tobacco industry had identified the decline of social acceptability of smoking in Europe as a major threat to its viability. This recognition led to the development of a comprehensive strategy to fight the secondhand smoke issue. "Courtesy and tolerance" and economic arguments were used to divert the public's and policy makers' attention from the health issue. The resulting strategies were often devised in consultation with executives of other Philip Morris subsidiaries and Philip Morris International headquarters in New York. Well aware of its low credibility with the public, journalists were given interviews and told not to mention the tobacco company's name in the newspaper article. Official publications, such as "Smoking and Mortality in Switzerland" by the Federal Office of Public Health, the report on the respiratory effects of secondhand smoke by the US Environmental Protection Agency, as well as original scientific publications, such as an article in the American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, dealing with secondhand smoke and respiratory symptoms in Switzerland (SAPALDIA study) written by a group of Swiss scientists, were massively attacked by the tobacco industry. The tobacco industry employed "consultants" and politicians with industry ties, who used standard industry arguments. One of the most active industry consultants in Switzerland was Peter Atteslander, a Swiss citizen and professor at the University of Augsburg in Germany. He wrote white papers for the tobacco industry and reported from meetings worldwide. Atteslander appeared to be the essence only member of the Switzerland-based "Arbeitsgruppe für Gesundheitsforschung (AGEF) ("Working Group on Health Research"), which published his work without disclosing the ties to the tobacco industry. To fight smoking restrictions in restaurants and hotels, the tobacco industry developed a strong ally in the hospitality association, the International HoReCa. The secretary general of International HoReCa at the time was Dr. Xavier Frei, also president of the SCRA (most likely the Swiss Café and Restaurant Association). The hospitality association made extensive use of tobacco industry resources and repeatedly printed tobacco industry positions in hospitality industry newsletters, without the members of International HoReCa or SCRA being informed about the close ties between their organization and the tobacco industry. The "accommodation program," a well-known tobacco industry strategy to preempt regulatory measures against smoking in restaurants and workplaces first developed in the United States, was used in Switzerland. The fact that even the logo was the same as the one used in the US is another illustration of tobacco industry's recycling of strategies and tactics worldwide. The shift of focus from the problem of secondhand smoke to one of indoor air quality in general was (and remains) a major strategy used by the tobacco industry worldwide to dilute the problem of secondhand smoke with other indoor air pollutants and ventilation of buildings. To this end, an indoor air quality control company with close ties to the tobacco industry, ACVA Atlantic Inc., USA, later renamed Healthy Buildings International, HBI, collected data which was used extensively by the tobacco industry to further their goal of downplaying the role of secondhand smoke as a major component of indoor air pollutant. Employees of HBI were sent to Switzerland to collect data on Swiss office buildings, and the data were used in the newsletters of HoReCa to support the accommodation program and against non-smoking regulations. HBI has been discredited in the US. The tobacco industry tried to influence smoking policy in airplanes through partial funding of IFAA's (International Flight Attendants Association) world congresses. This influence was established through close relationship with the president of the association, a common industry strategy in influencing organizations. When, in the wake of smoke-free flights in the US and other countries, Swissair finally introduced smoke-free flights, it was heavily criticized in newspaper articles by the Swiss "Smokers Club," and later the Swiss "Club of Tobacco Friends," whose president and founder is a former public relations official for the tobacco industry. The Swiss Cigarette Manufacturers Association successfully influenced smoking policy in railway trains through letters to the publishers of newspapers and direct lobbying toward cantonal authorities and the head of the national railways. Two referendums on tobacco and alcohol advertising bans in 1979 and 1993 were rejected by Swiss voters despite pre-referendum polls favoring advertising bans through a strong and lasting alliance of the tobacco industry with the advertising agencies and the print media. The tobacco industry successfully kept itself behind the scenes in order to avoid negative publicity while financing the anti-advertising ban campaigns and supplying the alliance against advertising bans with well-crafted arguments by tobacco industry public relations and law firms through the International Tobacco Information Center, INFOTAB. The tobacco industry and its allies used economic and political arguments, such as purported effects on employment, state tax revenues, and individual and corporate freedom to fight the advertising bans. Close relationships with officials and politicians were emphasized and maintained through regular meetings with the head of the political parties and briefings of the "tobacco caucus" in the parliament. This caucus gave the tobacco industry the means to stay well informed about the political agenda and to easily influence the political process in their favor. While Switzerland has some of the most progressive and innovative public health promotion programs, most public health advocates underestimate the power of, and driving forces behind, a tobacco industry, and only few of them have confronted the industry directly.
For the purposes of this project, the East African countries included in the study were Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda. The focus for this project was Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) as for-profit or nonprofit organizations with less than 50 employees and not exceeding USD 1,000,000 in annual revenues/turnover. The main output of this project was a proposed program of interventions to drive transformational change. To succeed in this ambitious endeavor, the project articulated clear objectives and designed a blueprint for implementation including levels of resourcing, budget and monitoring metrics. Over the course of the project the team conducted brief surveys with over 90 entrepreneurs, over 50 percent of who had 3-10 years of experience in the Information and Communication Technology (ICT) sector and primarily worked at companies with 5 employees or less.
Since the crisis, the health sector has suffered from a lack of strategic leadership. From 2009 to 2014, there were four Ministers of Health appointed, The objectives of the National Health Strategy, which ended in 2011, was informally extended with no interim strategy put in place. This resulted in a general loss of direction in the sector and fragmentation of coordination and funding among partners. In the first year after the elections and the placement of the new Government, the Ministry of Health went through a period of transition. In March 2014, the Prime Minister was also appointed the Minister of Health. In that past year, some key developments have taken place including the launch of the development of the new health sector strategy and the revitalization of the International Health Partnership in Madagascar. As of March 2015, a new Minster of Health and Secretary General of the MOH have been appointed with the key objectives of re-instilling strategic direction in the sector. The new Health Sector Strategy (2015-2019) is awaiting final Government validation. There are six strategic axes and the estimated budget needed when prioritizing maternal and child health interventions is estimated to be US$1.4 billion over the next five years. The Ministry has also explicitly committed to a the development of a Universal Coverage Strategy by the end calendar year 2015 with the first mission already having taken place. There are important challenges in the overall budget envelope and the coordination of financing (much of it being external financing) which should be addressed as they are key drivers to the success of the implementation these strategies.
