According to the author, the introduction of the euro has created the second largest economic space in the world. However, this economic space is not without its quandaries. For example, the author predicts that the exchange rate for the euro is going to increase only after the conditions for investments within the euro space have improved. All the EU governments must work on structural reforms of the labor market & the social policy. This will be facilitated once the euro has become an international currency equal to the dollar. For this to occur, a political union in Europe must be created since a successful currency needs political clout as a back-up. Adapted from the source document.
The author is critical of the introduction of the euro from the point of view of national & political economy. His criticism is based on four assumptions. The first is that the introduction of the euro gives rise to certain legal concerns. Some countries had not met the criteria for the introduction of the euro, yet it was introduced, which means that the European parliament & the national governments & their parliaments no longer respect the due process of law. The second is that the foreign debt, which amounts to 120% of GNP, is impossible to repay in those democracies that are not in the position to impose austerity measures that would include several legislatures. The third criticism is based on the fact that European countries are at different levels of development, which makes the monetary union much too vulnerable. The fourth criticism refers to the fact that common currency means common policy, &, consequently, the end of nation-states in Europe. Croatia may join the EU, but this would pose a challenge to its national sovereignty. 2 Tables. Adapted from the source document.
The article looks into the process of "building" the monetary union of the EU member countries & creating the European currency, the euro. Following lengthy negotiations, the euro-system era commenced on 1 Jan 1999, when the euro was launched, marking the beginning of the third phase of the monetary union. At first, the euro will be virtual money & function as a dual currency, but in 2002, it will be printed/coined for everyday usage. In the first half of that year, local currencies will be replaced by the euro in eleven EU countries that have satisfied the stringent criteria of "suitability" for joining the monetary union. 1 Appendix. Adapted from the source document.
Europsku uniju danas čini 27 država. U 19 država te zajednice zakonsko je sredstvo plaćanja zajednička valuta - euro (europodručje) i te države tvore Europsku ekonomsku i monetarnu uniju, a u 8 država članica zakonska sredstva plaćanja jesu nacionalne valute. Postojanje dvojnog monetarnog rješenja u Europskoj uniji omogućava postupnost u procesu uvođenja zajedničke valute sukladno mogućnostima i spremnosti pojedinih država članica za zamjenu nacionalne valute eurom i slijedom toga, u konačnici, takvim rješenjem osiguran je i pristup monetarnoj uniji. Potpisivanjem Ugovora o pristupanju Europskoj uniji svaka država obvezuje se uvesti zajedničku valutu, ali autonomno odlučuje o trenutku započinjanja toga složenog procesa.1 Nakon toga slijedi ispunjavanje uvjeta konvergencije i dvogodišnje razdoblje pridržavanja propisanih kriterija i potom uvođenje zajedničke valute Unije. ; The European Union today comprises 27 member states, 19 of which share a common currency - the euro (euro area). These states form the European Economic and Monetary Union, the eurozone, and in the remaining 8 member states the legal tender is the national currency. The existence of a dual monetary solution in the European Union enables a gradual transition in introducing the common currency in accordance with the possibilities and readiness of individual member states to replace the national currency with the euro, and consequently, this solution ensures access to the monetary union. When each state signed the Treaty of Accession to the European Union, it committed to introduce the common currency, autonomously deciding on when to start this complex process. Then followed meeting the convergence conditions and a two-year period of keeping to the criteria prescribed, after which came the introduction of the Union's common currency.
U članku se analiziraju institucionalni aranžmani euromediteranskih politika, koji se mogu opisati kao proces euromediteranizacije, pri čemu se ključni elementi analize zadržavaju na pitanju interguvernmentalne, regionalne i vanjske politike Europske unije. Uočavajući razlike u klasificiranju utjecaja europeizacije te mogućeg tematiziranja jednog aspekta euromediteranskih politika i procesa euromediteranizacije kao procesa europeizacije, rad se bavi pitanjem diplomacije kolosijeka, uspješnosti euromediteranskih politika i, posebno, istražuje primjer komplementarne uloge nevladinih organizacija u kreiranju uspješnih euromediteranskih politika. Analiza pokazuje da su pristup Procesa iz Barcelone i institucionalna izgradnja Unije za Mediteran u velikoj mjeri ostali bez željenih učinaka te da su navedene institucionalne metamorfoze ostale samo na superficijalnoj interguvernmentalnoj razini. ; The paper analyses the institutional arrangements of Euro-Mediterranean policies, which can be described by the process of Euro-Mediterraneanization, and in doing so the key elements of the analysis dwell on the issue of the intergovernmental, regional and foreign policies of the European Union. By recognizing the differences in different classification of the impact of Europeanization, and a possible study of one aspect of Euro-Mediterranean policies and the process of Euro-Mediterraneanization as a process of Europeanization, the paper deals with the issue of track diplomacy, the success of Euro-Mediterranean policies and, in particular, examines an example of the complementary role of non-governmental organizations in the making of successful Euro-Mediterranean policies. The analysis shows that the approach of the Barcelona Process and the institutional construction of the Union for the Mediterranean have been largely left without the desired effects, as well as that the specified institutional metamorphoses have remained only at the superficial intergovernmental level.
U radu se obrađuje monetarna politika Europske ekonomske i monetarne unije u segmentu optjecajnog kovinskog novca koji glasi na euro i euro cente kojeg izdaju države članice Europske unije (europodručje) te države koje službeno koriste ovu valutu. Budući da je Hrvatska u fazi uvođenja eura, jedna od aktivnosti je, i uređenje nacionalne strane hrvatskih eurokovanica kako bi se zaključio ovaj proces. Gotovinski novac europodručja i država koje službeno koriste euro je kovinski novac i novčanice. Kovinski novac nije jedinstvena kategorija. Čine ga optjecajni kovinski novac, prigodni optjecajni kovinski novac te prigodni kovinski novac. Pritom se, prigodni optjecajni kovinski novac u europodručju emitira kao zajednički i nacionalni. Optjecajni kovinski novac koji glasi na eure i euro cente te zajednički prigodni optjecajni kovinski novac koji isključivo glasi na 2 eura (uz novčanice) zakonsko je sredstvo plaćanja u svim državama koje koriste zajedničku valutu. Trenutno europodručje čini devetnaest država Europske unije. Euro kao zajedničku valutu koriste službeno i četiri države koje nisu članice Unije temeljem zaključenih monetarnih sporazuma s Unijom s pravom izdavanja eurokovanica sa nacionalnom stranom. Optjecajni kovinski novac i zajednički prigodni optjecajni kovinski novac su jedine vrste gotovinskog novca europodručja i četiri države koje službeno koriste euro koje imaju jednu stranu – revers identičnu bez obzira na državu izdavatelja (zajednička strana), a drugu stranu (nacionalna strana) - avers s nacionalnim obilježjima. ; The article addresses the monetary policy of the European Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) in the section of euro and eurocent coins issued by member states of the European Union (Eurozone) and by states which officially use this currency. Since Croatia is in the stage of introducing the euro, one of the activities is the design of the national side of Croatian euro coins as a way of concluding this process.
Članak prikazuje recentne studije o novcu kao pravnom fenomenu, putem čijeg kreiranja različiti "stakeholderi" uređuju raspodjelu resursa i odnose između pojedinih dijelova društva. U ovoj koncepciji novac formira tržište, a ne obratno. Na primjeru "slobodnog kovanja" karakterističnog za Englesku od 12. do 14. stoljeća analizira se dilema nominalizam – metalizam, te tri ograničenja robnog novca u kojima se očituje Greshamov zakon, odnosno kontroverza likvidnosti. U članku se ne analizira na koje proturječnosti nailazi nominalistička politika novca. Pokazuje se da se ni u suvremenoj koncepciji robnog novca, eksplicitnoj u Hayekovoj studiji The Denationalization of Money, zbog proturječja likvidnosti ne može – u kreiranju i održanju novčanog sustava – izbjeći uloga društvenih, izvantržišnih faktora, uz ostalo i prava. Kako mnogi autori zaključuju da je i zajednička europska valuta koncipirana po uzoru na zlatni standard (robni novac), slijedi da i uspjeh njezina dizajna i funkcioniranja ne može biti prepušten samo tržišnom mehanizmu, nego ovisi o društvenoj, političkoj i pravnoj potpori. ; The paper describes money as a legal phenomenon, which means that stakeholders use money to allocate resources and manage social relations. In this understanding money creates markets and not vice versa. The system of money creation called free minting, which was common in England from the 12th to the 14th century, is described. Three constraints of commodity money are explained and the nominalism – metalism dilemma is analysed. The focus of the analysis is on Gresham's law and the problem of liquidity of commodity money. The similarity between medieval commodity money and a modern concept of commodity money in the book The Denationalization of Money by Friedrich von Hayek is shown. The conclusion is that the market mechanism cannot solve the problem of liquidity without social agents not included in the market exchange. Since the common European currency is to some degree similar to the gold standard, the same conclusion works for the euro.
U Helsinkiju je u razdoblju od 18. do 20. 10. 2017. godine održan 131. sastanak nacionalnih delegata u EuroSDR-u (Euro Spatial Data Research). EuroSDR je znanstvena organizacija osnovana 1954. godine. U početku se primarno bavila istraživanjem u području fotogrametrije, a u kasnijem razdoblju i ostalim područjima vezanima za istraživanje geoprostornih podataka. Danas ima 18 članica i sve su države članice Europske unije. ; From 18 to 20 October 2017, the 131st Euro Spatial Data Research National Delegates' meeting took place in Helsinki. EuroSDR is a scientific organisation founded in 1954. At first, it was concerned with research in the area of photogrammetry, but more recently has also dealt with areas connected with researching geospatial data. Today, it has 18 members, all members of the European Union.
U Helsinkiju je u razdoblju od 18. do 20. 10. 2017. godine održan 131. sastanak nacionalnih delegata u EuroSDR-u (Euro Spatial Data Research). EuroSDR je znanstvena organizacija osnovana 1954. godine. U početku se primarno bavila istraživanjem u području fotogrametrije, a u kasnijem razdoblju i ostalim područjima vezanima za istraživanje geoprostornih podataka. Danas ima 18 članica i sve su države članice Europske unije. ; From 18 to 20 October 2017, the 131st Euro Spatial Data Research National Delegates' meeting took place in Helsinki. EuroSDR is a scientific organisation founded in 1954. At first, it was concerned with research in the area of photogrammetry, but more recently has also dealt with areas connected with researching geospatial data. Today, it has 18 members, all members of the European Union.
Empirically different (multicultural) Europeans are linked by means of two familiar & historically well-drilled programmatic scripts: the first one is logical-grammatical & the second scientific-technical. The first enables them to express their irreducible empirical differences in the form of a universally comprehensible logical argument that can be democratically decided upon, the second enables them to level all differences by the power of scientific & technical imperatives that disregard the logical & the democratic argument, Eurocracy & Eurotechnocracy operate with calculated scientific algorithms, European citizens & Euro-optimists & Euro-pessimists with analogies of everyday speech & its logical arguments. The communication among the proponents of these two programmatic scripts, among the different media & the different sources of power can be achieved solely by means of translation. However, translation is never going to be completely & totally faithful since the media are incommensurable; hence, mutually selectively it follows that Tertium non datur, or everybody speaks in their own languages heard by all but understood by none, hence the moral: Nenzo contra Europae nisi Europa ipse. 15 References. Adapted from the source document.
The author criticizes those Euro-sceptics who still treat the European Union as an open project that requires major decisions on the road to its fruition, as if the Union had not relinquished the model of the classical nation-state a long time ago. The author also promotes a reinterpretation of those aspects of European history that have given rise or might give rise to anti-European sentiments. Adapted from the source document.
The author looks at documents regarding the protection of minorities, designed by the Council of Europe as the oldest organization promoting the idea of European unity. He also analyzes the steps that the Republic of Croatia has made in its desire to join the Euro-Atlantic integration. Croatian politics, in line with the will of the Croatian citizens expressed in the elections of Jan 2000, has tried to reach that goal by satisfying the requirements for integration. Adapted from the source document.
U radu se obrađuju emisije optjecajnog kovinskog novca država članica Europske unije koje koriste nacionalni novac kao zakonsko sredstvo plaćanja (države članice s odstupanjem) sa aspekta utjecaja tih okolnosti na obvezu uvođenja zajedničke valute. Godine 2021. to su Bugarska, Češka, Danska, Hrvatska, Mađarska, Poljska, Rumunjska i Švedska. Prema Ugovoru o osnivanju Europske unije države članice ove asocijacije su obvezne (uz dvije iznimke) uvesti zajedničku valutu Unije - euro u trenutku kada ispune uvjete za to. Ovakvo uređenje novčanog suvereniteta u Europskoj uniji implicira da u ovoj zajednici sada postoji devet različitih valutnih područja. Jedno, ujedno i najveće novčano područje je eurozona sa zajedničkom valutom i čini ga devetnaest država članica Unije te osam novčanih područja (država) s nacionalnom valutom. Države članice s odstupanjem su dužne ispunjavati svoje obveze u odnosu na ostvarenje ekonomske i monetarne unije kao najvišeg stupnja integracije. Ove aktivnosti su predmet valorizacije najmanje svake dvije godine ili po zahtjevu države članice s odstupanjem. Novčana rješenja u segmentu optjecajnog kovinskog novca u državama Europske unije sa nacionalnim novcem su različita i drukčija od uređenja u eurozoni. Prije svega se to odnosi na gospodarenje ovim novcem, ali i numizmatičkim aspektima njihovih izdanja kao i tradicijom u pojedinim sredinama. Stoga ovakvo stanje ima i utjecaj na proces uvođenja zajedničkog novca u tim državama. Zajednički optjecajni kovinski novac u Europskoj uniji je euro i njegov stoti dio euro cent. Ovaj je novac zakonsko sredstvo plaćanja na području svih država koje su ga prihvatile i one čine eurozonu. Svaka država emitent ovoga novca samostalno uređuje njegov avers dok je revers zajednički. Optjecajni kovinski novac, unatoč činjenici da bezgotovinska plaćanja postaju sve zastupljenija, i dalje, posebno u nekim sredinama, je izuzetno prisutan i značajan novčani oblik. Kroz analizu veličine apoenskog niza emisija optjecajnog kovinskog novca u svakoj državi koja koristi nacionalnu valutu, materijala koji se koristi u njihovoj izradi, vremenu puštanja ovih apoena u optjecaj te njihovoj kupovnoj snazi zaključuje se o monetarnim politikama u segmentu optjecajnog novca ovih država i odrazu istih na prihvaćanje zajedničkog novca. U radu se daje prikaz značajnijih novčanih unija u povijesti te osnovne specifičnosti novčanih rješenja u Europskoj uniji. ; The article addresses the issue of circulating coins of the EU member states that use their national currency as legal tender (member states with a derogation), from the aspect of how these circumstances affect the obligation to introduce the common currency. In 2021, these were Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Hungary, Poland, Rumania and Sweden. In accordance with the Founding Treaties of the EU, the member states of this association have the obligation (with two exceptions) to introduce the common EU currency – the euro, at the moment when they meet conditions to do so. This way of regulating EU monetary sovereignty implies that this community at present has nine different currency areas. The largest currency region is the Eurozone with a common currency, and it consists of nineteen EU member states, and there are also eight currency regions (states) that use their national currencies. The member states with a derogation have the obligation to fulfil their commitments with respect to joining the economic and monetary union as the highest level of integration. These activities are evaluated at least every two years, or on demand of a member state with derogation. The monetary solutions concerning the circulating coins in the EU states with national currency are different from the regulation in the Eurozone. In the first place this refers to managing this currency, but also to numismatic aspects of their issuing and the tradition of particular countries. This state of affairs also influences the process of introducing the common currency in these countries. The common circulating coins in the EU are the euro and its hundredth part, the euro cent. This currency is legal tender in all the states that introduced it and they make up the Eurozone. Each country that issued these coins independently regulated their obverse, while the reverse is common. The circulating coins are still, although noncash payment is increasing, a very present and important form of payment, especially in some communities. Through analysing the denominations of the currency in each state that uses the national currency, the material used to produce it, the time when these denominations were issued and their market value, the author concludes about the monetary policies concerning the circulating currency in these states and how they will be reflected on accepting the common currency. The article also gives a survey of the more important monetary unions in history and the basic specifics of the monetary solutions in the EU.
The Partnership for Peace (PfP) was created by NATO in Brussels in 1994; an excerpt from the document spelling out membership conditions is quoted. Twenty-six countries joined PfP between 1994 & 2000; Croatia became its 26th member, & it also joined the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC) as the 46th European country. A membership in both organizations is a significant event in the history of Croatia as an independent state. There are certain duties & tasks that the PfP membership imposed on this country; however, there already are positive results of cooperating with NATO within the PfP program. Z. Dubiel
