Suchergebnisse

Capacity development through agricultural training is a proven approach to enhance the management skills of small-scale farmers in developing countries, aiming to increase their standard of living in the long run. Yet, little is known about their preferences for different types of agricultural training as well as the impact of trainers' qualification on participants' learning success and satisfaction. Moreover, modern information and communication technologies are increasingly promoted as means to spread agricultural knowledge because of their large technical possibilities, wide coverage, and high exchange rate of information. In particular, the use of smartphones is discussed as a new way to train farmers in developing countries. However, the drivers of small-scale farmers' intention to use smartphones still seem largely under-explored. Besides modern technologies, innovation platforms also called learning alliances are another method to develop farmers' capacities, where all stakeholders involved into agricultural production try to solve problems and improve the value added for everybody. Yet, frameworks to evaluate these alliances are rare. Against this background, this dissertation presents four papers, which focus on capacity development from small-scale farmers' perspectives regarding their preferences, intentions to use smartphones, learning success, satisfaction and trust. Capacity development in agriculture still follows standardised top-down models driven by the public sector in most developing countries. In contrast, in industrialised countries training activities are increasingly privatised and service provision demand-driven. This is due to the increasing specialisation and industrialisation of agricultural production in recent decades. The trend is prompting researchers and other stakeholders to re-think the contextual fit of capacity development models whereby small-scale farmers in developing countries are passive knowledge recipients rather than holders of traditional know-how and capacities that can be exploited and further developed in customised training. To analyse this research gap, paper one examines the preferences of small-scale farmers for agricultural training with respect to training method, trainer, duration and location of training, and additional offers. A discrete choice experiment was conducted with 664 randomly selected farmers in Bihar state, India, in 2016. The data obtained are analysed using a mixed logit model in a willingness-to-pay space, including analyses for different subgroups. Based on their particular willingness-to-pay for the studied attributes, the analysis depicts small-scale farmers' preference for training activities that include demonstrations, additionally offered inputs (seeds, fertilisers, credit) and an academic trainer. The second paper builds on the findings of the first paper and focuses on trainers' qualification. Within capacity development, the type and quality of the trainer play a crucial role in promoting farmers' capacity, which is underlined by the results of our first paper. Whilst several studies have addressed the identification of farmers' capacity development preferences, few have investigated the relationship between trainer qualification, learning success and satisfaction of participants. Hence, the main purpose of this paper is to examine the relationship between trainers' qualification and learning success as well as satisfaction of small-scale farmers. Moderated mediation analysis is utilised to measure the influence of direct and indirect effects through trainers' qualification on learning success and satisfaction. In this framework, psychological and relevant proven constructs from the Theory of Planned Behaviour are taken into account: attitude and perceived control operate as mediators, subjective norm acts as moderator, and gender and age are considered as covariates. This framework is applied on primary survey data from 217 farmers collected in Bihar state, India, in December 2016, by the use of a structured questionnaire. The results show no difference in the degrees of satisfaction among farmers related to trainers' qualification. However, learning success decreases with an academically educated trainer. The change of attitude during the training has a significant positive effect on satisfaction. Subjective norms also affect the participants' satisfaction positively. With respect to the theories used, the results indicate that the behavioural constructs are relevant in the field of agricultural education and extension to explain participants' satisfaction. Theoretical implications can be drawn regarding the improvement of this conceptual framework and other related studies. Besides the trainer, also the method of training is important, whereby the smartphone is one possible device and method to transfer knowledge. The use of smartphones is increasingly supported by non-governmental organisations as well as governmental institutions as a modern information and communication technology to spread agricultural information. However, uptake of the smartphone usage in agriculture is still relatively low in developing countries. Up to now, psycho-economic drivers of farmers' adoption behaviour are mostly not taken into account, or the stakeholders are unaware of the possible importance of non-monetary factors. The aim of the third paper is to identify and quantify drivers of farmers' adoption behaviour through the development of a complex conceptual framework, based on the Theory of Planned Behaviour and its further advances. This framework is applied to primary survey data from 664 farmers collected in Bihar state, India, in 2016, using a structured questionnaire. The results of a partial least squares analysis indicate that subjective norms, attitude, self-control, as well as positive and even negative emotions exert positive influences on the intention to use a smartphone for agricultural purposes. With these results, the paper extends the academic literature through new conceptual insights and provides application-oriented implications for stakeholders, such as non-governmental organisations, extension services and research institutes. Another approach to strengthen small-scale farmers' capacities is to use multi-stakeholder innovation systems or learning platforms, such as the Nicaraguan Learning Alliance. However, tools for the evaluation of multi-stakeholder innovation systems are rare so far. The fourth paper reports the application of a conceptual framework to evaluate multi-stakeholder innovation systems using the Nicaraguan Learning Alliance in this paper. The assessment focuses on the business relationship constructs of trust and capacity development. In total, 90 survey interviews of producer organisations, 20 in-depth interviews, and six focus group discussions were collected from agribusiness stakeholders linked with the Nicaraguan Learning Alliance and from a control group of stakeholders involved with other networks. The quantitative data were analysed through factor and regression analyses. Results from the quantitative analyses were triangulated with qualitative data. The analysis shows that the Nicaraguan Learning Alliance has been successful in developing smallholder farmers' capacities as a result of trust developed through its dedicated project managers. Nonetheless, the Nicaraguan Learning Alliance has not been more successful at developing agribusiness capacities among Nicaraguan farmers than other networks with the same goals. Results from this study point to the need for facilitating more interactions between the different networks of farmers' cooperatives and organisations with other stakeholders already active within the Nicaraguan agrifood innovation system. Based on the results of the four presented paper a series of practical recommendations for training activities apply. One of those is to combine the strength of an expert trained on-the-job as the main trainer with an academically educated trainer. The academic trainer could be integrated directly in some parts of the training activities or via modern technologies such as videos or smartphones. This seems to be the most promising approach with respect to the farmers preferences and in order to achieve the greatest learning success and satisfaction of the participants. Furthermore, by the usage of modern information and communication technologies the effectiveness of the training could also be increased. Besides the professional background of the trainer, it is important that trainers gain qualifications in teaching methods and other soft skills. With respect to modern information and communication technologies like smartphones, our results indicate that presenting trainers and later farmers with the various possibilities of smartphones and creating a positive image of these technologies could help to reinforce the willingness to adopt this new method of communication for agricultural purposes. Hereby, also the social environment needs to be addressed, for example within the training. Smartphones cannot replace direct contact, but their importance regarding capacity development will increase rapidly as previous developments in mobile phone use have shown. These findings provide politicians and other stakeholders with tangible recommendations to improve their training programmes. Ultimately this could make capacity development more attractive and therefore more likely to be attended by small-scale farmers in the short and long-term. These consequences in return could have further implications for the agricultural productivity and poverty reduction.

[spa] El período de crecimiento económico que aquí analizaremos se caracteriza por el foco que pondrá el Estado en el desarrollo de la política industrial, su influencia en el impulso de ciertos sectores considerados estratégicos y también en el papel como agente económico que adquirirá una vez iniciado el proceso. A partir de las reflexiones acerca del período realizadas tanto por economistas de la época como Pinto (1959) y Mamalakis (1976), y también contemporáneos como Meller (2016), parecería que se trató de un proceso fracasado, por la imposibilidad de perpetuar en el tiempo el desarrollo del sector industrial. Con el foco puesto en el crecimiento, la deuda, la inflación, el desarrollo del sector industrial y el estancamiento de la agricultura, la mayor parte de los estudios se han propuesto analizar las limitaciones del período industrializador (Bértola, 2011; Dornbusch & Edwards, 1992; Kaldor, 1971; Mamalakis, 1976; Pinto, 1959). En esta investigación queremos ampliar los elementos de análisis que existen sobre este momento, incorporando no sólo nuevos datos si no presentando un elemento transversal al proceso de crecimiento del período: las/os trabajadoras/es y sus salarios. El interés por los salarios no es injustificado, ya que han sido un elemento principal en el estudio de las ventajas y limitaciones de la industrialización desde fines del siglo XIX en Europa y su centralidad en el análisis histórico y económico hace que continúen los esfuerzos por generar o mejorar series históricas de salarios (Margo, 2000; Scholliers, 1989; Scholliers & Zamagni, 1995). Las remuneraciones, además de su contribución a la comprensión de fenómenos sociales y económicos, han sido objeto de estudio en sí mismas, por el papel que juegan en la historia de los trabajadores y en el estudio de las condiciones del mercado laboral (Goldin & Margo, 1992; Hatton & Thomas, 2010; Margo, 2000; Rosenbloom, 1998). Esta tesis se enmarca en las transformaciones del modelo de crecimiento producto de las políticas industrializadoras, pero también en las posibilidades (y limitaciones) que estos cambios entregaron al sector obrero. En ese sentido, el principal objeto de esta investigación es entregar nuevas series de salarios nominales y reales, y analizar el comportamiento de los salarios en el contexto del desarrollo industrial y económico chileno en el período de crecimiento hacia adentro. Con esto queremos contribuir al debate acerca de las características que tuvo este proceso llevado a cabo en América Latina, centrándonos en un espacio que ha sido central en los debates sobre la industrialización en otras regiones: los salarios. Junto a esto, esperamos aportar a los debates sobre los salarios en general al evaluar el desempeño salarial en un contexto de cambio estructural, a partir del potencial explicativo de variables económicas e institucionales. Los años que abarca la industrialización dirigida por el estado son complejos económica y socialmente. Hemos recorrido estos cuarenta años desde distintas miradas y perspectivas a través de las series de salarios nominales y reales. Se han presentado también series de salarios para espacios olvidados por las estadísticas oficiales, en el caso de la desagregación por sector, la rama agrícola y con una nueva serie de remuneraciones para un sector generalmente olvidado en las estadísticas históricas: las mujeres trabajadoras. El primer resultado de esta investigación son las series de salarios medios nominales, es decir, la serie total del sector obrero, las series por sector y las series desagregadas por género. Y a través de ellas, se aprecia que la Gran Depresión deja una clara huella en la curva de salarios nominales. La desagregación por rama permite ver que las remuneraciones en la etapa de industrialización fueron bajas, ya que la construcción – un sector de baja calificación y precariedad – es el que se mueve durante todos estos años en torno a la media. La evidencia de bajos salarios que nos entregan los salarios nominales se verifica si observamos los salarios ajustados por el costo de vida. La primera conclusión que podemos extraer de la curva de salarios reales es que antes de los sesenta, los incrementos de salarios responden exclusivamente a períodos de recuperación de lo perdido. El análisis de la serie de salarios medios reales se realiza en función de la productividad, la inflación, el desempleo, y la sindicalización y la huelga, como expresión del movimiento obrero. Este análisis permite observar que en los primeros años de la serie el crecimiento de la productividad tiene un papel en el bajo crecimiento de salarios, pero que luego se separa ostensiblemente del rumbo que toma el aumento salarial generando una brecha a partir de mediados de los años cuarenta, tomando el producto por trabajador una velocidad de incremento mayor. Asimismo, la inflación que a primera vista es uno de los elementos que más claramente parecen afectar los salarios parecen tener un rol preponderante pero no exclusivo en el bajo crecimiento de los ingresos, dado que especialmente en la crisis inflacionaria de los años cincuenta, estos disminuyen incluso si son ajustados por el deflactor del PIB como índice alternativo. El desempleo marca su influencia más importante en la crisis de la Gran Depresión, generando altos niveles de desocupación que motivan en gran parte la pérdida de poder adquisitivo de la población en esa época. Finalmente, vemos que la debilidad del movimiento obrero afectado por una gran represión a partir de fines de la década de los cuarenta es una de las variables que explica el estancamiento y la vulnerabilidad de las remuneraciones a los eventos inflacionarios, los que no parecen afectar al crecimiento y se concentran casi exclusivamente en la capacidad de compra del sector obrero. Así, la historia de los salarios en Chile durante el período industrializador dirigido por el Estado se ve fuertemente afectado por los bajos salarios y las pocas posibilidades de incremento que nos muestra la serie salarial media así como las series desagregadas. La curva de la productividad por otra parte, muestra que si existió en ese período espacio para el crecimiento de los salarios obreros que no se realiza principalmente como consecuencia de la represión de que fue objeto la organización sindical. Bibliografía citada en este documento Bértola, L. (2011). Bolivia, Chile y Perú desde la Independencia: una historia de conflictos, transformaciones, inercias y desigualdad. En Institucionalidad y desarrollo económico en América Latina. Santiago: Cepal. Dornbusch, R., & Edwards, S. (1992). Macroeconomía del populismo en la América Latina. Fondo de Cultura Económica. Goldin, C., & Margo, R. A. (1992). Wages, Prices, and Labor Markets before the Civil War. En Strategic Factors in Nineteenth Century American Economic History: A Volume to Honor Robert W. Fogel (pp. 67–104). National Bureau of Economic Research. Hatton, T. J., & Thomas, M. (2010). Labour markets in the interwar period and economic recovery in the UK and the USA. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 26(3), 463– 485. Kaldor, N. (1971). Los Problemas Económicos de Chile. En Ensayos sobre Política Económica. Madrid: Tecnos. Mamalakis, M. (1976). Growth and Structure of the Chilean Economy: From Independence to Allende. New Haven: Yale University Press. Margo, R. A. (2000). Wages and Labor Markets in the United States, 1820-1860. National Bureau of Economic Research. Meller, P. (2016). Un siglo de economía política chilena (1890-1990) (2a. ed). Chile: Uqbar. Pinto, A. (1959). Chile, un caso de desarrollo frustrado. Santiago de Chile: Editorial Universitaria. Rosenbloom, J. L. (1998). The Extent of the Labor Market in the United States, 1870–1914. Social Science History, 22(3), 287–318. Scholliers, P. (1989). Real Wages in 19th and 20th Century Europe: historical and comparative perspectives. Berg Publishers Limited. Scholliers, P., & Zamagni, V. (1995). Labour's Reward: Real Wages and Economic Change in 19th and 20th century Europe. Edward Elgar Publishing. ; [eng] This thesis looks to contribute, through new wages series, with the debate about the problems and limitations of the import substitution period in Chile. The series that exist now do not comprehend the entire period or are calculated from different sources with various methodologies. For that, the first goal is to estimate a new average wage series, sector and gender series for the period of 1927/1928-1973. The new series show that the average wages of this period are low and that they don't grow until the sixties. The prior three decades were marked by almost no growth and wages crisis as result of inflation peaks. But the analysis also shows that there was space for growth due to a growing gap between productivity and wages after the forties, even after adjusting wages by the product deflator. In this scenario, labour movement history and data about unionization and strikes shows that the relationship between the governments and the labour unions, with long periods of repression, had an important role in the weakness and slight capacity of workers to demand for better wages.

Le Forze Armate dei Paesi membri dell'Alleanza atlantica annoverano tra i loro ranghi, sebbene sovente con limitazioni di specialità o di categoria, personale femminile la cui integrazione, in un ambito lavorativo storicamente dominato da cultura e dinamiche mono-genere, è oggetto di questo studio. Dopo oltre un decennio dall'apertura all'arruolamento femminile da parte delle ultime Forze Armate che erano ancora caratterizzate dalla presenza esclusivamente maschile, si ritiene che le fasi della resistenza al cambiamento e della conseguente conflittualità tra generi siano oramai superate e si debba rivolgere l'attenzione verso i fattori che possono ostacolare od agevolare un'equilibrata integrazione di genere. Si è inteso dunque analizzare le politiche di genere che, poste in essere dalla NATO come Organizzazione sovranazionale, si riverberano su quelle attuate dalla NATO come alleanza di nazioni sovrane che, seppur indipendenti nella scelta della tipologia di Forze Armate da perseguire, devono adeguarsi ai requirement internazionali. Questa scelta è però condizionata dalle esigenze operative conseguenti dagli impegni assunti dall'Alleanza che, nel corso della propria storia ultra sessantennale, si è trasformata da mero strumento di difesa militare comune ad attore che affronta la globalità delle tematiche inerenti la sicurezza sul proscenio internazionale. Difatti, la fondazione della NATO prese le mosse dalla necessità dei Paesi europei di bilanciare lo strapotere numerico delle Forze Armate sovietiche che incutevano la paura di un'incombente invasione dei territori occidentali. Tale minaccia poteva essere scongiurata solo facendo ricorso ad un patto di mutuo soccorso con l'altra superpotenza all'epoca presente sullo scacchiere geostrategico mondiale – gli Stati Uniti d'America – e creando un'Organizzazione per la difesa comune. Le modalità con cui questo scopo è stato perseguito hanno conosciuto varie fasi di trasformazione, testimoniate dai diversi Concetti Strategici che sono oggetto – nel primo capitolo della ricerca – di un'analisi storico-politica.Il ricorso ad un approccio semantico e filologico nello studio dei prefati documenti, è significativo della multidisciplinarità cui si ispira questa ricerca che spazia dalla geopolitica alla geostrategia, dalla storia alla sociologia, attraverso l'analisi di documenti e la raccolta – di stampo giornalistico – di opinioni e testimonianze. Nel corso dei decenni, le Forze Armate che individuavano nelle armi nucleari e nella costante deterrenza il fattore di equilibrio per evitare che la Terza Guerra Mondiale abbandonasse il suo aggettivo di Fredda e fosse combattuta sui campi di battaglia, si trasformarono in strumenti più flessibili capaci di fornire peso alle risposte politico-diplomatiche per la risoluzione delle crisi. Questa nuova e necessaria flessibilità operativa ha richiesto anche all'interno degli strumenti militari una dimensione che non fosse esclusivamente votata al combattimento ma anche rivolta ad altre aree di conoscenza professionale che prefiguravano l'impiego di nuove professionalità. In tal senso le donne in uniforme hanno cominciato a ritagliarsi uno spazio sempre crescente nell'ambito delle Organizzazioni militari, affrancandosi dai ruoli esclusivamente di supporto in cui erano state relegate per anni anche perché quegli stessi ruoli cominciavano ad assumere un'importanza fino all'epoca sconosciuta. Questo processo è stato naturalmente reso possibile da differenti concause anche non direttamente afferenti al settore di studio come, ad esempio, l'emancipazione sociale raggiunta dalle donne in alcune nazioni che ha tracciato la strada per consentire l'impiego femminile in svariati contesti lavorativi. Con la fine della contrapposizione dei blocchi Est-Ovest a causa dell'implosione del sistema politico economico sovietico, sembrava essere giunto il momento di scrivere l'epitaffio dell'Alleanza che, come una società disciolta per conseguimento dell'oggetto sociale, non doveva più garantire la sicurezza comune che rappresentava l'essenza della propria esistenza. Il corso della Storia ha però voluto che proprio il termine della Guerra Fredda, ed il conseguente passaggio ad un mondo unipolare dominato dall'egemonia statunitense, delineasse nuovi scenari in cui la NATO si sarebbe rivelata non solo utile ma addirittura indispensabile. Infatti, lo smembramento e la trasformazione degli apparati militari –in quella parte di globo fino allora controllata dall'Unione Sovietica – provocò un aumento dell'instabilità e la moltiplicazione delle possibili minacce. Lo scongelamento delle relazioni internazionali con molti dei Paesi prima gravitanti nell'orbita sovietica, e la contemporanea diminuzione del potere politico della Russia rispetto a quello della disciolta Unione, consentì un interventismo fino allora impedito dal precario equilibrio bipolare. La risposta fornita da altre Organizzazioni Internazionali – quale l'intervento delle Nazioni Unite in Somalia – si rivelò inadeguata e la NATO, unica ad avere uno strumento militare integrato, assunse il ruolo di appaltatore monopolista della sicurezza globale attraverso le Crisis Response Operations che cominciarono con l'intervento in Bosnia Herzegovina. Nell'ambito del secondo capitolo si analizzano quei fattori che hanno concorso a delineare uno scenario favorevole all'integrazione femminile nelle Forze Armate. Nel corso degli anni la complessità delle Operazioni condotte dalla NATO – avvalendosi di solito di un mandato delle Nazioni Unite o appellandosi al principio d'ingerenza umanitaria – è andata crescendo in maniera esponenziale fino a raggiungere il suo picco con l'intervento militare in Afghanistan; grazie alle mutate esigenze operative le donne divenivano un fattore indispensabile per la riuscita delle Operazioni ed il loro ruolo era internazionalmente accreditato dall'adozione della Risoluzione del Consiglio di Sicurezza della Nazioni Unite 1325. Per la prima volta, infatti, le donne non erano solo oggetto passivo di protezione ma erano chiamate ad assumere un ruolo attivo nei processi di ricostruzione sociale nelle zone di intervento delle Organizzazioni Internazionali.La Risoluzione auspicava un numero crescente di donne coinvolte nelle fasi di ricostruzione – tra queste erano comprese le donne in uniforme che agivano sotto l'egida della NATO – in grado di imprimere un concreto gender mainstreaming alle stesse. Le relazioni per niente idilliache tra ONU e NATO che erano andate avanti per decenni tra la diffidenza reciproca, si rasserenarono per necessità o per virtù fino a far divenire l'Alleanza uno degli Organismi più attivi nell'implementazione del disposto della Risoluzione 1325. Le donne militari traggono dunque vantaggio da un momento storico particolarmente favorevole alla loro integrazione e che discende da fattori contingenti di natura sociale, politica, militare ed economica stratificatisi nel corso degli anni. Lo status quo dell'integrazione, descritto nel terzo capitolo, evidenzia le variegate realtà delle Forze Armate dell'Alleanza che si diversificano a seconda dell'incidenza dei suddetti fattori, fino a delineare quattro tipologie di leadership con riferimento alle politiche di genere. Nel corso della ricerca, specificatamente nel corso del quarto capitolo, si sono altresì individuati quegli aspetti che rappresentano, di contro, un freno al processo integrativo e che sono stati individuati nelle manchevoli politiche necessarie a garantire, in primo luogo, una sufficiente presenza e, in seguito, un ruolo adeguato delle donne nelle Forze Armate. Le politiche di recruitment e retention applicate dalla maggior parte dei Paesi membri sono sovente tese alla pedissequa applicazione della normativa generica e non all'adattamento della stessa alla particolarità della professione militare. Inoltre, proprio ciò che abbiamo indicato con il termine "militarità" si configura come fattore che limita l'attrattiva della professione a causa della prerogativa di totale abnegazione – in termini di mobilità, sacrifici personali e famigliari – richiesta a chi indossa l'uniforme. Tale specificità è stata suffragata dai dati concernenti la presenza di personale civile femminile nei dicasteri della Difesa nazionali e nella stessa NATO.Nonostante i notevoli progressi compiuti dalle Forze Armate nell'inclusione femminile, l'ancora insufficiente percentuale di donne ed il loro impiego secondo politiche che non ne favoriscono la progressione di carriera, impedisce il formarsi di una leadership femminile che possa apportare nuove e differenti dinamiche all'interno degli apparati militari. Le donne militari si ritrovano invece a subire un inevitabile processo di omologazione, con un conseguente principio di mascolinizzazione di genere che non permette il raggiungimento di un'integrazione che, per essere soddisfacente, presuppone cifre professionali e comportamentali proprie e specifiche. La mera presenza femminile ed il replicare senza innovare una professione che è da sempre ad appannaggio maschile, con la conseguenza di ottenere risultati spesso considerati inferiori, non sottendono ad un'integrazione di successo. Tali considerazioni sono state corroborate anche dai risultati dell'indagine sociologica – condotta su un campione di cinquecento militari uomini e donne e di omologhi colleghi civili – dai quali emerge che l'assenza di riferimenti omogenere e la limitata applicazione dei fattori agevolanti non favoriscono il processo di integrazione delle donne in uniforme. La situazione presenta dunque una duplice connotazione: da un lato il processo di integrazione è oramai al suo stadio finale giacché l'accesso alla professione e l'accettazione verso la componente femminile hanno raggiunto valori soddisfacenti, dall'altro vi è la necessità di completare il processo attraverso azioni che si sviluppino lungo quattro direttrici. Impedire la mascolinizzazione di genere, garantire pari dignità d'impiego, costruire una cultura della professione, adottare politiche agevolanti, sono i pilastri per raggiungere un'integrazione piena e completa. Il lungo processo storico che ha portato all'attuale situazione – che rappresenta un'eccezionale congiuntura di fattori favorevoli – potrebbe nei prossimi anni essere sprecato qualora le autorità politiche e militari non dovessero compiere l'ultimo e decisivo passo verso la definizione di un ruolo delle donne in uniforme che sia consono alle professionalità espresse ed ai sacrifici compiuti.

Introduction/background Sexuality education is compulsory in Danish public school as a part of health education. There is a national curriculum which is based on the theory of critical health education and promotion (e.g. Jensen 1997; Carlsson et al 2009; Simovska & Jensen 2012), emphasising health-related action competence of pupils as one of the key intended outcomes. However, research has documented that there are major differences between the intentions stated in the curriculum and the classroom practices (Sex & Samfund 2005, Sex & Samfund 2012; Lindegard, 2012). The study discussed in this paper suggests that the participation of teachers in the national sexuality education campaign, titled Uge Sex, has a positive impact on teachers' practices through providing an appropriate support for teachers in implementing the critical pedagogical approach. Uge Sex is a campaign that aims at supporting the development of pupils' action competence in regards to sexuality, wellbeing, rights and health. The campaign has achieved large success resulting in 230,000 pupils (35.6 % of the total population) enrolled in the campaign week this year. This calls for an in-depth insight into its impact as well as the implementation process. Important questions to be asked are (a) does the campaign actually support the development of action competence? and (b) is the implementation characterized by dimensions consistent with critical health pedagogy? Theoretical/analytical framework The Uge Sex materials, as well as the campaign as a whole, are characterized by an approach to sexuality education inspired by the tradition of critical health education, as mentioned above, as well as norm critical pedagogy developed within the theory of Swedish queer pedagogy (Brade et al 2008, Bromseth et al 2010, Kirk et al 2010). Furthermore, the approach is based on research findings indicating that a secure, inclusive learning environment for all pupils is an important factor for the effectiveness of sexuality education (UNESCO 2009). The theory of change (Green & Tones 2012) of the campaign is based on the hypothesis that there is a link between certain implementation factors, including a cross-disciplinary approach, secure and inclusive environments for the pupils, focus on pupil involvement through dialogue, and the immediate positive effects on the participating pupils. These effects are identified as changes in the health-related action competence of pupils, their positive attitudes towards the sexuality education lessons and increased awareness of classroom diversity as a positive value. Earlier research related to the campaign suggests that implementation of a critical pedagogy approach into classroom practices is characterized by challenges concerning several of these factors (Roien 2012). The aim of this paper is to discuss these implementation challenges further in order to learn how pupils can benefit more from sexuality education in school. Methodology/methods The study draws on quantitative and qualitative data from multiple data sources gathered in 2012 and 2013. These include two large scale questionnaires among 500 randomly selected teachers as well as 800 randomly selected pupils from 4th-6th grade (age 10-12) as well as 7 in-depth interviews with teachers and 3 case studies including interviews with pupils and classroom observations. The data from the different sources was triangulated in order to secure validity of interpretations (Green & Tones 2012). The analysis combined inductive and theoretically driven strategies, drawing on the concepts of action competence, empowerment and participation in health education. Key Results The findings show minor tendencies towards the development of action competence of the pupils, concerning mainly a positive development in their knowledge and ability to identify action possibilities. The campaign seems to support those pupils that have insufficient knowledge on possible actions to solve dilemmas related to sexuality issues. Furthermore, a positive attitude towards sexuality education has been identified among the majority of the participating pupils.The findings do not document any increased awareness of classroom diversity among the pupils as a positive value. In regards to the implementation of the campaign, especially one factor is identified as having positive influence on pupils' learning, namely the effort to create a secure learning environment based on the recommendations from Uge Sex materials. On the other hand, other implementation factors prove to be highly problematic in connection to the principles of critical health education. These include: lack of an inter-disciplinary approach to sexuality education, low priority of pupil participation and a very traditional view of the role of the teacher as an expert and 'transmitter' of appropriate knowledge. With regard to the lack of increase in the pupil's awareness of diversity as a positive value it is suggested that this can be related to the focus of Uge Sex as a purely educational campaign focusing solely on teaching without including a whole-school approach to health promotion and diversity Conclusions The findings demonstrate that the implementation of a critical sexuality education approach by the teachers is challenged by the traditional approach to sexuality education, characterized by established boundaries between subjects, a view of the role of the pupils as passive and the teacher as the one who decides on content, methods and resources (Green & Tones 2012; Simovska and Jensen 2005). This approach results in a low level of pupil participation and points to the difficulties teachers face when implementing the sexuality education processes intended by the Uge Sex concept. Nevertheless, the findings suggest that a focused effort through concrete recommendations and exercises that teachers can use in the classroom, can be beneficial. Finally, the findings point to the critical role of the whole-school approach, and the lack of it in the campaign. This can be seen as a barrier in regards to pupils' learning linked to wider health promotion and the value of diversity. Implications The insight into the implementation of the Uge Sex campaign by the teachers provides important knowledge concerning the challenges teachers face when working with critical comprehensive sexuality education focused on the development of pupils' action competence. The findings point to the need for professional development of the teachers so that they can work with participatory and action-oriented teaching methods as well as with an open concept of sexuality that allows for diversity and human rights to be freely discussed in relation to sexuality issues. The findings provide implications for future research and development of the school practice of sexuality education as a part of health education and health promotion as well as for introducing health pedagogy and health promotion related to sexuality education within the initial teacher training at teacher training colleges and in-service professional development. References Brade, L., Engström, C., Sörensdotter, R. & Wiktorsson, P. (2008). In the eye of the norm (in Swedish: I normens öga), Stockholm: Friends. Bromseth, J. & Darj, F. (eds.) (2010). Normcritical pedagogy. (in Swedish: Normkritisk pedagogik), Uppsala: Centrum för genusvetenskap, Uppsala Universitet Carlsson, M., Simovska, V. and Jensen, B.B. (eds.) (2009). Health education and health promotion – Theory, research and practice (in Danish: Sundhedsundervisning og Sundhedsfremme - teori, forskning og praksis), Aarhus, Aarhus University Press. Green, J., & Tones, K. (2010). Health promotion: planning and strategies (2nd ed.) . London: Sage. Jensen, B.B. & Schnack, K. (eds.) (1994). Action and action Competence as Key Concepts in Critical pedagogy. Didaktiske Studier, København: Danmarks Lærerhøjskole. Jensen, B.B. (1997). 'A case of two paradigms within health education', health education research, Vol. 12, no. 4 , pp. 419-428. Kirk, A.H., Scott, K., Siemen, K. & Wind, A. (eds.) (2010). Open and closed doors. an anthology on gender in pedagogy (in Danish: Åbne og lukkede døre. En antologi om køn i pædagogik), København: Frydenlund. Kvale, S. & Brinkmann S. (2009). InterView, København: Hans Reitzels Forlag (2. Ed.). Nordin, L.L. (2012). From policy to practice (in Danish: Fra politik til praksis. Implementering af kommunale sundhedsprojekter med fokus på kost og fysisk aktivitet fra et lærerperspektiv). PhD dissertation, Aarhus University, Department of Education. Roien, L. (2012). Uge sex and the learning of the pupils. (in Danish: Uge Sex og elevernes læring) Copenhagen: Sex & Samfund. Sex & Samfund (2005). A mapping of sexuality education in Denmark (in Danish: Kortlægning af seksualundervisningen i Danmark). Copenhagen:Sex & Samfund. Sex & Samfund (2012). A survey of sexuality education in public schools (in Danish: Undersøgelse af seksualundervisning I grundskolen). Copenhagen: Sex & Samfund. Simovska, V. (2007). 'The changing meanings of participation in school based health education and health promotion'. Health education research, Vol. 22, n. 6 , pp 864-878. Simovska, V. (2008). Learning in and as participation: A case study from health promoting schools. In: Reid, A., Nikel, J., Bruun Jensen, B., & Simovska, V. (eds.), Participation and learning: perspectives on education and the environment, health and sustainability (pp. 61-81). Springer. Simovska, V., & Jensen, J.M. (Eds.) (2012). The role of health pedagogy in health promotion (in Danish: Sundhedspædagogik i sundhedsfremme) (1 udg.) København: Gad. UNESCO (2009).International guidelines on sexuality education. An evidence informed approach to effective sex, relationships and hiV/education Paris: UNESCO

Computer- und Videospiele sind heute ein selbstverständlicher Bestandteil der Lebenswelt vieler Kinder und Jugendlicher, aber auch von (jüngeren) Erwachsenen, die mit diesen neuen Medien aufgewachsen sind. Lange Zeit haben elektronische Bildschirmspiele allenfalls sporadische Beachtung gefunden. Weder in der Medienforschung oder Medienpädagogik noch in der breiteren Öffentlichkeit waren sie ein Gegenstand von breiterem Interesse.* In den letzten knapp zehn Jahren sind Video- und Computerspiele allerdings zunehmend in den Fokus der Aufmerksamkeit gerückt. Dabei sind in der massenmedial vermittelten Öffentlichkeit vor allem Amokläufe in Schulen in einen direkten Zusammenhang mit den Vorlieben (der Täter) für bestimmte Computerspiele gebracht worden. Die auch von prominenten Politikern aufgegriffene These lautete, dass gewalthaltige Spiele wie der First Person Shooter «Counterstrike» ein virtuelles Trainingsprogramm für das Töten und daher als wesentliche Ursache solcher Schulmassaker anzusehen seien. Auf der Basis dieser kausalen Wirkungsannahmen bzw. der unterstellten negativen Lern- und Trainingseffekte werden seither immer wieder Forderungen nach einem Verbot solcher «Killerspiele» oder gar nach der Verbannung aller Bildschirmmedien aus den Kinderzimmern abgeleitet. Neben solcher skandalisierter Thematisierung ist aber zunehmend auch eine nüchterne wissenschaftliche Auseinandersetzung zu konstatieren. So haben sich seit Beginn des neuen Jahrtausends die «digital game studies» als interdisziplinäres Forschungsfeld etabliert. Im Jahr 2000 wurde innerhalb der Gesellschaft für Medienwissenschaft z.B. die AG Games gebildet, die sich zu einem wichtigen deutschsprachigen Forum für die wissenschaftliche Beschäftigung mit Computerspielen entwickelt hat, und im Jahr 2002 entstand die internationale Digital Games Research Association (DiGRA), die im September 2009 ihre vierte grosse Konferenz nach 2003, 2005 und 2007 durchgeführt hat (vgl. www.digra.org). Seit 2001 gibt es mit der «Game Studies» eine primär kulturwissenschaftlich ausgerichtete Online-Zeitschrift (vgl. gamestudies.org), und daneben sind zahlreiche Publikationen zu verzeichnen, die zur Strukturierung und Systematisierung des Forschungsfeldes beigetragen haben, etwa die transdisziplinär angelegten Sammel- und Tagungsbände von Wolf & Perron (2003); Fritz & Fehr (2003), Copier & Raessens (2003), Neitzel, Bopp & Nohr (2004), Raessens & Goldstein (2005), Kaminski & Lorber (2006), Vorderer & Bryant (2006), de Castell & Jenson (2007), Kafai et al. (2008), Quandt, Wimmer & Wolling (2008). Ausserdem liegen Monografien vor, die sich um Orientierung sowie empirische oder theoretische Klärungen bemühen (etwa Fromme, Meder & Vollmer 2000, Newman 2004, Juul 2005, Klimmt 2005, Mäyrä 2008, Pearce & Artemesia 2009). Diese wissenschaftlichen Entwicklungen und Arbeiten zeigen, dass die Phase der blossen Skandalisierung oder akademischen Ignorierung der Computerspiele zu Ende geht. Stattdessen kann von einer zunehmenden Normalisierung und Ausdifferenzierung der akademischen Auseinandersetzung mit diesen neuen Medien und ihren Verwendungsweisen ausgegangen werden, wie sie bei anderen, etablierteren Gegenstandsbereichen (etwa der Film- oder Fernsehforschung) schon länger selbstverständlich ist. Zur Normalisierung und Differenzierung der Debatte soll auch dieses Themenheft der Online-Zeitschrift «MedienPädagogik» auf www.medienpaed.com beitragen, das sich mit den digitalen Spielen und Spielkulturen aus einer primär medienpädagogischen Perspektive befasst und nach den Chancen und Potentialen für informelle wie auch formelle Lern- und Bildungsprozesse fragt. Die Beiträge fokussieren in diesem Spannungsfeld von Spielen und Lernen, von Unterhaltung und Bildung unterschiedliche Aspekte. Die Mehrzahl greift dabei aktuelle Diskussionen über Einsatzmöglichkeiten digitaler Spiele im Bereich des Lernens und der Ausbildung auf, die unter dem Label «Serious Games» oder auch «Game-based Learning» geführt werden (Petko; Bopp; Berger/Marbach; Lampert/Schwinge/Tolks; Malo/Neudorf/Wist; Pfannstiel/Sänger/Schmidt). Daneben widmen sich Beiträge der Frage, wie die Lern- und Bildungsrelevanz der medial-kulturellen Praxen, die sich weitgehend unabhängig von pädagogischer Intervention entfalten, untersucht und verstanden, aber auch pädagogisch unterstützt werden können (Fromme/Jörissen/Unger; Schrammel/Mitgutsch). In einem Beitrag geht es schliesslich darum, Computerspiele selbst zum Gegenstand der pädagogischen Reflexion machen (Biermann). Diese Verteilung spiegelt das Gewicht der Schwerpunkte innerhalb des aktuellen Diskurses über den Zusammenhang von Computerspielen und Lernen/Bildung durchaus angemessen wider. Dominik Petko fokussiert auf formelle Lern- und Bildungskontexte und behandelt die Frage, welche didaktischen Potenziale Computerspiele für den gezielten Einsatz in Schule und Ausbildung aufweisen. Ausgangspunkt ist die Überlegung, dass es für den schulischen Bereich nicht ausreicht, die allgemeinen Lernpotenziale der Spiele auszuweisen und die Muster des spielimmanenten Lernens nachzuzeichnen, wie dies in einigen Publikationen der letzten Jahre geschehe. Um einen Schritt weiterzukommen und zu erreichen, dass digitale Spiele tatsächlich vermehrt in den Unterricht integriert werden, komme es darauf an, den Lehrpersonen zu zeigen, dass der Einsatz solcher Spiele einerseits mit einem vertretbaren Aufwand möglich ist und andererseits zu einem erkenn- und begründbaren Mehrwert führt. Dazu sei im ersten Schritt eine genauere Analyse und Typisierung der Spiele und anschliessend eine Konkretisierung der didaktischen Strategien und Arrangements für die sinnvolle Einbettung in den Unterricht erforderlich. Der Beitrag vermittelt einen ersten systematischen Überblick über entsprechende mediendidaktische Ziele und Ansätze für den Einsatz von Computerspielen in Schule und Unterricht. Matthias Bopp geht aus von der Überlegung, dass Computerspiele die Spielenden generell mit Aufgaben und Herausforderungen konfrontieren, die nur im Rahmen von spielbezogenen Lernprozessen bewältigt werden können. Zudem unterstützen aktuelle Spiele die Spielenden in der Regel systematisch beim Erwerb der erforderlichen Kenntnisse und Fähigkeiten, weisen also ein (zumindest implizites) didaktisches Design auf. Wenn man in Rechnung stellt, dass Video- und Computerspiele für Kinder, Jugendliche und zunehmend auch Erwachsene trotz – oder gerade wegen – der hohen Anforderungen, die sie stellen, höchst faszinierend und motivierend sind, dann bietet es sich an, die Lehr-Lern-Designs digitaler Spiele genauer zu untersuchen, um ihre erfolgreichen Prinzipien auf Lernspiele zu übertragen. Der Beitrag konzentriert sich in diesem Kontext auf die Frage, welche Bedeutung zum einen Rahmengeschichten (Storytelling) und zum anderen parasoziale Interaktionen zwischen Spielenden und virtuellen Spielfiguren für die Spielmotivation haben und welche Rolle ihre gezielte Verwendung beim Design von Lernspielen zur Steigerung oder Aufrechterhaltung der Lernmotivation spielen kann. Daraus werden Empfehlungen für die Gestaltung motivierender Lernspiele abgeleitet und abschliessend an Hand zweier Beispiele veranschaulicht. Johannes Fromme, Benjamin Jörissen und Alexander Unger plädieren dafür, die Bildungspotenziale von Computerspielen – und der neuen, computerbasierten Medien überhaupt – nicht nur in ihrer Verwendung bzw. Verwendbarkeit als didaktische und motivationssteigernde Hilfsmittel für die Vermittlung dieser oder jener Lehrinhalte zu sehen, sondern die Perspektive in verschiedenen Hinsichten zu erweitern. Eine prinzipielle Erweiterung bestehe darin, bei der Frage nach Bildungspotenzialen in der Tradition der humanistischen Bildungstheorie nicht primär den Wissenserwerb, sondern die Steigerung von Reflexivität im Selbst- und Weltverhältnis in den Blick zu nehmen und somit zu fragen, in welcher Weise der Umgang mit Medien hierzu beitragen kann. Und weil Bildung in dieser Tradition grundsätzlich als Selbstbildung verstanden werde, liege es nahe, neben der formellen, institutionalisierten Bildung dem Bereich der informellen Bildung eine entsprechende Beachtung zu schenken. Der Artikel fragt daher nach dem Beitrag, den Computerspiele – und vor allem community-basierte Praxen – für eine Flexibilisierung von Selbst- und Weltsichten sowie für den Aufbau von Orientierungswissen leisten können, und diskutiert abschliessend, inwiefern solche informellen Bildungspotenziale pädagogisch aufgegriffen und unterstützt werden können. Florian Berger und Alexander Marbach gehen davon aus, dass es angesichts der Popularität und hohen Motivationskraft der Computerspiele zwar nahe liege, ihre pädagogische Verwertbarkeit zu prüfen, dass für den pädagogischen Einsatz der digitalen Spiele aber bisher weder theoretisch fundierte Konzepte noch eine hinreichende Forschung existiere. Insbesondere würden Fragen der technischen Machbarkeit zu wenig beachtet, wobei die Schwierigkeit darin bestehe, dass der jeweilige «State of the Art» für Lernspiele als Massstab schon wegen der begrenzten (finanziellen) Ressourcen ausscheide, andererseits aber ein Mindeststandard erreicht werden müsse, um die notwendige Akzeptanz beim Anwender zu finden. Vor diesem Hintergrund geht der Beitrag zunächst der Frage nach, was die technische, die kulturelle und die pädagogische Qualität eines digitalen Spiels ausmacht, um dann – aus einer primär ingenieurwissenschaftlichen Perspektive – zu diskutieren, wie bei der Gestaltung von Lernspielen eine gute Balance erreicht werden kann. Ralf Biermann betrachtet Computerspiele in seinem Beitrag nicht aus mediendidaktischer, sondern aus medienpädagogischer Perspektive und stellt ein Konzept vor, mit dem die digitalen Spiele selbst zum Gegenstand einer lernorientierten Auseinandersetzung werden. Die leitende Idee ist es, Wege aufzuzeigen und zu erproben, wie Computerspiele in den Bereich der aktiven, projektorientierten Medienarbeit eingebunden werden können, die sich dieser neuen Medien – im Unterschied zu Radio, Presse oder Film – bisher kaum angenommen hat. Das Konzept des Video Game Essays knüpft an der Film- und Videoarbeit an, erweitert es aber um einige neue Elemente, die mit den technischen Besonderheiten der Spiele zu tun haben. Der Ansatz kann als innovative Form der Medienanalyse angesehen werden, bleibt aber bei der Analyse nicht stehen, sondern eröffnet auch weitergehende Handlungs- und Lernpotenziale. Als Einsatzgebiete des Video Game Essays werden die ausserschulische Medienarbeit, die Schul- und die Hochschulausbildung genauer betrachtet. Claudia Lampert, Christiane Schwinge und Daniel Tolks zeichnen in ihrem Beitrag die bisherigen Entwicklungen im Bereich der Serious Games nach, die von anderen Ansätzen des mediengestützten Lernens wie E-Learning, Edutainment und Game-Based Learning abgegrenzt werden, und arbeiten den aktuellen Diskussions- und Forschungsstand auf. Die Potenziale und Grenzen werden am Beispiel zweier Spiele aus dem Gesundheitsbereich (Games for Health) detaillierter diskutiert, für die auch erste empirische Befunde vorliegen. Serious Games gewinnen zwar – nach Ansicht der Autoren/innen vor allem aus Marketinggründen – zunehmend an Bedeutung, allerdings bestehe noch ein erheblicher Forschungs- und Evaluationsbedarf. Sabrina Schrammel und Konstantin Mitgutsch kritisieren, dass im medienpädagogischen Diskurs über Computerspiele der Umstand vernachlässigt werde, dass Spielen eine kulturell geprägte, aktive Auseinandersetzung mit einem Spielgegenstand sei. Ihnen geht es im vorliegenden Beitrag daher darum, die spezifische medial- kulturelle Praktik des Computerspielens zu erfassen bzw. dafür einen geeigneten methodischen und theoretischen Zugang zu entwickeln und vorzustellen. Das Spielen von Computerspielen wird in Anlehnung an den internationalen Diskurs als Transformation und Produktion kultureller Erfahrungen interpretiert, auch um aus den Engführungen der im deutschsprachigen Raum noch dominierenden Mediennutzungs- und Medienwirkungsforschung herauszugelangen. Für die pädagogische Auseinandersetzung wird daraus abgeleitet, dass nicht die didaktische Nützlichkeit, sondern die bildungstheoretische Bedeutung von Computerspielen zu fokussieren sei. Den bisher vorherrschenden teleologischen Lernkonzepten wird hier ein genealogischer Ansatz gegenübergestellt, bei dem die Erfahrungen und Lernprozesse im Zuge der Spielhandlungen selbst thematisiert werden. An einem Beispiel wird abschliessend verdeutlicht, wie das theoretisch-methodische Vorgehen einer hierauf ausgerichteten Analyse ausgestaltet und wie bei einer solchen Analyse die medial-kulturelle Praktik des Computerspielens pädagogisch rekonstruiert werden kann. Steffen Malo, Maik Neudorf und Thorben Wist ordnen ihren Beitrag in den Kontext des Game-based Training (GBT) ein und berichten über das Projekt Alphabit, bei dem es darum geht, computerbasierte Lern- bzw. Trainingsspiele als ergänzendes methodisches Mittel für Alphabetisierungs- bzw. Grundbildungsprogramme einzusetzen. Vorgestellt werden die im Projekt entwickelten konzeptionellen Überlegungen zu den Rahmenbedingungen, zur Auswahl der Inhalte, zu unterstützenden instruktionalen Hilfen, zu den Entwicklungsprozessen und zu methodischen Aspekten des spielerischen Lernens in virtuellen Umgebungen. Ausserdem werden erste Ansätze für die Umsetzung präsentiert und offene Forschungsfragen aufgezeigt. Auch Jochen Pfannstiel, Volker Sänger und Claudia Schmitz berichten über ein Projekt, das für die Bildungspraxis konzipiert wurde und auch bereits erprobt wird. Hier geht es um Game- based Learning im Hochschulbereich, genauer: um ein Lernspiel, das ergänzend zu einer Pflichtvorlesung in der Informatik eingesetzt wird, um Studierende dazu zu motivieren, sich während des Studiums intensiver und vertiefend mit der Vorlesungsthematik zu befassen. Ziel ist also ein verbessertes und vor allem nachhaltigeres Verständnis der Vorlesungsinhalte durch spielerische Mittel zu erreichen. Der Beitrag beschreibt das dazu entwickelte Lernspiel und berichtet über die bisherigen Erfahrungen und erste Evaluationsergebnisse. * Eine Ausnahme erscheint allerdings erwähnenswert: In der ersten Hälfte der 1980er Jahre gab es in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland eine Debatte (und einige Forschungsarbeiten) zum Videospiel in Spielhallen mit dem Ergebnis, dass 1985 ein geändertes Jugendschutzgesetz in Kraft trat, das den Zugang zu Glücks- und Videospielautomaten in der Öffentlichkeit neu regulierte und unter 18-Jährigen nicht mehr gestattete. Diese Regelung ist – anders als die 2003 obligatorisch gewordenen Altersfreigaben der USK für Computerspiele auf Datenträgern – unabhängig vom Inhalt der Spiele, und sie ist bis heute in Kraft. Literatur Copier, Marinka/Raessens, Joost (Eds.) (2003): Level Up. Digital Games Research Conference, 4–6 November 2003, Utrecht University, Conference Proceedings. De Castell, Suzanne/Jenson, Jennifer (Eds.) (2007): Worlds in Play. International Perspectives on Digital Games Research. New York et al.: Peter Lang. Fritz, Jürgen/Fehr, Wolfgang (Hrsg.) (2003): Computerspiele. Virtuelle Spiel- und Lernwelten. Bonn: Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung. Fromme, Johannes, Meder, Norbert; Vollmer, Nikolaus (2000). Computerspiele in der Kinderkultur. Opladen: Leske + Budrich. Juul, Jesper (2005). Half-real. Video games between real rules and fictional worlds. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Kafai, Yasmin B./Heeter, Carrie/Denner, Jill/Sun, Jennifer Y. (Eds.) (2008): Beyond Barbie and Mortal Kombat. New Perspectives on Gender and Gaming. Cambridge, Mass./London: MIT Press. Kaminski, Winfred/Lorber, Martin (Hrsg.) (2006): Clash of Realities. Computerspiele und soziale Wirklichkeit. München: Kopäd. Klimmt, Christoph (2005): Computerspielen als Handlung. Dimensionen und Determinanten des Erlebens interaktiver Unterhaltungssoftware. Köln: Herbert von Halem. Mäyrä, Frans (2008): An Introduction to Game Studies. Games in Culture. Los Angeleos u.a.: SAGE. Neitzel, Britta/Bopp, Matthias/Nohr, Rolf F. (Hrsg.) (2004): «See? I'm real …» Multidisziplinäre Zugänge zum Computerspiel am Beispiel von ‹Silent Hill›. Münster: Lit. Newman, James (2003): Videogames. London/New York: Routledge. Pearce, Celia/Artemesia (2009): Communities of Play. Emergent Cultures in Multiplayer Games and Virtual Worlds. Cambridge, Mass./London: MIT Press. Quandt, Thorsten/Wimmer, Jeffrey/Wolling, Jens (Hrsg.) (2008): Die Computerspieler. Studien zur Nutzung von Computergames. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag. Raessens, Joost; Goldstein, Jeffrey (2005) (Ed). Handbook of Computer Game Studies. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Vorderer, Peter; Bryant, Jennings (2006) (Ed). Playing Video Games. Motives, Responses, and Consequences. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Wolf, Mark J./Perron, Bernard (Eds.) (2003): The Video Game Theory Reader. New York/London: Routledge.

Las principales tendencias asociadas con la crisis económica, la reestructuración neoliberal y el aumento de las tasas de pobreza rural en Latinoamérica incluyen una diversificación constante de las estrategias de generación de ingresos de los hogares rurales, un incremento en el número de miembros de esos hogares que buscan empleo fuera de la finca, y la creciente participación de las mujeres de las áreas rurales como trabajadoras tanto por cuenta propia como asalariadas en el sector agrícola y en otros sectores. Si bien persisten problemas metodológicos al analizar los cambios en el trabajo de las mujeres de las áreas rurales con el transcurso del tiempo, la tendencia dominante en la región en los últimos decenios ha sido la feminización de la agricultura. El crecimiento del empleo remunerado de las mujeres en el sector agrícola se ha concentrado en el sector de exportación agrícola no-tradicional—sector favorecido por el neoliberalismo—, concretamente en la producción y el envasado de verduras, frutas y flores frescas para los mercados del Norte, lo que actualmente constituye la rama principal de exportación agrícola de Latinoamérica. En muchos países, las mujeres y los niños representan al menos la mitad de la mano de obra para estos cultivos, mientras que las mujeres constituyen la gran mayoría de los trabajadores en las envasadoras orientadas a la exportación. Sin embargo, las características de este empleo, principalmente su naturaleza temporal, estacional y precaria, han dificultado su captación cuantitativa en los censos nacionales y en las encuestas por hogares. En este ensayo se analiza el papel que desempeñan los mercados de trabajo segmentados por género en el incremento de la demanda de mano de obra femenina, y la importancia que reviste para el empoderamiento de las mujeres su creciente participación en el empleo remunerado. También se ha comprobado, en algunos países más que en otros, que la producción parcelaria ha experimentado una feminización, ya que cada vez más mujeres rurales se convierten en las agricultoras principales—es decir, en trabajadoras por cuenta propia del sector agrícola. Este fenómeno se asocia con el aumento del número de familias encabezadas por mujeres; con la ausencia de mano de obra masculina en el sector agrícola, a su vez relacionada con la creciente migración y/o empleo de los hombres en actividades no agrícolas; y con la viabilidad cada vez menor de la agricultura familiar en el marco del neoliberalismo. Es evidente que el principal factor que impulsa estas tendencias es la necesidad que tienen los hogares rurales de diversificar sus fuentes de subsistencia. La escasez creciente de tierras, las crisis económicas y las políticas desfavorables para la agricultura familiar constituyen una combinación de factores que han conducido a que los hogares campesinos ya no puedan sustentarse únicamente a través de la producción agrícola. La respuesta a la crisis de la agricultura familiar ha sido el aumento del número de miembros de los hogares que buscan un empleo fuera de la finca. Que éstos sean hombres, mujeres, o ambos, depende de muchos factores; entre los más importantes destacan la composición del hogar y la fase del ciclo familiar, así como el dinamismo y las características de genero de los mercados de trabajo locales, regionales e internacionales. / ; The main trends associated with the economic crisis, neoliberal restructuring, and the growth of rural poverty rates in Latin America include a continued diversification of rural household income-generating strategies, an increase in the number of household members seeking off-farm employment, and the increased participation of rural women as both own-account and wage workers in the agricultural as well as non-agricultural sectors. While methodological problems persist in analysing changes in rural women's work over time, the dominant trend in the region over the past several decades has been towards the feminization of agriculture. The growth in women's agricultural wage employment has been concentrated in the non-traditional agro-export sector favoured under neoliberalism: specifically, in the production and packing of fresh vegetables, fruits and flowers for Northern markets, what now constitutes Latin America's leading agricultural export rubric. In many countries women and children make up half or more of the field labour for these crops, while women constitute the vast majority of the workers in the packing houses geared to the export market. Nonetheless, the characteristics of this employment, principally its temporary, seasonal and precarious nature, have made it difficult to capture quantitatively in national censuses and household surveys. The essay analyses the role of gender-segmented labour markets in increasing the demand for female labour, as well as the significance of women's increased participation in wage labour for female empowerment. There is also evidence, stronger for some countries than others, of a feminization of smallholder production, as growing numbers of rural women become the principal farmers—that is, own-account workers in agriculture. This phenomenon is associated with an increase in the proportion of rural female household heads; male absence from the farm, in turn related to growing male migration and/or employment in off-farm pursuits; and the decreased viability of peasant farming under neoliberalism. There is little question that the principal factor driving these trends is the need for rural households to diversify their livelihoods. The combination of growing land shortage, economic crises and unfavourable policies for domestic agriculture has meant that peasant households can no longer sustain themselves on the basis of agricultural production alone. The response to the crisis of peasant agriculture has been an increase in the number of rural household members pursuing off-farm activities. Whether these are male, female, or include both genders, depends on a myriad of factors, with household composition and the stage of the domestic cycle, and the dynamism and gendered nature of local, regional and international labour markets, being among the most important. / ; Les ménages ruraux ne cessent de diversifier leurs stratégies de création de revenus. Cette diversification, l'augmentation du nombre des membres du ménage cherchant un emploi hors de l'exploitation familiale et des femmes rurales travaillant à leur compte ou comme salariées dans l'agriculture et d'autres secteurs sont parmi les principales tendances associées à la crise économique, à la restructuration néolibérale et à la montée des taux de pauvreté dans les zones rurales d'Amérique latine. Bien qu'il soit toujours difficile, du fait de problèmes méthodologiques, d'analyser l'évolution du travail des femmes rurales sur une certaine durée, la tendance qui domine dans la région depuis plusieurs décennies est celle de la féminisation de l'agriculture. Les emplois salariés féminins dans l'agriculture se sont surtout développés dans le secteur des exportations agricoles non traditionnelles que privilégie le néolibéralisme: en particulier dans la production et le conditionnement des produits frais—légumes, fruits et fleurs—pour les marchés du Nord, qui sont actuellement les principales exportations agricoles de l'Amérique latine. Dans bien des pays, les femmes et les enfants représentent la moitié, sinon plus, de la main-d'oeuvre employée aux champs pour ces cultures, et la grande majorité des employés affectés au conditionnement pour les marchés d'exportation sont des femmes. Cependant, du fait de la nature de ces emplois, surtout de leur caractère temporaire et saisonnier et de leur précarité, il est difficile d'en évaluer le nombre à partir des recensements nationaux et des enquêtes auprès des ménages. Dans cet essai, l'auteur analyse dans quelle mesure les marchés du travail segmentés par sexe contribuent à faire augmenter la demande de main-d'oeuvre féminine, et se demande quelle importance revêt l'activité salariée, en augmentation chez les femmes, pour leur autonomisation. Des éléments portent également à croire, plus nombreux d'ailleurs pour certains pays que pour d'autres, à une féminisation des petits producteurs car les femmes rurales sont de plus en plus nombreuses à diriger l'exploitation familiale, c'est-à-dire à travailler à leur propre compte dans l'agriculture. Ce phénomène est associé à une augmentation de la proportion des femmes rurales chefs de famille, à l'absence des hommes des exploitations agricoles, elle-même liée à une migration croissante des hommes et/ou à leur emploi dans des secteurs autres que l'agriculture et à la moindre viabilité des exploitations agricoles paysannes en régime néolibéral. Il n'est guère contestable que le moteur principal de ces tendances n'est autre que le besoin pour les ménages ruraux de diversifier leurs moyens d'existence. Avec la pénurie croissante de terres, conjuguée aux crises économiques et à des politiques défavorables à l'agriculture nationale, les ménages paysans ne peuvent plus vivre de leur seule production agricole. L'augmentation du nombre des membres du ménage cherchant un emploi hors de la ferme a été une façon de répondre à la crise. Ces emplois peuvent être féminins, masculins ou ouverts aux deux sexes; cela dépend d'une multitude de facteurs, dont les plus importants sont sans doute la composition du ménage et le stade du cycle familial, le dynamisme du marché du travail local, régional et international et son attitude envers chacun des deux sexes.

The prevalence of overweight and obesity has increased with alarming speed over the past twenty years. It has recently been described by the World Health Organisation as a 'global epidemic'. In the year 2000 more than 300 million people worldwide were obese and it is now projected that by 2025 up to half the population of the United States will be obese if current trends are maintained. The disease is now a major public health problem throughout Europe. In Ireland at the present time 39% of adults are overweight and 18% are obese. Of these, slightly more men than women are obese and there is a higher incidence of the disease in lower socio-economic groups. Most worrying of all is the fact that childhood obesity has reached epidemic proportions in Europe, with body weight now the most prevalent childhood disease. While currently there are no agreed criteria or standards for assessing Irish children for obesity some studies are indicating that the numbers of children who are significantly overweight have trebled over the past decade. Extrapolation from authoritative UK data suggests that these numbers could now amount to more than 300,000 overweight and obese children on the island of Ireland and they are probably rising at a rate of over 10,000 per year. A balance of food intake and physical activity is necessary for a healthy weight. The foods we individually consume and our participation in physical activity are the result of a complex supply and production system. The growing research evidence that energy dense foods promote obesity is impressive and convincing. These are the foods that are high in fat, sugar and starch. Of these potentially the most significant promoter of weight gain is fat and foods from the top shelf of the food pyramid including spreads (butter and margarine), cakes and biscuits, and confectionery, when combined are the greatest contributors to fat intake in the Irish diet. In company with their adult counterparts Irish children are also consuming large amounts of energy dense foods outside the home. A recent survey revealed that slightly over half of these children ate sweets at least once a day and roughly a third of them had fizzy drinks and crisps with the same regularity. Sugar sweetened carbonated drinks are thought to contribute to obesity and for this reason the World Health Organisation has expressed serious concerns at the high and increasing consumption of these drinks by children. Physical activity is an important determinant of body weight. Over recent decades there has been a marked decline in demanding physical work and this has been accompanied by more sedentary lifestyles generally and reduced leisure-time activity. These observable changes, which are supported by data from most European countries and the United States, suggest that physical inactivity has made a significant impact on the increase in overweight and obesity being seen today. It is now widely accepted that adults shoud be involved in 45-60 minutes, and children should be involved in at least 60 minutes per day of moderate physical activity in order to prevent excess weight gain. Being overweight today not only signals increased risk of medical problems but also exposes people to serious psychosocial problems due mainly to widespread prejudice against fat people. Prejudice against obese people seems to border on the socially acceptable in Ireland. It crops up consistently in surveys covering groups such as employers, teachers, medical and healthcare personnel, and the media. It occurs among adolescents and children, even very young children. Because obesity is associated with premature death, excessive morbidity and serious psychosocial problems the damage it causes to the welfare of citizens is extremely serious and for this reason government intervention is necessary and warranted. In economic terms, a figure of approximately â,¬30million has been estimated for in-patient costs alone in 2003 for a number of Irish hospitals. This year about 2,000 premature deaths in Ireland will be attributed to obesity and the numbers are growing relentlessly. Diseases which proportionally more obese people suffer from than the general population include hypertension, type 2 diabetes, angina, heart attack and osteoarthritis. There are indirect costs also such as days lost to the workplace due to illness arising from obesity and output foregone as a result of premature death. Using the accepted EU environmental cost benefit method, these deaths alone may be costing the state as much as â,¬4bn per year. The social determinants of physical activity include factors such as socio-economic status, education level, gender, family and peer group influences as well as individual perceptions of the benefits of physical activity. The environmental determinants include geographic location, time of year, and proximity of facilities such as open spaces, parks and safe recreational areas generally. The environmental factors have not yet been as well studied as the social ones and this research gap needs to be addressed. Clearly there is a public health imperative to ensure that relevant environmental policies maximise opportunities for active transport, recreational physical activity and total physical activity. It is clear that concerted policy initiatives must be put in place if the predominantly negative findings of research regarding the determinants of food consumption and physical activity are to be accepted, and they must surely be accepted by government if the rapid increase in the incidence of obesity with all its negative consequences for citizens is to be reversed. So far actions surrounding nutrition policies have concentrated mostly on actions that are within the remit of the Department of Health and Children such as implementing the dietary guidelines. These are important but government must now look at the totality of policies that influence the type and supply of food that its citizens eat and the range and quality of opportunities that are available to citizens to engage in physical activity. This implies a fundamental examination of existing agricultural, industrial, economic and other policies and a determination to change them if they do not enable people to eat healthily and partake in physical activity. The current crisis in obesity prevalence requires a population health approach for adults and children in addition to effective weight-reduction management for individuals who are severely overweight. This entails addressing the obesogenic environment where people live, creating conditions over time which lead to healthier eating and more active living, and protecting people from the widespread availability of unhealthy food and beverage options in addition to sedentary activities that take up all of their leisure time. People of course have a fundamental right to choose to eat what they want and to be as active as they wish. That is not the issue. What the National Taskforce on Obesity has had to take account of is that many forces are actively impeding change for those well aware of the potential health and well-being consequences to themselves of overweight and obesity. The Taskforce's social change strategy is to give people meaningful choice. Choice, or the capacity to change (because the strategy is all about change), is facilitated through the development of personal skills and preferences, through supportive and participative environments at work, at school and in the local community, and through a dedicated and clearly communicated public health strategy. High-level cabinet support will be necessary to implement the Taskforce's recommendations. The approach to implementation must be characterised by joined-up thinking, real practical engagement by the public and private sectors, the avoidance of duplication of effort or crosspurpose approaches, and the harnessing of existing strategies and agencies. The range of government departments with roles to play is considerable. The Taskforce outlines the different contributions that each relevant department can make in driving its strategy forward. It also emphasises its requirement that all phases of the national strategy for healthy eating and physical activity are closely monitored, analysed and evaluated. The vision of the Taskforce is expressed as: An Irish society that enables people through health promotion, prevention and care to achieve and maintain healthy eating and active living throughout their lifespan. Its high-level goals are expressed as follows: Its recommendations, over eighty in all, relate to actions across six broad sectors: high-level government; education; social and community; health; food, commodities, production and supply; and the physical environment. In developing its recommendations the Taskforce has taken account of the complex, multisectoral and multi-faceted determinants of diet and physical activity. This strategy poses challenges for government, within individual departments, inter-departmentally and in developing partnerships with the commercial sector. Equally it challenges the commercial sector to work in partnership with government. The framework required for such initiative has at its core the rights and benefits of the individual. Health promotion is fundamentally about empowerment, whether at the individual, the community or the policy level.

Click here to download PDF The prevalence of overweight and obesity has increased with alarming speed over the past twenty years. It has recently been described by the World Health Organisation as a 'global epidemic'. In the year 2000 more than 300 million people worldwide were obese and it is now projected that by 2025 up to half the population of the United States will be obese if current trends are maintained. The disease is now a major public health problem throughout Europe. In Ireland at the present time 39% of adults are overweight and 18% are obese. Of these, slightly more men than women are obese and there is a higher incidence of the disease in lower socio-economic groups. Most worrying of all is the fact that childhood obesity has reached epidemic proportions in Europe, with body weight now the most prevalent childhood disease. While currently there are no agreed criteria or standards for assessing Irish children for obesity some studies are indicating that the numbers of children who are significantly overweight have trebled over the past decade. Extrapolation from authoritative UK data suggests that these numbers could now amount to more than 300,000 overweight and obese children on the island of Ireland and they are probably rising at a rate of over 10,000 per year. A balance of food intake and physical activity is necessary for a healthy weight. The foods we individually consume and our participation in physical activity are the result of a complex supply and production system. The growing research evidence that energy dense foods promote obesity is impressive and convincing. These are the foods that are high in fat, sugar and starch. Of these potentially the most significant promoter of weight gain is fat and foods from the top shelf of the food pyramid including spreads (butter and margarine), cakes and biscuits, and confectionery, when combined are the greatest contributors to fat intake in the Irish diet. In company with their adult counterparts Irish children are also consuming large amounts of energy dense foods outside the home. A recent survey revealed that slightly over half of these children ate sweets at least once a day and roughly a third of them had fizzy drinks and crisps with the same regularity. Sugar sweetened carbonated drinks are thought to contribute to obesity and for this reason the World Health Organisation has expressed serious concerns at the high and increasing consumption of these drinks by children. Physical activity is an important determinant of body weight. Over recent decades there has been a marked decline in demanding physical work and this has been accompanied by more sedentary lifestyles generally and reduced leisure-time activity. These observable changes, which are supported by data from most European countries and the United States, suggest that physical inactivity has made a significant impact on the increase in overweight and obesity being seen today. It is now widely accepted that adults shoud be involved in 45-60 minutes, and children should be involved in at least 60 minutes per day of moderate physical activity in order to prevent excess weight gain. Being overweight today not only signals increased risk of medical problems but also exposes people to serious psychosocial problems due mainly to widespread prejudice against fat people. Prejudice against obese people seems to border on the socially acceptable in Ireland. It crops up consistently in surveys covering groups such as employers, teachers, medical and healthcare personnel, and the media. It occurs among adolescents and children, even very young children. Because obesity is associated with premature death, excessive morbidity and serious psychosocial problems the damage it causes to the welfare of citizens is extremely serious and for this reason government intervention is necessary and warranted. In economic terms, a figure of approximately â,¬30million has been estimated for in-patient costs alone in 2003 for a number of Irish hospitals. This year about 2,000 premature deaths in Ireland will be attributed to obesity and the numbers are growing relentlessly. Diseases which proportionally more obese people suffer from than the general population include hypertension, type 2 diabetes, angina, heart attack and osteoarthritis. There are indirect costs also such as days lost to the workplace due to illness arising from obesity and output foregone as a result of premature death. Using the accepted EU environmental cost benefit method, these deaths alone may be costing the state as much as â,¬4bn per year. The social determinants of physical activity include factors such as socio-economic status, education level, gender, family and peer group influences as well as individual perceptions of the benefits of physical activity. The environmental determinants include geographic location, time of year, and proximity of facilities such as open spaces, parks and safe recreational areas generally. The environmental factors have not yet been as well studied as the social ones and this research gap needs to be addressed. Clearly there is a public health imperative to ensure that relevant environmental policies maximise opportunities for active transport, recreational physical activity and total physical activity. It is clear that concerted policy initiatives must be put in place if the predominantly negative findings of research regarding the determinants of food consumption and physical activity are to be accepted, and they must surely be accepted by government if the rapid increase in the incidence of obesity with all its negative consequences for citizens is to be reversed. So far actions surrounding nutrition policies have concentrated mostly on actions that are within the remit of the Department of Health and Children such as implementing the dietary guidelines. These are important but government must now look at the totality of policies that influence the type and supply of food that its citizens eat and the range and quality of opportunities that are available to citizens to engage in physical activity. This implies a fundamental examination of existing agricultural, industrial, economic and other policies and a determination to change them if they do not enable people to eat healthily and partake in physical activity. The current crisis in obesity prevalence requires a population health approach for adults and children in addition to effective weight-reduction management for individuals who are severely overweight. This entails addressing the obesogenic environment where people live, creating conditions over time which lead to healthier eating and more active living, and protecting people from the widespread availability of unhealthy food and beverage options in addition to sedentary activities that take up all of their leisure time. People of course have a fundamental right to choose to eat what they want and to be as active as they wish. That is not the issue. What the National Taskforce on Obesity has had to take account of is that many forces are actively impeding change for those well aware of the potential health and well-being consequences to themselves of overweight and obesity. The Taskforce's social change strategy is to give people meaningful choice. Choice, or the capacity to change (because the strategy is all about change), is facilitated through the development of personal skills and preferences, through supportive and participative environments at work, at school and in the local community, and through a dedicated and clearly communicated public health strategy. High-level cabinet support will be necessary to implement the Taskforce's recommendations. The approach to implementation must be characterised by joined-up thinking, real practical engagement by the public and private sectors, the avoidance of duplication of effort or crosspurpose approaches, and the harnessing of existing strategies and agencies. The range of government departments with roles to play is considerable. The Taskforce outlines the different contributions that each relevant department can make in driving its strategy forward. It also emphasises its requirement that all phases of the national strategy for healthy eating and physical activity are closely monitored, analysed and evaluated. The vision of the Taskforce is expressed as: An Irish society that enables people through health promotion, prevention and care to achieve and maintain healthy eating and active living throughout their lifespan. Its high-level goals are expressed as follows: Its recommendations, over eighty in all, relate to actions across six broad sectors: high-level government; education; social and community; health; food, commodities, production and supply; and the physical environment. In developing its recommendations the Taskforce has taken account of the complex, multisectoral and multi-faceted determinants of diet and physical activity. This strategy poses challenges for government, within individual departments, inter-departmentally and in developing partnerships with the commercial sector. Equally it challenges the commercial sector to work in partnership with government. The framework required for such initiative has at its core the rights and benefits of the individual. Health promotion is fundamentally about empowerment, whether at the individual, the community or the policy level.

Jordan faces extremely high levels of youth unemployment: 19 percent of male and 48 percent of female youth between the ages of 19 to 24 years old want to work but can't find jobs. For men, the transition from school to work is slow (on average 15 months), but for women the school to work transition often never takes place. In this context of high female unemployment and low female labor force participation, the Jordanian government, requested the World Bank's support to develop an employment pilot targeting female community college graduates in 2009. This pilot is part of a broader technical assistance program supporting the reform of the public community college system in Jordan. The objective of the Jordan New work Opportunities for Women (NOW) pilot was to increase female labor force participation and help women gain real world job experience. In particular, the hope was to improve information between firms and potential workers, create an opportunity to change negative stereotypes from firms and young women about women's role in the labor market, and improve soft skills and communication. Overall, the objectives of the Jordan NOW pilot were to increase labor force participation and to give young female graduates a chance to accrue some work experience.

This report highlights key trends, challenges, and opportunities for advancing financial inclusion and presents major high-level policy recommendations for consideration by the Group of 20 (G-20) policy makers to benefit a wider range of developing countries, including many non-G-20 countries. The report serves a broad audience, ranging from policy makers, development finance institutions, and the private sector to experts seeking a synopsis of the key subtopics relevant for financial inclusion and areas of work for advancing progress. The report is organized into four sections. The first recommends broad goals and agenda items to accelerate progress in financial inclusion. The second defines the financial inclusion concept and its importance for economic growth and poverty reduction. The third section provides a snapshot of each of the pillars presented as part of the recommendations, and the fourth section summarizes the way forward. The report also contains an annex that takes a closer look at the microfinance industry as a case in point for reviewing the successes, innovations, and lessons learned, which are critical for the broader discussion on financial inclusion.

This paper reviews a small community-based school feeding program launched in Togo in response to the 2007/08 food price crisis. The discussion focuses on the operational and policy lessons emerging from the program, to better understand opportunities for scale up and sustainability in the future. A focus of the discussion is how to build safety nets in fragile states and in situations where there is weak and fragmented government capacity to deliver services to disadvantaged and vulnerable communities. In this context school feeding is explored as an entry point through the use of informal mechanisms based on the commitment of communities and civil society. The analysis is premised on quantitative and qualitative analysis carried out at program sites. The discussion identifies the operational challenges and opportunities in customizing school feeding within Togo with an emphasis on targeting, cost effectiveness, procurement and institutional aspects. Evidence on the economic and social benefits of the program is also presented, focusing on dietary impacts, as well as household and local community effects. The objective of the discussion is to share lessons learned from evaluation findings so that they can be useful for implementing similar programs in the future in Togo itself or in other countries. Findings from the analysis highlight the possibilities of implementing school feeding in a low capacity setting and the scope for using the program as a springboard towards a broader and more comprehensive social safety net.

Since 2005, a growing number of vulnerable communities and nations have used the human rights lexicon to argue their case for an urgent and ambitious response to climate change. The purpose of this Social Development Department Working paper is to examine the emergence of a new discourse linking climate change and human rights, and to assess its social and political implications, particularly as they relate to development practitioners. The scope of this paper is to explore what relevance this new discourse has on what David Kennedy calls the 'vocabularies, expertise, and sensibilities' of development practitioners (Kennedy 2005). The methodology for this paper involved interviews with academics and policy practitioners who have shaped this emerging discourse; a wide-ranging literature review of texts relevant to the fields of development, climate change and human rights; discussions with development professionals who have the daily responsibility of operationalizing approaches to reducing vulnerability and building resilience; and finally drawing upon the author's own experience leading the Maldives' government's initiative on the Human Dimensions of Climate Change and as a consultant within the Social Dimensions of Climate Change Cluster of the World Bank's Social Development Department. It is important to stress that this paper is not a legal piece. Human rights are as much about ethical demands, calls for social justice, public awareness, advocacy, and political action as they are concerned with legal norms and rules. Sen has pointed out a 'theory of human rights cannot be sensibly confined within the juridical model in which it is frequently incarcerated' (Sen 2004, 319). Consequently this piece will focus on the wider, political economy aspects of the interface between human rights and climate change. It is further appropriate to state that this is not an advocacy piece. The paper deliberately avoids being normative or prescriptive in recommending a human rights-based approach to developing climate change operations. It does examine why vulnerable populations chose to embrace this approach, why they continue to view it as a transformative strategy, and what some of the successes and challenges have been.

International aid flows are equivalent to almost half of Solomon Islands' economy, making it one of the most aid-dependent countries in the world. Around US$250 million of non-military aid enters the country, but only 15-20 percent of this amount is spent locally through local procurement or staff expenditure. Solomon Islands are currently highly reliant on logging for export receipts, Government revenues, and employment. But existing stocks of natural forest logs are expected to be entirely exhausted by 2014. The Solomon Islands Government approached the World Bank Group to identify alternative sources of revenue, foreign exchange receipts, and employment in the absence of logging. In responding to this request, the World Bank Group has undertaken extensive analytical work examining short and medium-term prospects for economic growth in Solomon Islands, under the sources of growth project. This report contributes to the sources of growth work, and is informed by its findings. A key conclusion arising from sources of growth analysis is that aid is likely to remain a key part of the Solomon Islands economy for the near future. The existence of an international security guarantee, backed by the presence of an international peacekeeping force, is paramount for security, and investment certainty. In the absence of clear or certain alternatives to logging, and in the context of rapid population growth, current levels of service delivery will continue to depend on high levels of aid expenditure.

Like other countries in the Middle East and North Africa region, Algeria has undergone a demographic transition. But Algeria's fertility decline defies conventional explanation. Despite inauspicious starting conditions-a high total fertility rate, reluctant policy environment, and delayed implementation of a national family planning program-Algeria has surpassed some of its neighbors in fertility reduction. Before its fertility transition, Algeria had one of the highest crude birth rates in the world, nearly 50 per 1,000. The fertility transition began in 1965-70, before any significant government support for or investment in population control or family planning and before significant external donor funding became available. Since then, profound changes in the traditional family model have led to a 64 percent decline in the total fertility rate in recent decades, from 6.76 in 1980 to 2.41 in 2006. Overall, Algeria's fertility decline is best understood in terms of changes in behavior, especially the delay in age at first marriage, the increase in contraceptive use, and-to a certain degree-the negative effects of the economic crisis manifested in the housing shortage and unemployment of young adults.

The objective of this study is to identify lessons for improving cookstoves in Bangladesh through an evaluation of existing programs, the international experience on improved stoves, and the lessons from successes in the sanitation sector. Bangladesh's new renewable energy policy endorses creating a better environment for renewable energy technologies and promoting market development for improved cookstoves (Government of Bangladesh 2009). This study supports this policy direction by examining possible strategies to move forward the development of markets for improved stoves in Bangladesh. The study consists of several components: a national review of household energy programs; an evaluation of national sanitation programs; and an examination of improved cookstove programs from around the world, including China, Guatemala, Haiti, Mongolia, Nepal, and Uganda. The study is based on published literature, consultations with organizations throughout Bangladesh, site visits, and structured discussions with beneficiaries and other stakeholders.