Suchergebnisse

Most academic systems and structures, as they exist today, are based on models which were designed centuries ago, at a time when men exclusively predominated in universities. There is certain scepticism towards what can be achieved, though. A continuing evident gap is apparent between principles, rhetoric and reality. In 2010, women were pursuing upper secondary and higher education more actively than men, but, evidently, women remain more strongly underrepresented among researchers than among highly qualified professionals in traditionally maledominated scientific and professional fields. This could point towards a situation where the organisational culture mounts resistance against the integration of women. Briefly, they require but often lack conceptual frameworks. The purpose of this study was to examine how institutional culture promoted or impeded the implementation of one of the EU flagship initiatives 'Implementing structural change in research organizations/universities' in Lithuania, which should be designed to improve the institutional culture for women in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM). This study was conducted in two stages. In the first stage, a conceptual framework and methodology was developed for designing institutional transformational change at STEM faculties of University to sustain the practice of gender equality. In the second stage, the design of the Model Institutional Transformational Change was attempted to be conceptualized in order to achieve change on institutional, departmental and individual levels.

This article analyses the problems of defining the concept of domestic violence in Lithuania from the perspective of international law, focusing on the problem of delimitation of domestic violence and gender-based violence against women. The article provides an analysis of the concept of domestic violence under international legal documents (UN and CoE Conventions), and in relevant Case Law and the Lithuanian national legislation: i.e. the recently adopted Law on Protection Against Domestic Violence, which entered into force on 15 December 2011. The paper provides an assessment of the national law in consideration of international law. The author considers whether the law could and should be completely gender-neutral (the model chosen now in Lithuania). In addition, the need to consider the perpetrator's rights (property interests, presumption of innocence, and victim's opposition to criminal sanction) is analysed in the context of the relevant international human rights cases.

This article analyses the problems of defining the concept of domestic violence in Lithuania from the perspective of international law, focusing on the problem of delimitation of domestic violence and gender-based violence against women. The article provides an analysis of the concept of domestic violence under international legal documents (UN and CoE Conventions), and in relevant Case Law and the Lithuanian national legislation: i.e. the recently adopted Law on Protection Against Domestic Violence, which entered into force on 15 December 2011. The paper provides an assessment of the national law in consideration of international law. The author considers whether the law could and should be completely gender-neutral (the model chosen now in Lithuania). In addition, the need to consider the perpetrator's rights (property interests, presumption of innocence, and victim's opposition to criminal sanction) is analysed in the context of the relevant international human rights cases.

This paper analyzes the legal labour relations and the laws, regulating the prohibition of gender discrimination in establishing or terminating the labour relations. In order to reveal this theme in as more details as possible, first the principle of equality is examined, where the prohibition of discrimination (discriminatory) principle is derived from. The latter is established in both Lithuanian and international law. The principles of equality and non-discrimination allows the application of different employment criteria, different working conditions, bases of dismissal from work, to treat the same relations differently due to the circumstances, unrelated with employee's professional characteristics. Discrimination in the field of legal labour relations is understood as any exclusion, restriction or superiority, violating or voiding the equal employment and career opportunities, and the equal relations. In other words, any different treatment of employees because of their gender, the consequences of which include unequal rights in labour relations, for example, certain working conditions, promotion, training, is considered as discrimination. The paper also discusses a number of persons, who are subject to protection against gender discrimination, in legal labour relations. It should be noted that it includes all the persons, belonging to the following groups of labour relations category: employees, self-employed persons, persons, who wish to occupy a vacancy, people working in the public and private sectors. Next, the national and international anti-discrimination laws are discussed. Prohibition of gender discrimination in Lithuania is provided by Law on Equal Opportunities for Women and Men of the Republic of Lithuania that came into effect on 1st of December, 1998. It was passed, in order to implement the general provisions of Directive 2006/54/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5th of July, 2006, on the implementation of the principles of equal opportunities of men and women in matters of employment and occupation. Therefore, the present thesis analyzes the transfer of provisions of aforementioned Directive into Lithuanian law. It also analyzes the different forms of discrimination, direct discrimination, indirect discrimination, and positive discrimination. Direct discrimination is considered when one person due to his/her gender has less favourable conditions, in comparison with conditions, which are, were or would be had by another person in a similar situation. Direct discrimination in labour relations is illegal. An employer cannot knowingly create worse conditions of employment or dismiss an employee because of his/her gender. This also includes the cases, when employer's refusal to establish legal labour relations or decision to terminate is justified not by objective circumstances, but by certain employee's characteristics that are directly related with employee's gender. Indirect discrimination is considered as any act or omission, rule of law, assessment criterion or practice, which is formally equal for women and men, but during their implementation or application, persons of one gender may find themselves or find themselves in certain less advantageous position than persons of other gender. While comparing the difference between direct discrimination and indirect one, the main difference is that indirect discrimination can be objectively justified under the exceptions provided for by law, therefore, one often face difficulty in proving it. Positive discrimination includes state actions, whereby it is sought to equalize the opportunities for persons working in the field of labour by eliminating the existing actual inequality. The actions of positive discrimination in Lithuania are called temporary special measures aimed at speeding up the establishment of actual equality of men and women. It is provided by Law on Equal Opportunities of Women and Men of the Republic of Lithuania. It is important to note that positive discrimination is only a temporary measure, in order to eliminate illegal forms of discrimination by ensuring the equal opportunities for employees. When examining the issue of gender discrimination, the cases of illegal and justifiable discrimination cases in legal labour relations are also analyzed. The paper discusses the common cases of gender discrimination when establishing or terminating labour relations. One of them is the job ads, it is one of stages of labour relations development, where gender discrimination is forbidden. Law on Equal Opportunities for Women and Men of the Republic of Lithuania Equal Opportunity Act also precludes discriminatory ads giving priority to one gender in applying for a job. So, job ads, showing the preferred gender of employee directly (e.g., looking for administrator or sales person-woman) are illegal, since they constraint the right of other gender to work. Next, the paper discusses the status of pregnant women, who are discriminated on the grounds of gender when establishing or terminating the labour relations. Employers arbitrarily reduce their salaries, force them to leave the work by their own free will, do not grant vacation, and do not pay bonus and premiums. What is more, those, who intent to return to work after maternity leave, also face difficulties. Employer's decision to dismiss an employee solely because the employee is pregnant or a parent is returning after maternity leave is discriminatory. The laws provide for the cases when gender discrimination in establishing or terminating labour relations is justified. In some cases, gender can be objectively necessary occupational requirement. Law on Equal Opportunities for Women and Men of the Republic of Lithuania provides several exceptions (justifiable discrimination), when a certain unequal treatment of genders in legal labour relations shall not be considered as gender discrimination, i.e., special protection of women during pregnancy, childbirth, and nursing; requirements for safety at work applicable to women aimed at protecting the women's health owing to their physiological properties; specific work which can be performed only by a person of a particular gender, when gender is necessary (inevitable) and decisive occupational requirement as a result of specific types of occupational activity or as a result of their implementation conditions, this treatment is legal and the requirement is suitable (proportional). In summary, it might be concluded that gender of labour subjects cannot be a legal cause to refuse to establish or terminate the legal labour relations with employee when a person meets the requirements applied to employee, and when there are no conditions, provided for in legal acts, resulting in person's inability to work for a particular job.

On the macro level, the ethics infrastructure is reinforced by business/professional ethics scientific research centres, national and international associations or business ethics professional networks, national institutes of ombudsmen. With regard to the implementation of ethics infrastructure in the academic realm of Lithuania, it is observable that the available data of monitoring display a symptomatic situation, providing evidence of obvious resistance to these processes. Both the institutions of higher education and academic community at large lack managerial understanding of issues of gender equality. To some extent, it may also be explained by the fact of methodologically incorrect comprehension of the introduction of ethics infrastructure elements regarding the issues of male and female equality. These methods of social engineering are widely used in management and are nowadays (depending on the occurrence of practical application of knowledge of social science) applicable to ensure all social changes on both meso and macro levels. In order to be successful, GEP is presumed to be integrated into the improvement of SEI management system. Otherwise, it may cause deterioration of the performance quality of any actions, impairing the dynamics of desired changes, and respective complications in reaching outstanding goals. Furthermore, the realisation of GEP is expected to use some elements of the ethics infrastructure such as ethics codes, ethics commissions, social auditing, hot lines, etc., partly created in universities. Such elements promote monitoring and assessment procedures and help creating and managing mechanisms and orders, which are favourable per se for the development of male and female equal opportunities. Therefore, the application of the integrity model to the realm of academia can directly contribute to gender equality and equal opportunities in Lithuanian SEI.

On the macro level, the ethics infrastructure is reinforced by business/professional ethics scientific research centres, national and international associations or business ethics professional networks, national institutes of ombudsmen. With regard to the implementation of ethics infrastructure in the academic realm of Lithuania, it is observable that the available data of monitoring display a symptomatic situation, providing evidence of obvious resistance to these processes. Both the institutions of higher education and academic community at large lack managerial understanding of issues of gender equality. To some extent, it may also be explained by the fact of methodologically incorrect comprehension of the introduction of ethics infrastructure elements regarding the issues of male and female equality. These methods of social engineering are widely used in management and are nowadays (depending on the occurrence of practical application of knowledge of social science) applicable to ensure all social changes on both meso and macro levels. In order to be successful, GEP is presumed to be integrated into the improvement of SEI management system. Otherwise, it may cause deterioration of the performance quality of any actions, impairing the dynamics of desired changes, and respective complications in reaching outstanding goals. Furthermore, the realisation of GEP is expected to use some elements of the ethics infrastructure such as ethics codes, ethics commissions, social auditing, hot lines, etc., partly created in universities. Such elements promote monitoring and assessment procedures and help creating and managing mechanisms and orders, which are favourable per se for the development of male and female equal opportunities. Therefore, the application of the integrity model to the realm of academia can directly contribute to gender equality and equal opportunities in Lithuanian SEI.

A contemporary consuming society emphasizes a human body as a sign that represents a race, gender, age, social status or role and a body language that highlights emotions and feelings. A society could be analysed on the basis of a gender discourse. It is rich with social, political and cultural processes shaping gender identities, stereotypes and ideals. Changes in the 20th century influenced the alterations in a woman's roles ant attitudes towards her. A man's identity was changing as well. Some social subcultures have not been defined and analysed in history or in science. These subcultures are considered to be marginal groups: gays, lesbians and disabled. Very often they felt the ignorance, discrimination and aggression. In the second half of the 20th century the feminist movement speeded social changes all over the world. At that time a contemporary dance appeared as a complex phenomenon in art. Researchers do not outline its clear beginning or the end. It is a mix of various techniques and dancers are free from a strict movement alphabet. Representation and questioning of traditional (a woman and a man) and marginal (homosexuals and disabled) reflections of a body in a contemporary dance influenced the analysis of a contemporary dance in the social and cultural context. The subject of a diploma paper is the body's social reflections in a contemporary dance: traditional (a woman and a man) and marginal (homosexuals and disabled). The field of the subject is European and Lithuanian performances of the contemporary dance created in the last three decades. The investigation of the subject is based on the vertical (historical) and horizontal (social, cultural) analysis. After reaching the defined aim and objectives of the paper, it is possible to state that in a contemporary society the body is understood as a developing sign system interdependent with surrounding factors. The perfection of the body is taken as a natural permanent process which aim is the implementation of needs and desires. The main function of the body becomes its representation. Different woman's models and stereotypes depicted in the contemporary dance are a free interpretation. The changes in men's social roles, stereotypes and relations are hyperbolized. The contemporary dance is the art form that can reveal directly the experience of a disabled, help the society to know and understand the disability as a phenomenon and inevitability. This form of art allows the audience to recognize social subcultures, to manipulate the traditional attitudes and norms. The dance can be the form of art that educates and fosters tolerance in a society.

A contemporary consuming society emphasizes a human body as a sign that represents a race, gender, age, social status or role and a body language that highlights emotions and feelings. A society could be analysed on the basis of a gender discourse. It is rich with social, political and cultural processes shaping gender identities, stereotypes and ideals. Changes in the 20th century influenced the alterations in a woman's roles ant attitudes towards her. A man's identity was changing as well. Some social subcultures have not been defined and analysed in history or in science. These subcultures are considered to be marginal groups: gays, lesbians and disabled. Very often they felt the ignorance, discrimination and aggression. In the second half of the 20th century the feminist movement speeded social changes all over the world. At that time a contemporary dance appeared as a complex phenomenon in art. Researchers do not outline its clear beginning or the end. It is a mix of various techniques and dancers are free from a strict movement alphabet. Representation and questioning of traditional (a woman and a man) and marginal (homosexuals and disabled) reflections of a body in a contemporary dance influenced the analysis of a contemporary dance in the social and cultural context. The subject of a diploma paper is the body's social reflections in a contemporary dance: traditional (a woman and a man) and marginal (homosexuals and disabled). The field of the subject is European and Lithuanian performances of the contemporary dance created in the last three decades. The investigation of the subject is based on the vertical (historical) and horizontal (social, cultural) analysis. After reaching the defined aim and objectives of the paper, it is possible to state that in a contemporary society the body is understood as a developing sign system interdependent with surrounding factors. The perfection of the body is taken as a natural permanent process which aim is the implementation of needs and desires. The main function of the body becomes its representation. Different woman's models and stereotypes depicted in the contemporary dance are a free interpretation. The changes in men's social roles, stereotypes and relations are hyperbolized. The contemporary dance is the art form that can reveal directly the experience of a disabled, help the society to know and understand the disability as a phenomenon and inevitability. This form of art allows the audience to recognize social subcultures, to manipulate the traditional attitudes and norms. The dance can be the form of art that educates and fosters tolerance in a society.

A contemporary consuming society emphasizes a human body as a sign that represents a race, gender, age, social status or role and a body language that highlights emotions and feelings. A society could be analysed on the basis of a gender discourse. It is rich with social, political and cultural processes shaping gender identities, stereotypes and ideals. Changes in the 20th century influenced the alterations in a woman's roles ant attitudes towards her. A man's identity was changing as well. Some social subcultures have not been defined and analysed in history or in science. These subcultures are considered to be marginal groups: gays, lesbians and disabled. Very often they felt the ignorance, discrimination and aggression. In the second half of the 20th century the feminist movement speeded social changes all over the world. At that time a contemporary dance appeared as a complex phenomenon in art. Researchers do not outline its clear beginning or the end. It is a mix of various techniques and dancers are free from a strict movement alphabet. Representation and questioning of traditional (a woman and a man) and marginal (homosexuals and disabled) reflections of a body in a contemporary dance influenced the analysis of a contemporary dance in the social and cultural context. The subject of a diploma paper is the body's social reflections in a contemporary dance: traditional (a woman and a man) and marginal (homosexuals and disabled). The field of the subject is European and Lithuanian performances of the contemporary dance created in the last three decades. The investigation of the subject is based on the vertical (historical) and horizontal (social, cultural) analysis. After reaching the defined aim and objectives of the paper, it is possible to state that in a contemporary society the body is understood as a developing sign system interdependent with surrounding factors. The perfection of the body is taken as a natural permanent process which aim is the implementation of needs and desires. The main function of the body becomes its representation. Different woman's models and stereotypes depicted in the contemporary dance are a free interpretation. The changes in men's social roles, stereotypes and relations are hyperbolized. The contemporary dance is the art form that can reveal directly the experience of a disabled, help the society to know and understand the disability as a phenomenon and inevitability. This form of art allows the audience to recognize social subcultures, to manipulate the traditional attitudes and norms. The dance can be the form of art that educates and fosters tolerance in a society.

Equality before the law, protection of the rights and non-discrimination are considered as core set of human rights norms and must form the whole legal system. Equality means that all people are born free and equal, have same rights and are equally respected and valued both in family and society. In accordance with the principle of equality of all people are equal in their natural rights and dignity, so no one should be denied human rights on grounds of nationality, ethnicity, race, religion, gender, age, language, sexual orientation, disability, political or other opinion which are based on other discriminatory basis. The principle of equality is inherent in the principle of non-discrimination which it complements and includes general and basic human rights. Non-discrimination principle in fact implies that there must be equality of rights between men and women in all spheres of life. Although the protection of human rights receive growing attention in the international community, however, there is still a concern for women's rights, as not always protecting international human rights and not always welcomed by Muslim countries, especially in areas that are closely associated with the Muslim religion and culture. This master's thesis will be analyzing a comprehensive gender equality in the legal family relations at the international level which is based on Sharia law. It will be focusing on the situation of women in the legal assessment of family relationships through marriage and divorce institutions that affect the realization of women's equality and non-status. The aim of this work is to compare the Sharia law compatibility with international human rights standards. It will also attempt to discern the potential to improve human rights protection system functioning Shari'a judges. Master thesis topic selection due to the fact that a woman's place in society is a question commonly mentioned society. On the other hand these days with increasing emigration growing number of mixed marriages, resulting in more frequent cultures, traditions and legal environments, which leads to the need to know and is traditionally perceived foreign legal systems. The main goal - to determine whether there is a breach of the principle of gender equality, if a woman of a family relationship status assessed on the basis of Muslim countries traditions and religion. In order to achieve this goal this work will analyze gender equality and the limits of the application. It will also analyze the situation of women in the family at the international level. The second part of the Master focuses on the situation of women in family law, the analysis of Shariah law, and declarations on human rights in Muslim countries. The third part deals with Sharia law and international compatibility of the provisions regulating the status of women in the family and the different conceptions of equality in those jurisdictions. The study shows that the hypothesis about the principle of gender equality of women in the family is proven to be assessed on the basis of Muslim countries traditions and religion, has proved on the condition that the principle of gender equality is perceived as it is interpreted by international human rights, especially the Convention on the all Forms of Discrimination against Women.

SUMMARY The objective of this Master's Thesis is to analyze and compare Lithuania, Norway, Netherlands and The Great Britain Constitutional human rights and legal provisions wich ensure the rights and freedoms of sexual minorities. With regard to the comparative analysis of the present findings, disclosed the sexual minority rights in Lithuania. The Thesis consists of an introduction followed by two chapters and conclusions. The first chapter deals with the conceptions of sexual minorities and homosexual orientation. Also analyzed the Lithuanian Constitutional human rights and legal provisions wich provide the right to protection, equality, freedom of expression and privacy of sexual minorities. The second section consist legal acts analysis wich regulate sexual minorities rights in Norway, Netherlands and Great Britain. Specifying Constitutional rights and statutory provisions which are providing legal rights to protection, equality, freedom of expression and privacy of sexual minorities. Analyze and compare Lithuania, Norway, Netherlands and Great Britain Constitutional human rights and legal provisions wich ensure the rights and freedoms of sexual minorities. Sexual minorities are groups of people whose sexual orientation, gender identity or sexual characteristics are different from the presumed majority of the population, which are male or female heterosexuals. The term referred primarily to lesbians and gays, bisexuals and transgender people. These four categories are often grouped together and called as LGBT persons. Regarding of society formed stereotypes, these individuals are often faced with the legal and social exclusion. Opposition receives both authorization and prohibition to marry, adopt or publicly promote their way of life. Therefore, sexual minority rights and freedoms is one of the most debated topics in Lithuania and in the world. Article 21 of Lithuania Constitution provides that, the human person is inviolable. Human dignity shall be protected by law. It shall be prohibited to torture, injure, degrade, or maltreat, and to impose such penalties. Article 169 of the Criminal Code prohibit direct discrimination on grounds of sex, sexual orientation, race, nationality, beliefs or other attitudes. Prohibition of sale, produce, acquire to send, carry, keep the things that incite or promote hatred violence and discrimination based on gender, sexual orientation, race, ethnicity, and other cases are provided in the Criminal Code article 170. Article 29 of Lithuania Constitution lay down non-discrimination principle of all persons, other existing legislations guarantees equal rights to all people regardless of gender, sexual orientation, race or ethnic origin, disability, age, religion or belief. Article 2 paragraph 4 of Labour Code provides equality of employment law subjects, regardless of gender, sexual orientation and other circumstances. Article 2 of this act requires the employer to implement equal opportunities at work and in public service. Labour Safety and Health Act guarantees employed safe and healthy working conditions, regardless of the employee's sexual orientation. This act prohibit direct or indirect discrimination on grounds of age, sexual orientation, disability, race or ethnic origin, religion or belief. Article 25 of Lithuania Constitution provides that everyone has the right to hold opinions and to express them freely. Article 36 of Constitution lay, that unarmed citizens have the right in peaceful assembly. These two Constitutional provisions guaranties human right to expression. Country's Criminal Code, the Labour Code, the Occupational Safety and Health Act, the Equal Opportunity Act establishes the prohibition of discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation, but comparing to the rest of the world Lithuania valid legal regulation does not ensure sexual minority rights and freedoms. In Norway, the Netherlands and Great Britain gender identity is stored value of the law and same-sex marriage are legal by the law. These countries have established legal regulation laying down the conditions and gender reassignment procedures. In Netherlands and Great Britain the same sex can form a partnership. There is no statutory regulations, which set the conditions for gender reassignment procedures in Lithuania. Article 2.27 of Lithuanian Civil Code provides that \"an unmarried adult has the right to medically change their sex, if it is medically possible. Sex changing conditions laid down by law". To implement these provisions was prepared draft law regulating the treatment of transsexualism, but due to conflicting public assessment, this law has not been adopted. For this reason in country does not exist discriminatory crimes of sexual identity basis. The country does not allow same-sex marriage or partnership formation. Article 38 of Lithuania Constitution establishes that "marriage are formed in agreement between a man and a woman ''. According to this provision, the same-sex marriage are not available in the Country. Lithuania legal acts unlike in Norway, Netherlands and Great Britain does not include gender identity concept. In Lithuania transsexual person (a person who has a gender identity confusion) rights and freedoms are not guaranteed, because none of the above provisions of the law does not include gender identity grounds. For this reason, information about hate crimes, sexual identity simply does not exist.

This article compares the state of the field of Comparative Education in Lithuania with developments internationally. As in most of the countries of the erstwhile Eastern Bloc, the confluence of circumstances in the past decades resulted in Comparative Education being strongly and visibly present in courses taught at pre-graduate and postgraduate levels at universities in Lithuania since 1990. What is absent are research institutes of Comparative Education, also established chairs of Comparative Education, Comparative Education departments and academics exclusively occupied with (teaching and conducting research in) Comparative Education. Comparativists in Lithuania are also not strongly connected with each other and with the international Comparative Education community. While Comparative Education research gets done vigorously and the themes of research are very topical and include equity issues (including gender equity), quality and quality assurance, internationalization of higher education, the societal effects of education (e.g., the effect of education on values, including the political values of students, the effect of education on economic development or on social mobility) and research on the learning of students. Also, the ways of solving conflicts differ in the groups depending on age and sex.

This article compares the state of the field of Comparative Education in Lithuania with developments internationally. As in most of the countries of the erstwhile Eastern Bloc, the confluence of circumstances in the past decades resulted in Comparative Education being strongly and visibly present in courses taught at pre-graduate and postgraduate levels at universities in Lithuania since 1990. What is absent are research institutes of Comparative Education, also established chairs of Comparative Education, Comparative Education departments and academics exclusively occupied with (teaching and conducting research in) Comparative Education. Comparativists in Lithuania are also not strongly connected with each other and with the international Comparative Education community. While Comparative Education research gets done vigorously and the themes of research are very topical and include equity issues (including gender equity), quality and quality assurance, internationalization of higher education, the societal effects of education (e.g., the effect of education on values, including the political values of students, the effect of education on economic development or on social mobility) and research on the learning of students. Also, the ways of solving conflicts differ in the groups depending on age and sex.

This article compares the state of the field of Comparative Education in Lithuania with developments internationally. As in most of the countries of the erstwhile Eastern Bloc, the confluence of circumstances in the past decades resulted in Comparative Education being strongly and visibly present in courses taught at pre-graduate and postgraduate levels at universities in Lithuania since 1990. What is absent are research institutes of Comparative Education, also established chairs of Comparative Education, Comparative Education departments and academics exclusively occupied with (teaching and conducting research in) Comparative Education. Comparativists in Lithuania are also not strongly connected with each other and with the international Comparative Education community. While Comparative Education research gets done vigorously and the themes of research are very topical and include equity issues (including gender equity), quality and quality assurance, internationalization of higher education, the societal effects of education (e.g., the effect of education on values, including the political values of students, the effect of education on economic development or on social mobility) and research on the learning of students. Also, the ways of solving conflicts differ in the groups depending on age and sex.