The changes in geostrategy of the United States have become clear after the events of September 11. These changes have encouraged the reformation and adaptation process of the geopolitical codes of the other main geopolitical actors. Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Russia and China are facing the necessity either to adapt to the transformed US geostrategy or to project and implement alternative geopolitical combinations striving for its neutralisation. The change of the geopolitical codes of the main geopolitical actors (including various alternatives variants) would shape the main tendencies of global geopolitical development at the beginning of the 21st century. It is necessary to evaluate the action scenarios of the main geopolitical actors in order to identify the opportunities of Lithuania's geopolitical code and also Lithuania's foreign policy transformation in the global geopolitical environment since the possibilities of Lithuania's foreign policy directly depend on the changes of the global geopolitical situation. The analysis of global geopolitical development and the identification of opportunities of Lithuania's foreign policy are based both on static and dynamic approaches. This study identifies the interests of the US, Russia, major powers of the European Union (EU) and China in the global geopolitical environment. Such identification sets the conditions for Lithuania's possible location in the geostrategic plans of the great powers and that is the static part of the analysis. The dynamic part of the analysis relies on the model of the strategic choice and presents the main geostrategic alternatives of the most important geopolitical actors. They depend on the changes of interaction among the geopolitical subjects. The models of this interaction allow identifying possible global geopolitical scenarios and evaluating Lithuania's eventual geopolitical role in the changing geopolitical space.
The changes in geostrategy of the United States have become clear after the events of September 11. These changes have encouraged the reformation and adaptation process of the geopolitical codes of the other main geopolitical actors. Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Russia and China are facing the necessity either to adapt to the transformed US geostrategy or to project and implement alternative geopolitical combinations striving for its neutralisation. The change of the geopolitical codes of the main geopolitical actors (including various alternatives variants) would shape the main tendencies of global geopolitical development at the beginning of the 21st century. It is necessary to evaluate the action scenarios of the main geopolitical actors in order to identify the opportunities of Lithuania's geopolitical code and also Lithuania's foreign policy transformation in the global geopolitical environment since the possibilities of Lithuania's foreign policy directly depend on the changes of the global geopolitical situation. The analysis of global geopolitical development and the identification of opportunities of Lithuania's foreign policy are based both on static and dynamic approaches. This study identifies the interests of the US, Russia, major powers of the European Union (EU) and China in the global geopolitical environment. Such identification sets the conditions for Lithuania's possible location in the geostrategic plans of the great powers and that is the static part of the analysis. The dynamic part of the analysis relies on the model of the strategic choice and presents the main geostrategic alternatives of the most important geopolitical actors. They depend on the changes of interaction among the geopolitical subjects. The models of this interaction allow identifying possible global geopolitical scenarios and evaluating Lithuania's eventual geopolitical role in the changing geopolitical space.
The article analyses the development of Higher Education Policy in independent Lithuania (1990-2018). The analysis is dwelling on the results of qualitative research conducted in 2018 with a focus on local national and global neoliberal public policy factors that have impact on higher education policy development, as well as Lithuanian education policy issues and it's funding system. The empirical evidence revealed that higher education policy in Lithuania is highly influenced by global neoliberal public policy, however, the biggest higher education development problems are related to the local political factors: financial resources, political parties, the lack of sustainable higher education strategy.
The article analyses the development of Higher Education Policy in independent Lithuania (1990-2018). The analysis is dwelling on the results of qualitative research conducted in 2018 with a focus on local national and global neoliberal public policy factors that have impact on higher education policy development, as well as Lithuanian education policy issues and it's funding system. The empirical evidence revealed that higher education policy in Lithuania is highly influenced by global neoliberal public policy, however, the biggest higher education development problems are related to the local political factors: financial resources, political parties, the lack of sustainable higher education strategy.
The article analyses the development of Higher Education Policy in independent Lithuania (1990-2018). The analysis is dwelling on the results of qualitative research conducted in 2018 with a focus on local national and global neoliberal public policy factors that have impact on higher education policy development, as well as Lithuanian education policy issues and it's funding system. The empirical evidence revealed that higher education policy in Lithuania is highly influenced by global neoliberal public policy, however, the biggest higher education development problems are related to the local political factors: financial resources, political parties, the lack of sustainable higher education strategy.
The article analyses the development of Higher Education Policy in independent Lithuania (1990-2018). The analysis is dwelling on the results of qualitative research conducted in 2018 with a focus on local national and global neoliberal public policy factors that have impact on higher education policy development, as well as Lithuanian education policy issues and it's funding system. The empirical evidence revealed that higher education policy in Lithuania is highly influenced by global neoliberal public policy, however, the biggest higher education development problems are related to the local political factors: financial resources, political parties, the lack of sustainable higher education strategy.
"Lithuania in Global Arena" is an annual academic review of Lithuania's foreign policy published by research cluster "International Relations and Security Processes: Lithuania in the Global Arena" at Vytautas Magnus University (Lithuania). The aim of the journal is to give annual review and evaluation of Lithuania's foreign policy focusing on the following aspects: domestic factors that influence Lithuania's foreign policy; Lithuania's policy in European Union and NATO; Lithuania's relations with United States, strategic partners, Eastern countries, other regions, priority issues in Lithuania's foreign policy.
"Lithuania in Global Arena" is an annual academic review of Lithuania's foreign policy published by research cluster "International Relations and Security Processes: Lithuania in the Global Arena" at Vytautas Magnus University (Lithuania). The aim of the journal is to give annual review and evaluation of Lithuania's foreign policy focusing on the following aspects: domestic factors that influence Lithuania's foreign policy; Lithuania's policy in European Union and NATO; Lithuania's relations with United States, strategic partners, Eastern countries, other regions, priority issues in Lithuania's foreign policy.
"Lithuania in Global Arena" is an annual academic review of Lithuania's foreign policy published by research cluster "International Relations and Security Processes: Lithuania in the Global Arena" at Vytautas Magnus University (Lithuania). The aim of the journal is to give annual review and evaluation of Lithuania's foreign policy focusing on the following aspects: domestic factors that influence Lithuania's foreign policy; Lithuania's policy in European Union and NATO; Lithuania's relations with United States, strategic partners, Eastern countries, other regions, priority issues in Lithuania's foreign policy.
Globalization is a catch-all term used to describe a combination of trends and processes that link economies, societies and governments around the world. The underlying forces creating global interdependence are not new. However, events around the world have made larger, and more sudden, impacts on social organizations, economic performance and public policy that haven't been experienced before. The purpose of this paper is to examine the potential of public administration modernization regarding principles of New Public Management that is being influenced by the forces of politics globalization and by rise of supraterritorialy fact. Paper explores the concept of globalization, emphasize globalization of politics, and stress the influence of globalization on a state. Trends of public administration reforms, export of public administration models, regional specifics of public administration reforms, changes of national and international governance systems are examined in the paper as the consequence of public administration globalization. ; Straipsnyje analizuojama politinės globalizacijos samprata ir jos įtaka viešajam administravimui, apibrėžiamos regioninės viešojo administravimo modernizavimo galimybės ir tendencijos, parodomas nacionalinių ir tarptautinių valdymo mechanizmų pokyčių ryšys. Aptariamos galimos politinės ir administracinės veiklos sritys ir principai, kurių vystymas padėtų įveikti globalizacijos grėsmes, leistų išnaudoti teikiamas jos galimybes ir įgyvendinti globalios visuomenės keliamus tikslus.
The thesis focus is 'Pakistani foreign policy' in regard to the 'global war on terror'. Pakistan being a frontline state in war on terror always remained in focus of international community. Pakistan with its actions in war on terror failed to fulfill expectations of international community. This led to international allegations on Pakistan regarding its role in war on terror. The allegations were e.g. "Pakistan have double standards in war on terror". The thesis aims are to explore the reasons of dual-face foreign policy of Pakistan, outcomes of such policies and current directions of Pakistani foreign policy in war on terror. In the effort of researching the topic, the research tasks are composed of 'presenting the theory of Realism as being suitable theoretical ground for the study; presentation of the historical context of Pakistani foreign policy pre 9/11; analysis of Pakistani foreign policy combating terrorism after 9/11; analyzing the Pakistan's role creating terrorism in respect of international allegations; and evaluation of Pakistan's current role in global war on terror'. The study is based on the analysis of the scientific literature. The qualitative research methods such as content analysis, comparison method, historical method, descriptive method and media monitoring are mainly used in the thesis. Considering the Pakistan's geographic position, its geo-political problems with neighbors, power balance, regional arm race, security dilemma problem considering these factors the case study was conducted using Realism theoretical perspective. The next chapters were efforts to establish a point where the current position and future directions of Pakistani foreign policy in respect of its war on terror could be explored. Finally, the last part of the thesis constitutes the major conclusions of the research study. The thesis proved that Pakistan remained an active member of international community in war on terror but due to its geographic position was forced to establish dual-face policies in war. The different approach was due to the difference of interests. It was the matter of survival for the Pakistan. December 16, 2014 Peshawar school attacks, changed Pakistani approach towards terrorism. Pakistan current foreign policy is very clear to eliminate the terrorism without exceptions. The use of non-state actors by states became an international norm. The South Asia region might continue to see such events in future but groups like Al-Qaeda, ISIS, and Taliban do not have any soft place in current Pakistani foreign policy. Current Pakistani foreign policy categorizes global war on terror, a war for its own survival.
The thesis focus is 'Pakistani foreign policy' in regard to the 'global war on terror'. Pakistan being a frontline state in war on terror always remained in focus of international community. Pakistan with its actions in war on terror failed to fulfill expectations of international community. This led to international allegations on Pakistan regarding its role in war on terror. The allegations were e.g. "Pakistan have double standards in war on terror". The thesis aims are to explore the reasons of dual-face foreign policy of Pakistan, outcomes of such policies and current directions of Pakistani foreign policy in war on terror. In the effort of researching the topic, the research tasks are composed of 'presenting the theory of Realism as being suitable theoretical ground for the study; presentation of the historical context of Pakistani foreign policy pre 9/11; analysis of Pakistani foreign policy combating terrorism after 9/11; analyzing the Pakistan's role creating terrorism in respect of international allegations; and evaluation of Pakistan's current role in global war on terror'. The study is based on the analysis of the scientific literature. The qualitative research methods such as content analysis, comparison method, historical method, descriptive method and media monitoring are mainly used in the thesis. Considering the Pakistan's geographic position, its geo-political problems with neighbors, power balance, regional arm race, security dilemma problem considering these factors the case study was conducted using Realism theoretical perspective. The next chapters were efforts to establish a point where the current position and future directions of Pakistani foreign policy in respect of its war on terror could be explored. Finally, the last part of the thesis constitutes the major conclusions of the research study. The thesis proved that Pakistan remained an active member of international community in war on terror but due to its geographic position was forced to establish dual-face policies in war. The different approach was due to the difference of interests. It was the matter of survival for the Pakistan. December 16, 2014 Peshawar school attacks, changed Pakistani approach towards terrorism. Pakistan current foreign policy is very clear to eliminate the terrorism without exceptions. The use of non-state actors by states became an international norm. The South Asia region might continue to see such events in future but groups like Al-Qaeda, ISIS, and Taliban do not have any soft place in current Pakistani foreign policy. Current Pakistani foreign policy categorizes global war on terror, a war for its own survival.
The thesis focus is 'Pakistani foreign policy' in regard to the 'global war on terror'. Pakistan being a frontline state in war on terror always remained in focus of international community. Pakistan with its actions in war on terror failed to fulfill expectations of international community. This led to international allegations on Pakistan regarding its role in war on terror. The allegations were e.g. "Pakistan have double standards in war on terror". The thesis aims are to explore the reasons of dual-face foreign policy of Pakistan, outcomes of such policies and current directions of Pakistani foreign policy in war on terror. In the effort of researching the topic, the research tasks are composed of 'presenting the theory of Realism as being suitable theoretical ground for the study; presentation of the historical context of Pakistani foreign policy pre 9/11; analysis of Pakistani foreign policy combating terrorism after 9/11; analyzing the Pakistan's role creating terrorism in respect of international allegations; and evaluation of Pakistan's current role in global war on terror'. The study is based on the analysis of the scientific literature. The qualitative research methods such as content analysis, comparison method, historical method, descriptive method and media monitoring are mainly used in the thesis. Considering the Pakistan's geographic position, its geo-political problems with neighbors, power balance, regional arm race, security dilemma problem considering these factors the case study was conducted using Realism theoretical perspective. The next chapters were efforts to establish a point where the current position and future directions of Pakistani foreign policy in respect of its war on terror could be explored. Finally, the last part of the thesis constitutes the major conclusions of the research study. The thesis proved that Pakistan remained an active member of international community in war on terror but due to its geographic position was forced to establish dual-face policies in war. The different approach was due to the difference of interests. It was the matter of survival for the Pakistan. December 16, 2014 Peshawar school attacks, changed Pakistani approach towards terrorism. Pakistan current foreign policy is very clear to eliminate the terrorism without exceptions. The use of non-state actors by states became an international norm. The South Asia region might continue to see such events in future but groups like Al-Qaeda, ISIS, and Taliban do not have any soft place in current Pakistani foreign policy. Current Pakistani foreign policy categorizes global war on terror, a war for its own survival.
National drug control policies and strategies are heavily dependent on the international legal framework. International standards set by United Nations drug control conventions serve as basic principles for the development and shape of national drug control systems. International drug control system has its own, a very specific history and dynamics of development in which the United States definitely did play a very important role promoting prohibitionist approach based on the abstinence paradigm. According to this paradigm drug use is acceptable only for scientific and medical purposes. Unsurprisingly, recreational or experimental use of drugs is considered as unacceptable and inevitably leading to addiction. This hard-line approach dominated in public discourse during the 20th century and the drug use was seen either as a sin or as a disease. However, it seems that from the beginning of the 21th century, international drug control regime, ideologically based on the abstinence paradigm, is facing big challenges and it is not entirely clear what to expect in the future. Ironically, the United States is the most important player again, but this time in quite the opposite role. Moralising teetotaller Dr. Jeckyll suddenly turned in a pothead Mr. Hyde. So-called "cannabis capitalism" process in several states of USA, when the sale of recreational cannabis was fully legalised, raised serious questions about the perspectives of international drug control system, because such practice is obviously in breach of the international law. Also it is important to note other signs of moving towards the drug policy with a human face, especially raising the popularity of the harm reduction approach to the drug problem and process of "soft deception' related to that. The latter means that some countries are choosing more tolerant approach theoretically not infringing legal boundaries set by the conventions. Considering the context provided above, the main purpose of this study was to make the analysis of the peculiarities of global drug control system and their interrelation with the national drug control policy in the light of personal drug use. In order to fulfil this goal historical analysis of the development of United Nations global drug control system was made, peculiarities and characteristic features of the legal framework of this system as well as legal boundaries set for countries by the conventions were analysed. Particular attention was paid to the international legal framework regarding personal drug use, different national practises in this perspective as well as possible directions of the future development of global drug control system were discussed. Finally, Lithuanian drug control policy in the context of United Nations drug control regime was discussed. Main research methods were: logical-linguistic, systemic, comparative as well as analysis of documents and secondary data. Moreover, relevant scientific literature, national and international legal acts in the area of drug control were studied. The drug control and drug policy primarily were explored from criminological and sociology of law perspectives. In author's point of view these interdisciplinary social sciences enable to achieve deeper understanding of drug control phenomenon than it is possible to attain using only narrow legalistic analysis of laws and legal norms. According to the findings of the study the drug control policy (national, regional or global) is a complex phenomenon influenced by many cultural, social and other factors as well as different interest groups (physicians, law enforcement agencies, etc.) operating in the drug control field. It is important to stress, that usually legal control has a very limited (if has at all) influence to the prevalence of illicit drug use, which is mostly determined by the culture, social policy and social context. On the other hand, the drug control remedies are significant when dealing with the high-risk/problem drug use. The United Nations conventions set legal boundaries to the countries, but there is a certain room of interpretation. United Nations institutions (especially International Drug Control Board) support the narrow interpretation of the treaties and usually criticise countries (as sending "wrong signals") that are leaning towards less strict drug policies. Accordingly, various harm reduction practises are on the edge of violation of international law but this is a matter of interpretation. The United Nations conventions and European Union documents make a clear distinction between drug dealing and activities attributed to personal use. The drug dealing is always a matter of criminal law; accordingly criminal sanctions should be strict enough. As regards to the personal drug use countries have more flexibility and other measures (administrative sanctions, medical treatment, etc.) could be applied. On the other hand, legal market of substances controlled by the Schedule IV (e.g. cannabis) could not be created at the same time not infringing international law. In the 21th century a gradual weakening of international drug control regime could be observed. The main feature of this phenomenon is a soft deception, which is related to the increasing popularity of the harm reduction doctrine. It goes hand in hand with the decriminalisation and/or the depenalisation of activities related to personal drug use shifting from punitive approach to the more health oriented. The main challenge to the existing global drug control system is de jure legalisation of cannabis in several USA states. It is related to the process of cannabis use "normalisation"; then such practice is not regarded as a pathological behaviour anymore. It is important to stress that this approach contradicts the abstinence paradigm, which is an ideological core of the United Nations conventions. It creates a high tension and the future of international drug control system in existing framework becomes uncertain. In order to maintain the stability of the system in particular and the trust in international law in general, the revision of UN drug control conventions seems to be inevitable. Lithuanian drug control policy is oriented to the strict control measures and prevention. As regards to the personal drug use till 2017 the drug gaining and possession were partially decriminalised because such activities were subject of either criminal or administrative liability. From 2017 onwards such activities are subject of criminal law only without any explanation of this change of law. Therefore, the Lithuanian drug control policy is moving to the opposite direction than in the Western world, i.e. to more strict measures regarding personal use of drugs. In this context, it is important to stress, that criminal law is considered as ultima ratio measure which has multiple side effects, thus criminalisation of certain activity or introduction of criminal sanctions must be strongly grounded. Preferably, not only by arguments, but also by hard empirical data supporting those arguments. It could be concluded, that decriminalisation in the sphere of personal drug use has legal and pragmatic assumptions. Such policy does not violate legal boundaries set by the United Nations conventions and reflects the newest tendencies of how modern drug control policy should look like. Last but not least, it is important to stress, that effective drug control policy should be evidence based. That means that drug policy changes should be supported by science innovations, empirical data, cost-benefit analysis, etc.
National drug control policies and strategies are heavily dependent on the international legal framework. International standards set by United Nations drug control conventions serve as basic principles for the development and shape of national drug control systems. International drug control system has its own, a very specific history and dynamics of development in which the United States definitely did play a very important role promoting prohibitionist approach based on the abstinence paradigm. According to this paradigm drug use is acceptable only for scientific and medical purposes. Unsurprisingly, recreational or experimental use of drugs is considered as unacceptable and inevitably leading to addiction. This hard-line approach dominated in public discourse during the 20th century and the drug use was seen either as a sin or as a disease. However, it seems that from the beginning of the 21th century, international drug control regime, ideologically based on the abstinence paradigm, is facing big challenges and it is not entirely clear what to expect in the future. Ironically, the United States is the most important player again, but this time in quite the opposite role. Moralising teetotaller Dr. Jeckyll suddenly turned in a pothead Mr. Hyde. So-called "cannabis capitalism" process in several states of USA, when the sale of recreational cannabis was fully legalised, raised serious questions about the perspectives of international drug control system, because such practice is obviously in breach of the international law. Also it is important to note other signs of moving towards the drug policy with a human face, especially raising the popularity of the harm reduction approach to the drug problem and process of "soft deception' related to that. The latter means that some countries are choosing more tolerant approach theoretically not infringing legal boundaries set by the conventions. Considering the context provided above, the main purpose of this study was to make the analysis of the peculiarities of global drug control system and their interrelation with the national drug control policy in the light of personal drug use. In order to fulfil this goal historical analysis of the development of United Nations global drug control system was made, peculiarities and characteristic features of the legal framework of this system as well as legal boundaries set for countries by the conventions were analysed. Particular attention was paid to the international legal framework regarding personal drug use, different national practises in this perspective as well as possible directions of the future development of global drug control system were discussed. Finally, Lithuanian drug control policy in the context of United Nations drug control regime was discussed. Main research methods were: logical-linguistic, systemic, comparative as well as analysis of documents and secondary data. Moreover, relevant scientific literature, national and international legal acts in the area of drug control were studied. The drug control and drug policy primarily were explored from criminological and sociology of law perspectives. In author's point of view these interdisciplinary social sciences enable to achieve deeper understanding of drug control phenomenon than it is possible to attain using only narrow legalistic analysis of laws and legal norms. According to the findings of the study the drug control policy (national, regional or global) is a complex phenomenon influenced by many cultural, social and other factors as well as different interest groups (physicians, law enforcement agencies, etc.) operating in the drug control field. It is important to stress, that usually legal control has a very limited (if has at all) influence to the prevalence of illicit drug use, which is mostly determined by the culture, social policy and social context. On the other hand, the drug control remedies are significant when dealing with the high-risk/problem drug use. The United Nations conventions set legal boundaries to the countries, but there is a certain room of interpretation. United Nations institutions (especially International Drug Control Board) support the narrow interpretation of the treaties and usually criticise countries (as sending "wrong signals") that are leaning towards less strict drug policies. Accordingly, various harm reduction practises are on the edge of violation of international law but this is a matter of interpretation. The United Nations conventions and European Union documents make a clear distinction between drug dealing and activities attributed to personal use. The drug dealing is always a matter of criminal law; accordingly criminal sanctions should be strict enough. As regards to the personal drug use countries have more flexibility and other measures (administrative sanctions, medical treatment, etc.) could be applied. On the other hand, legal market of substances controlled by the Schedule IV (e.g. cannabis) could not be created at the same time not infringing international law. In the 21th century a gradual weakening of international drug control regime could be observed. The main feature of this phenomenon is a soft deception, which is related to the increasing popularity of the harm reduction doctrine. It goes hand in hand with the decriminalisation and/or the depenalisation of activities related to personal drug use shifting from punitive approach to the more health oriented. The main challenge to the existing global drug control system is de jure legalisation of cannabis in several USA states. It is related to the process of cannabis use "normalisation"; then such practice is not regarded as a pathological behaviour anymore. It is important to stress that this approach contradicts the abstinence paradigm, which is an ideological core of the United Nations conventions. It creates a high tension and the future of international drug control system in existing framework becomes uncertain. In order to maintain the stability of the system in particular and the trust in international law in general, the revision of UN drug control conventions seems to be inevitable. Lithuanian drug control policy is oriented to the strict control measures and prevention. As regards to the personal drug use till 2017 the drug gaining and possession were partially decriminalised because such activities were subject of either criminal or administrative liability. From 2017 onwards such activities are subject of criminal law only without any explanation of this change of law. Therefore, the Lithuanian drug control policy is moving to the opposite direction than in the Western world, i.e. to more strict measures regarding personal use of drugs. In this context, it is important to stress, that criminal law is considered as ultima ratio measure which has multiple side effects, thus criminalisation of certain activity or introduction of criminal sanctions must be strongly grounded. Preferably, not only by arguments, but also by hard empirical data supporting those arguments. It could be concluded, that decriminalisation in the sphere of personal drug use has legal and pragmatic assumptions. Such policy does not violate legal boundaries set by the United Nations conventions and reflects the newest tendencies of how modern drug control policy should look like. Last but not least, it is important to stress, that effective drug control policy should be evidence based. That means that drug policy changes should be supported by science innovations, empirical data, cost-benefit analysis, etc.
