Mathematical game theory – developed starting from the publication of The Theory of Games and Economic Behavior (1944), by John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern – aims to outline an ideal model of behaviour of rational agents involved in some interaction with other rational agents. For this reason, game theory has immediately attracted the attention of philosophers dealing with practical rationality and, since the fifties, has been applied to the analysis of several issues concerning ethics and philosophy of politics. Here we will focus on one of the most interesting applications of game theory to ethical-political inquiry, i.e., with the game theoretic analysis of some problems related to the evolution of moral norms. Firstly, we will provide a short outline of the development of game theory, which has lead to the formulation of a plurality of different game theories. It will be shown that such theories can be classified in two main groups: rationalistic game theories –in two different versions: classical and epistemic – and evolutionary game theories. Moreover, some basic elements of classical game theory will be introduced and the key ideas of epistemic and evolutionary game theories will be illustrated. Afterwards, the main approaches developed within the ethical-political applications of game theory will be shortly described. Finally, some results obtained in the last twenty years by the researchers who have analysed the evolution of moral norms by the conceptual tools of evolutionary and epistemic game theories, will be examined.
This research presents results of the last three years collaboration between the Centro di Ricerca ''E.~Piaggio'' and the company Ingegneria dei Sistemi SpA (IDS), on the application of game theoretic algorithms. Based on the results obtained by this research, IDS has decided to investigate the implementation of the proposed system on board of its unmanned vehicles, in order to provide a novel security system to the market. This research proposed the application of a coordinated multi robot system to the problem of asymmetric threat, both in military and civilian scenarios. The problem of detecting and accordingly reacting to an asymmetric threat (Asymmetric threats or techniques are a version of not ''fighting fair,'' which can include the use of surprise in all its operational and strategic dimensions and the use of weapons in ways unplanned) is a challenge both from research and technological points of view. Even though the available surveillance sensors are sufficient to identify and classify asymmetric threats, they are able to give a quick alert only in nominal working conditions. Indeed, adverse weather conditions easily lead to degradation of sensors performance leading to a drastic reduction of the time available for a possible reaction after the detection, identification and classification procedures. The short time--to--reaction may increase the possibility of human errors especially in stressful situations (e.g. an incorrect assessment of the necessary reaction). This research proposes the use of multi--robot coordinated team as autonomous surveillance systems that can guarantee an adequate supervision of the area in any working conditions even though the entire area is not fully monitored at any time instant. Indeed, the mobility abilities of autonomous vehicles can be exploited to deploy the team of robots to monitor the environment and to react to possible intruders. In particular, this research is focussed on the problem of coordinating a team of robots based on partial knowledge of the environment due to limited sensors footprint and communication range. The coordination of the robot must also guarantee the accomplishment of other tasks in a framework in which communication is limited due to security issues or deteriorated communication channels (e.g. underwater scenarios). An example of antagonistic tasks is the monitoring of the area around the main ship while detecting, tracking and herding an intruder toward a safe area. It is worth noting that the marine scenario is only a possible application of the proposed methodology that is valid whenever the goal is to detect, localize and react to any environmental changes of interest, e.g. high variation of temperature, water pollution, terrorists attacks, etc. In this research a unified model has been proposed for the problem under study for different application scenarios such as asymmetric threats protection in marine environments and safety at border crossing points, such as airports. The proposed unified framework is based on the Game Theory. Indeed, it is well known that the particular class of potential games solves several cooperative control problems with a reduced amount of communication between robots. In particular, the considered control problem is transformed into a non--cooperative game where the goal is to reach specific equilibria. Moreover, the case of ``payoff--based'' scenarios, where robots get a reward in the reached regions based on the action performed by other robots, helps in capturing the requirements into the problem formulation. Learning algorithms that can steer the robots toward Nash equilibria are proven to solve partially the problem. In case of a static environment, e.g. fixed area of interest in the scenario, the coverage problem has been largely studied with a game theoretic approach. However, such algorithms are proven to converge to a static configuration maximizing the number of interested area covered by the robot sensors' footprint but are not able to handle a dynamic intruder. On the other hand, in case of dynamic environment, as for asymmetric threat protection, existing algorithms have been only designed to explore the entire area without selecting the sub--regions of major interest or doing it with high communication costs. Concluding, with respect to the state of the art literature, in this research, a game theoretic approach is used to detecting, track and herd a dynamic intruder protecting pre-defined areas. In particular, the work proposes two kind of coordination protocols which are proved to solve the asymmetric threat protection problem. Based on the well--known payoff--based algorithms, the research presents some extension of state--of--the--art coordination protocols which are suitable for dynamic environment. Moreover, the work presents new payoff--based algorithms to deal with the problem of multi--robot coordination in dynamic environment where the robots must accomplish antagonistic tasks simultaneously. For those new algorithms convergence to equilibria is formally proved. Finally, our research is interested in investigating the relationship between the team of guards and the intruder once it has been identified, i.e, the \emph{reaction phase}. Such problem is investigated with the use of a game theoretic framework and, a novel team coordination protocols for the intruder herding problem, is proposed. Such new algorithm solves the problem of steering a team of guards for guiding an intruder towards a restricted area of a known environment. The proposed system, based on the virtual objectives concept, is able to limit the movement of an intruder without communication between robots of the team. Proposed framework has been validated with a Monte Carlo simulation in order to cover a large set of different situations. Based on Monte Carlo simulation, a novel tool, that solves the problem of determine the minimum number of robots contrasting an intruder which is moving in the area, is proposed. Indeed, it can be used to determine the maximum volume to store autonomous vehicles on board. Proposed algorithms have been evaluated against intruders piloted by human, in order to test the robustness of the proposed solution. The proposed game theoretic framework has been tested in real robot experiments thanks to the use of a novel multi--robot system for managing team of robots. Based on the promising results, the proposed model has been extended to cope the asymmetric threat protection problem when sensors are affected by uncertainty on the detection. Video of some validation results are available online (https://youtu.be/emyf4xx-_pY, https://youtu.be/rBs23CNdh8U and https://youtu.be/ODoHY7WgQdc).
Résumé: Les Hunger Games, grand succès de la littérature jeunesse, est une trilogie dans laquelle abondent les occurrences de tortures de toutes sortes. L'examen de ce thème nous permettra d'élucider ses corollaires directs, à savoir l'éthique, la philosophie politique (dans la mesure où la torture peut se justifier par le bien général), mais nous amènera également à nous pencher sur nos valeurs modernes quant à la corporéité et sur les menaces de réification qui pèsent sur le corps et sur le sujet. Tous ces aspects convergent naturellement vers des questionnements sur le totalitarisme, mais aussi et surtout sur les outils de résistance les plus efficaces: contre la torture et contre le totalitarisme, les sujets maintiennent un statut de sujet grâce à une lucidité, une recherche authentique de la vérité et à une spontanéité qui leur permet de contrer la manipulation du réel. Mots-clés: Hunger Games; Torture; Littérature jeunesse; Totalitarisme Abstract:The Hunger Games, a very successful trilogy in popular culture aiming to reach young adult audiences, is surprisingly rich in occurrences of various kinds of tortures. Examining this pervasive theme will cast an interesting light in the matters of ethics, of political theory insofar as torture can be used as a tool to justify the greater good, but will also teach us a lot about our modern society and especially the implications torture has on our notions of corporeality and the potential reification of the body and the subject. All these aspects converge naturally towards the matter of totalitarianism, beautifully exemplified by the Capitol in the Hunger Games, but also, most notably, on the most efficient tools for resistance: against torture as well as against totalitarianism, subjects remain subjects and overcome the reign of manipulated things through lucidity, truth, authenticity and spontaneity. Key-words: Hunger Games; Torture; Young adult literature; Totalitarianism
The provision of public goods is an important problem in economics and the social sciences. It is often claimed that this problem has the structure of the well-known Prisoner's Dilemma so that rational and self-interested individuals would not be able to provide any public good by spontaneous cooperation. In this paper, we argue that this pessimistic view of the possibility spontaneous cooperation is largely unjustified, since the game theoretic analysis of public goods shows how their voluntary provision is indeed feasible in a number of circumstances. We conclude by considering the implications of the game theoretic approach to the problem of public goods for political philosophy and, in particular, for the possibility of "ordered anarchy" as defended in the works of Anthony de Jasay.
The aim of this paper is to provide the reader with a simple and systematic analysis of the fundamentals of non cooperative game theory. Special attention is paid to the most controversial tools discussed throughout the specific literature concerning the problems of strategical interdipendence.
open ; Rational-choice explanations of institutional change are generally considered the prototype of the individualistic research programme. The first aim of the paper is to demonstrate that this claim is not warranted. It is not so if the phenomena to be explained are defined from the external point of view of social efficiency: in this case, individualism is transformed into functionalism and the notions of its toolbox are turned into elements of an objective teleology. When considered from the point of view of the individuals involved in their construction, institutions can be conceived as repeated cooperation schemes devised by some of these individuals (the proposers) as the best means to tackle the mutual dependences in which they find themselves and achieve some of their goals, and adopted in mutual agreement with their counterparts (the receivers) because convenient for them too, given their own particular interests. The second aim of the paper is to develop a bargaining model based upon this idea. The proposed model shows, among other things, that when bargaining concerns the adoption of repeated cooperation schemes (i.e. of institutions, according to my definition), it is in the interest of the proposers to get to correct (or so considered) beliefs and to communicate them to the counterpart sincerely. Moreover, when bargaining consists in choosing one scheme among others, it is possible that some will agree to it despite the fact that they are not better-off with respect to the initial situation. The third aim of the paper is to show that the model proposed can highlight the process that has led to adopt important institutions such as the European Monetary System. ; European Phd On Socio-Economic And Statistical Studies ; Social sciences methodology; institutional change; game theory. ; open ; Palminiello, Paola ; Palminiello, Paola
LIUC PAPERS-41 Serie Economia e Impresa 10, maggio 1997 In this essay I suggest a first-best solution to the collusion problem in a three-levels principal-supervisor-agent hierarchy (Tirole 1986, Laffont-Tirole 1993) in the context of a repeated games model. I introduce a new player in the component game i.e. a group of consumers which is also modelled as the constituency of the principal. An ex ante incomplete constitutional contract of authorisation links the principal to the group of consumer. At the next move in the game the group of consumers has a choice on the level of support and compliance to the principal's authority, which I intend as a specific investment. Due to the incompleteness of contracts problem, according to the economic theory of corporate culture (Kreps 1990) and code of ethics (Sacconi 1997), the principal may only announce a code of basic principles of good administration, being not automatically enforceable. In the repeated game among the three levels hierarchy and an infinite series of short-lived groups of consumers/supporters, I prove by a reputation effects construction (Fudenberg-Levine 1989, 1992) that the first best contract offered by the principal to the supervisor and the agent is part of a self-enforcing equilibrium profile making possible to the principal to get a payoff that approximates the Stakelberg payoff in nearly all the component games.
In this paper I compare Wittgenstein's and Adorno's different post- metaphysical visions of philosophy. In my opinion, it is possible to find many analogies between their approaches regarding the importance of the analysis of concepts and the relation between philosophy and music. But, while Adorno's theory is understandable just within the sort of philosophy of history traced in the famous Dialectical of Enlightenment, Wittgenstein is absolutely against such an approach. According to Adorno, negative dialectic is the only philosophical instrument useful to resist the universal tendency of domination of the Reason and his vision of language derives from that presupposition. By opposite, Wittgenstein believes that many "language games" exist and therefore our liberty depends on the possibility to use language in different ways. But the notion of "language games" presupposes that of "form of life" and therefore using language is a collective experience and not a monological one like in Adorno. This difference is the most important in order to understand why Adorno still believes in a positive role of philosophy while Wittgenstein not. More, according to Adorno, our li berty is also reachable thanks to that kind of music that stands opposite to social domination while Wittgenstein argues that we have to gain a contemplative perspective of the music in order to annul our suffering.
International audience Beginning with the 1979-1980 lectures at the Collège de France, Du gouvernement des vivants, this article aims at a reconstruction of Foucault's shift: from a study of knowledge-power systems to an archaeological-genealogical analysis of the government of human beings by means of truth; or, better yet, a study of the relations between the manifestation of truth, the constitution of subjectivity, and the government of self and others. Therefore, it seeks to explore the meaning of the fundamental notion of "regime of truth" (in its connection with the notion of "truth games"), as well as the Foucauldian project of a genealogy of the modern subject in Western civilization. The conclusion suggests that Foucault's last series of lectures at the Collège de France are a way to urge us to undertake a "politics of ourselves", and consequently to get rid of the hermeneutics of the self, no matter whether Christian or scientific.
The subject matter of this dissertation is the analysis of the regulation of pre-contractual liability, as interpreted and constructed by the case-law and scholars, under a comparative perspective and with a specific focus on m&a transactions. I will specifically consider the Italian, American and English law systems. The choice of the foregoing specific topic stems from the following considerations: (i) first and foremost, the increasing importance of the role played by the negotiation phase, both in general, and with specific reference to the arm's length transactions in the business field. The entering into a contract (by means of the mechanism of offer and acceptance) is increasingly rare, and is totally absent in the m&a sector, characterized by lengthy and complex negotiations. In this setting, the legal regulation of the pre-contractual stage is of paramount importance; (ii) secondly, the differences, both of the rules, and generally speaking of the approach, existing between civil law and common law systems with reference to negotiations. Two articles of the Italian civil code specifically address negotiations, and both doctrine and case-law on the matter are wide-ranging. Of paramount importance is the issue of unjustified withdrawal, which for long time has corresponded to the main case of pre-contractual liability. Scholars and case-law have subsequently developed other issues: duty of information, indemnifiable damages, parallel negotiations etc. The nature of pre-contractual liability has created a huge dispute, not yet resolved. The first part of the first chapter deals with the main features of pre-contractual liability under Italian law. The second part, instead, analyses the regulation of negotiations in the m&a sector. Here, negotiations have particular relevance, in consideration of their lengthy and complex nature. The concepts related to pre-contractual liability, examined in the first part, will be therefore scrutinized in this specific sector. Of particular importance are those pre-contractual documents, that market practice has developed, such as letters of intent, confidentiality agreement and lock-out agreements. At the end of the chapter we will investigate a recent case ruled by the Court of Milan, which will let us walk through the topics scrutinized, and see how they have been interpreted by the judges. With the second chapter we enter into the common law system. The first part deals with the analysis of the American law system. In order to understand the differences with our regulation, we will start from the definition of contract. Going through the concepts of freedom to contract, all or nothing approach etc. we will better understand the reasons of such different approaches, and why negotiations are not specifically addressed by official legislation we will then turn our attention to the several tools developed by practitioners, with a specific focus on m&a sector again, in order to see how the legislative vacuum has been filled by prelaminar agreements of various denominations. The analysis of the case-law, which adopted different approaches, and of the doctrine, more available to rethink the current regulation of precontractual liability, and open to changes also in a future perspective, results particularly interesting. The chapter closes with the analysis of the English law system, which results to be the stricter one with reference to the possibility to recognize any precontractual liability. We will again start from the concept of contract, to underline how the historical – cultural differences affect the modern approach on the matter. Starting from the leading case Walford v Miles, we will see how, similarly to the American law system, has been developed piecemeal solutions, that is, specific and fragmentary (misrepresentation, unjust enrichment, promissory estoppel etc.). This is consistent with the traditional remedial common law approach, developed in a preponderant way thanks to judges' work. A remedial law, by virtue of things, can hardly address in an organic way an institution, being more available to develop fragmented solutions. The concept of good faith, therefore, has not been particular diffusion. Also in the company law field, we still can see some reluctance in recognizing any effect to those precontractual documents which should regulate the parties involved in negotiations. Finally, in the third chapter, after referring to the theories developed by the economic analysis of law, as well as by decision analysis and game theory, we will try to identify which of the possible solutions available, results to be the most efficient one, incentivizing reliance and ensuring optimal investments in the negotiation phase. The work ends with the conclusions of the author.
La tesi prende in esame, nell'ambito del diritto societario, la disciplina del recesso del socio da società per azioni ed in particolare il tema della efficacia della dichiarazione di recesso e la perdita dello status socii. La riforma delle società di capitali attuata dal d.lgs n. 6/2003 ha modificato in modo rilevante l'istituto del recesso, assegnando alla fattispecie una nuova vitalità. Nel sistema originario del codice civile del 1942 il legislatore aveva delineato la figura del recesso del socio di società di capitali quale strumento eccezionale, preoccupandosi di definirne più i limiti che le potenzialità. A causa dell'efficacia disgregatrice ed esiziale per l'organizzazione d'impresa, la direttrice utilizzata fu quella della marginalizzazione della fattispecie. Solo ad inizio del nuovo millennio il legislatore ha voluto attribuire a questo istituto un ruolo più incisivo, a partire dallo spazio riservato nell'impianto codicistico di sei articoli, in sostituzione dell'unico originario, così da poter parlare di(ri)nascita di una fattispecie lasciata fino ad allora in uno stato embrionale, annientata nelle sue potenzialità di tutela del socio. Alla tradizionale funzione legata all'interesse dell'azionista a sciogliere il vincolo societario per dissenso verso le scelte della maggioranza, se ne è affiancata un'altra che, in linea con l'obiettivo perseguito dalla riforma di rendere le società collettori di capitali più attraenti, consente al socio di disinvestire agilmente la propria partecipazione. Il recesso legittimamente esercitato offre uno strumento utile a fini di negoziazione endosocietaria, non più solo meccanismo di difesa del socio di minoranza avverso le decisioni assunte dalla maggioranza in grado di alterare sensibilmente le condizioni di rischio dell'investimento, ma anche mezzo di rinegoziazione del programma societario.Nonostante i meriti riconosciuti alla riforma di aver fornito all'autonomia privata un istituto del recesso riformato ed ampliato, a più di dieci anni dall'entrata in vigore delle modifiche societarie, permangono ancora punti oscuri che determinano dubbi nell'applicazione di un istituto che ha ormai assunto un ruolo centrale negli equilibri sociali. Incerti continuano ad essere i tempi ed, in particolare, perdura l'interrogativo sul momento di efficacia del recesso in termini di definitiva perdita da parte del recedente della sua qualità di socio ed insieme dei connessi diritti sociali, differenti da quello residuo al rimborso. Tenuto conto dell'articolato (e spesso non breve) iter che separa l'istante della ricezione della dichiarazione di exit del socio da parte della società, da quello dell'effettivo versamento del valore di liquidazione della partecipazione, l'individuazione dell'istante in cui possa dirsi cessato il rapporto sociale ha centrale importanza per la certezza dei rapporti giuridici. È proprio su questo limbo temporale che la tesi concentra l'attenzione, al fine di comprendere se e fino a quando il socio recedente possa considerarsi ancora tale o sia per lui prospettabile un depotenziamento delle prerogative partecipative. Si tratta di un problema di rilievo, in quanto ciascuna differente soluzione ha ricadute diverse sull'agere della società e sulla certezza dei rapporti giuridici. Lo studio condotto analizza lo status socii a partire dai principali diritti, amministrativi e patrimoniali di cui l'azionista dispone, quali il diritto di voto, il potere di impugnare le delibere assembleari, di esercitare l'azione di responsabilità nei confronti degli amministratori, il diritto d'opzione. Ciascuno di essi tutela interessi differenti e, con riguardo al socio uscente, si analizza se essi sopravvivano nelle more del procedimento di recesso o se la dichiarata volontà di non far parte più del sodalizio sociale faccia venir meno la ragione giustificatrice del diritto. La prospettiva adottata è stata quella di ricercare un delicato equilibrio tra posizioni contrapposte, della società e dell'azionista uscente, valorizzando il "multiforme ingegno" del recesso, oggi strumento sia di voice che di exit. ; The origin of the withdrawal right is tied to the move in Corporate Law to majority approval of fundamental corporate changes, and away from a requirement of unanimous shareholder consent. The system of the withdrawal right assures a safe exit for minority shareholders, especially when they are members of a not listed company. Unlike limited liability companies whose stocks are sold in the capital market, in not listed ones the rule "if you do not like the management, sell your stock" is not valid. Nevertheless, it is worth pointing out the evolution this right had in recent years: now withdrawal right can also be an instrument to juggle a shareholder's stay in corporation, using the weight of their shares and the loss of liquidity for the company, to achieve a favorable change in majority's policy or to prevent transactions.In this polyfunctional exit procedure it is important to balance protection between the shareholder who has decided to leave the company and, on the other side, the corporation which still continues to exist without the capital of withdrawn shareholder. What happens in withdrawal right is something similar to what economists call "prisoner's dilemma", because every involved subject does not know the reaction to his decision made by the other one, despite the common known goal being the highest individual payoff. Every part, like in the games theory, is obliged to suffer the effects of other's action. The withdrawal right can be a serious threat if the shareholder, using the option of the exit, loses less than the damage inflicted by the company with the majority decision taken. It must be considered that the exit process from the company is not always fast and accepted, but there are phases requiring time (shareholder's decision has to be communicated to the company; company should provide to liquidate the participation or hinder shareholder's proposal). In this length of time, that can last months or years in case of judicial controversy, it fails to grasp if shareholder is still a member or not of organization with their traditional rights and power. In the Italian system of Law the latter company reform (d.lgs. 6/2003) has provided discipline of exit remedy but a certain statement about the moment of the loss of shareholder membership has not been provided. Two different perspectives are possible: if a shareholder is considered as a stakeholder, they should have only a claim of credit from the company, because they are yet considered outside the business corporation; while if they are considered as a shareholder, it should be necessary to identify boundaries of their acting. The risk is that shareholder could abuse their residual position and their rights to hinder or damage the company, due to them being no longer interested in pursuing the best corporate policy, having already an issued, unmodifiable credit claim on the corporation. Nevertheless, it is also true that the withdrawn shareholder is inside the company until the debt is not liquidated, so they could play an active part, although reduced, in corporate governance. The question to solve for withdrawal procedure is the destiny of shareholders who have decided to leave and their surviving role in corporation as shareholders or stakeholders. The thesis try to identify power and rights of members who want to leave company, but are still inside during the withdrawal right procedure. These questions are essential for certain, swift and efficient capital relationships.
