Suchergebnisse

China's 12th five-year plan (2011-2015) aims to promote inclusive, equitable growth and development by placing an increased emphasis on human development. Good health is an important component of human development, not only because it makes people's lives better, but also because having a healthy and long life enhances their ability to learn, acquire skills, and contributes to society. Indeed, good health is a fundamental right of every human being. Good health among a population can also enhance economic performance by improving labor productivity and reducing economic losses that arise from illnesses. The findings and recommendations can inform and promote a broad dialogue toward the development of a multisectoral response to effectively address the growing burden of Non Communicable Diseases (NCDs), including a better alignment of the health system with the population's health needs. The report also advocates implementing 'health in all' policies and actions for a multisectoral response to NCDs in China to help achieve the ultimate goal of 'harmonious' development and growth.

Die Dissertation ist ein Beitrag zur Debatte um die Revision des amerikanistischen Lektürekanons. Ihre drei Schwerpunkte sind die Geschichte und Mythologie der Karibikinsel Puerto Rico, die soziale Lage und das Image der Puertoricaner in den USA sowie die auf Englisch erschienene Erzählliteratur von Autoren puertoricanischer Herkunft. (1) Die spanische Kolonie Puerto Rico kam 1898 in den Besitz der USA und erlebte in der zweiten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts einen rasanten ökonomischen Aufstieg, der mit wachsender Abhängigkeit vom amerikanischen Wohlfahrtsstaat erkauft ist. In freien Referenden bejahte jeweils eine knappe Mehrheit den Zwitterstatus ihrer Insel, die bis heute weder ein Staat der USA noch ein souveränes Land ist. Da jedoch der Kongress in Washington über die Zukunft des Commonwealth of Puerto Rico zu bestimmen hat, bleibt die Insel eine Kolonie der USA. Puerto Ricos Mythologie ist von Stereotypen geprägt, die sich zu einem negativen Klischee vom Nationalcharakter des Landes verdichtet haben. Die amerikanische Dominanz in Politik, Wirtschaft und Kultur verstärkt die von vielen beklagte Schizophrenie Puerto Ricos. Die Chance einer Lösung des puertoricanischen Syndroms verspricht nur die nationale Unabhängigkeit. (2) Stereotype bestimmen auch das Bild von den übergesiedelten Puertoricanern, den Nuyoricans, in der Öffentlichkeit der USA. Das Negativimage der kaum assimilierten Gruppe wird von den Massenmedien verfestigt, obwohl seriöse Studien zeigen, dass frühere Immigranten ähnliche Probleme mit sich brachten. Die Mehrheit der US-Experten propagiert nach wie vor die allmähliche Assimilation der Übersiedler im Rahmen eines kulturellen Pluralismus. Bei den Puertoricanern geht der Trend seit dem Aufkommen des Multikulturalismus in Richtung einer hybriden, bikulturellen Identität, in ein Wort gefasst mit dem Begriff Nuyorican. Die Dissertation bietet eine Auswertung der auf Englisch erschienenen Literatur über die Puertoricaner in den USA unter 15 Aspekten: Kultur, Religion, Bildung, Sprache, Politik, Arbeit, welfare, Wohnverhältnisse, ethnicity, race, class, gender, Familie, Law and order und Migration. Am Beispiel von belletristischen Texten, Spielfilmen und Musicals wird gezeigt, dass die Puertoricaner in diesen Genres größtenteils wohlwollend dargestellt erscheinen. Das gilt auch für das Musical West Side Story, dem viele Kritiker zu Unrecht vorwerfen, die puertoricanischen Jugendlichen als Gangster zu stigmatisieren. (3) Die puertoricanische Prosa in englischer Sprache hat im Kanon der amerikanischen Literatur und in der Kritik bisher kaum eine Rolle gespielt. Vor allem die zahlreichen Neuerscheinungen der achtziger und neunziger Jahre werden hier erstmals auf historisch-soziologischer Basis analysiert. Allgemeine Trends der neueren Nuyorican-Literatur sind ihre Diversifizierung und Feminisierung. Größere Vielfalt gibt es heute bei den Schauplätzen, den Textsorten und den Themen. Das Thema gender steht nicht nur bei den Frauen, sondern auch bei männlichen Autoren oft im Mittelpunkt. Von den Autoren, die New York zum Schauplatz gewählt haben, ist Abraham Rodriguez, Jr. der bedeutendste. Rodriguez erzählt von Teenagern in der South Bronx, deren puertoricanische Ethnizität kein bestimmender Faktor mehr ist. So ist er der am weitesten amerikanisierte Autor der Nuyoricans. Die überzeugendste Interpretation des Migrationsprozesses bietet Esmeralda Santiago. Bei ihr steht die Kritik am traditionellen puertoricanischen Sexismus im Zentrum. Eine feministische Grundtendenz haben auch die in Puerto Rico angesiedelten, zum Teil magisch-realistischen Werke von Rosario Ferré. Die besten Werke von Rodriguez, Santiago, Ferré und weiteren Puertoricanern verdienen Anerkennung als wertvoller und zukunftweisender Beitrag zur amerikanischen Literatur. ; The thesis contributes to the debate about the revision of the American literary canon. Its first focus is on the history and mythology of Puerto Rico, the second on the social situation and image of the Puerto Ricans in the U.S., and the third on the prose literature by authors of Puerto Rican descent published in English. (1) The Spanish colony of Puerto Rico became a possession of the U.S. in 1898 and experienced a rapid economic rise in the second half of the 20th century, at the expence of growing dependence on the American welfare state. In free referendums the people of Puerto Rico have so far condoned the intermediate status of their island, which still is neither a state of the union nor an independent nation. But in fact the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico remains a colony of the U.S., as the real power to decide about its status lies with Congress. Puerto Rico's mythology has from the start been dominated by stereotypes, which have resulted in a negative cliché of its national character. The United States' political, economic and cultural hegemony has reinforced the alleged schizophrenic state of Puerto Rico. The only chance of healing this Puerto Rican syndrome is the island's national independence. (2) Stereotypes have also determined the image in the American public of the Puerto Ricans who have migrated to the mainland. The bad reputation of this hardly assimilated group is constantly being confirmed by the mass media, although serious studies prove that earlier immigrants had similar problems. Most U.S. experts still advocate the migrants' gradual assimilitation according to the ideal of cultural pluralism. Since the rise of multiculturalism, within the U.S. Puerto Rican community the trend has been going towards a hybrid, bicultural, Nuyorican identity. The dissertation assesses the literature about Puerto Ricans in the U.S. published in English from 15 key aspects: culture, religion, education, language, politics, work, welfare, housing, ethnicity, race, class, gender, family, law and order und migration. A critical look at books, movies and musicals by non-Puerto Ricans shows that in these genres migrants from Puerto Rico have by and large been portrayed benevolenty. This is true even for the musical West Side Story, which has often been wrongly blamed for stigmatizing Puerto Rican youngsters as gangsters. (3) Puerto Rican prose literature in English has so far played little role in the American canon and in criticism. This thesis offers the first analysis of the many new volumes from the eighties and nineties on a socio-historical basis. The overall trends of recent Nuyorican literature are its diversification und feminization. There is a greater diversity of settings, text types and themes. Gender is a central issue not only with the women, but also with a number of male authors. Of those writers who take New York as the setting, Abraham Rodriguez, Jr. is the most important. Rodriguez's books are about teenagers in the South Bronx whose Puerto Rican ethnicity is no crucial factor any more. Thus he is the most Americanised author among the Nuyoricans. The most convincing interpretation of the migratory process is Esmeralda Santiago's. Her main thrust is against the Puerto Rican tradition of sexism. The works of Rosario Ferré, some told in magic realism and all set in Puerto Rico, also have a feminist tendency. The best books by Rodriguez, Santiago, Ferré and a few more Puerto Ricans deserve to be recognised as a valuable and visionary contribution to American literature.

The historical errors in medical research led the world to create research ethics committees in Health (REC), pluri and multidisciplinary organizations conformed by professionals with variate skills, specializations and forms of thinking, oriented to evaluate research projects and follow-up its develop, with independence, focused to guarantee subject's protection and the safety, and scientific integrity. This article reflects about committee's independence, supported on categories independence, freedom and autonomy, Beauchamp and Childress's bioethics principles, Maliandi and Thüer, applied to REC and related publications. Regarding the independence of the committees, it's important, and its related to REC members, researchers, sponsors, regulatory entities, and institutions to which the REC belong —educational, health organizations and governmental and private research centers—, with goals associated with research, publications and contracts to project's assessments. While it is true there is institutional commitment to support the REC's independence, its necessary review how it really works, how its relate to bioethics dilemmas, how it's articulated with the principles of respect for the autonomy-individuality, justice-universality, non-maleficence-conservation and, beneficence-realization with the convergent ethics and the concept of experts who have researched about the subject. Conclusion: At present, it is not possible to guarantee the REC's independence, for these reasons, should be defined as additional measures and strategies to strengthen its independence. ; Los errores históricos en investigación médica llevaron al mundo a la creación de los comités de ética en investigación en salud (CEI), organizaciones pluri y multidisciplinarias conformadas por profesionales de variadas competencias, especialidades y formas de pensamiento, cuya función es evaluar proyectos de investigación y su ejecución, con independencia para garantizar la protección de los participantes e integridad científica. El presente artículo realiza una reflexión sobre la independencia de los comités, que se fundamenta en las categorías independencia, libertad y autonomía, en los principios bioéticos de Beauchamp y Childress, de Maliandi y Thüer aplicados a los CEI y publicaciones que han tratado el tema. Sobre la independencia de los comités, se concluye su importancia, la cual está relacionada con los miembros de los CEI, investigadores, financiadores, entes reguladores, e instituciones a las que pertenecen los CEI —educativas, de salud o centros de investigación públicos y privados—, con metas asociadas a investigaciones, publicaciones y contratos para evaluación de proyectos. Si bien es cierto que hay compromiso institucional de respaldo a la independencia de los CEI, es necesario revisar cómo funciona en la realidad, cómo se relaciona con dilemas bioéticos, cómo se articula con los principios de respeto a la autonomía–individualidad, justicia–universalidad, no maleficencia–conservación y beneficencia–realización con la ética convergente y cuál es el concepto de expertos que han investigado sobre el particular. Conclusión: En la actualidad no es posible garantizar la independencia de los CEI, para lo que se deben definir medidas y estrategias adicionales que la fortalezcan. ; Os erros históricos na pesquisa médica forçaram o mundo a criar Comitês de Ética em Pesquisa em Saúde (CEP), que são organizações multidisciplinares conformado por profissionais de variadas habilidades, especialidades e modos de pensar, cuja função é avaliar projetos de pesquisa, e sua execução, independentemente, para garantir a proteção dos participantes e a integridade científica. Este artigo reflete sobre a independência dos comitês, com base nas categorias independência, liberdade e autonomia nos princípios bioéticos de Beauchamp e Childress, de Maliandi e Thüer, aplicados ao CEP e publicações que abordaram o tema. Quanto à independência dos comitês, conclui-se a sua importância, relacionada aos membros do CEP, pesquisadores, financiadores, entidades reguladoras e instituições pertencentes ao CEP — centros de pesquisa educacionais, de saúde ou públicos e privados —, com metas associadas pesquisas, publicações e contratos para avaliação de projetos. Embora seja verdade que existe um compromisso institucional real de apoiar a independência do CEP, é necessário rever a forma como funciona na realidade, no que se refere aos dilemas bioéticos, articulados com os princípios do respeito à autonomia-individualidade, justiça-universalidade, não-maleficência - conservação e beneficência-realização com convergência ética e com o conceito de especialistas que investigaram o assunto. Conclusão: Atualmente não é possível garantir a independência do CEP, para o qual devem ser definidas medidas e estratégias adicionais para fortalecer a independência das CEP.

En esta tesis se aborda la historia de la lectura en la escuela primaria argentina en el contexto de la construcción de identidades nacionales entre 1900 y 1940. Para esto, partimos de un análisis de las políticas educativas que se implementaron durante ese período, en tanto marco sociohistórico, para luego abocarnos a un relevamiento exhaustivo de las prácticas de lectura concretas que se llevaron a cabo en las aulas. En esta tesis, entonces, nos ocupamos de relevar en múltiples fuentes los discursos y representaciones sobre la lectura Iiteraria en la escuela desde la perspectiva de funcionarios, pedagogos, docentes y lectores alumnos; el lugar de los dispositivos didácticos en la formación de los lectores en edad escolar y la diversidad de géneros de libros de lectura de acuerdo a los objetivos didácticos. Por otro lado, también nos ocupamos de indagar cuales fueron los modos de leer y practicas de lectura habituales en la escuela y cómo se fue constituyendo el canon de textos Iiterarios que ingresaba en el circuito escolar. En este sentido, tomamos como caso testigo el episodio de censura y traducción cultural a los códigos argentinos de la novela Corazón de Edmundo De Amicis que fue retirada del circuito escolar durante la gestión de Ramos Mejia al frente del Consejo Nacional de Educación por considerar que era una amenaza a la nacionalización cultural y lingüística y fue sustituida por traducciones culturales argentinas. Para esto, analizamos la polémica en tomo a la inclusión de la novela como lectura escolar; las practicas de lectura, apropiaciones y propuestas didácticas en torno al texto y, por ultimo, hacemos un análisis descriptivo comparativo de los textos de las traducciones culturales. Nuestra investigación se enmarca en una perspectiva transdisciplinar y se establecen relaciones con dimensiones políticas, pedagógicas, culturales, sociales e históricas. Para ello fue necesario crear un aparato metodológico cualitativo que diera cuenta de la multiplicidad de fuentes, va sea par el formato -escritas, orales e icónicas- o por el origen -de la burocracia escolar, textos de sistematización didáctica, narrativas de la practica, artículos de revistas pedagógicas y escolares, libros de lectura, etc-. Estas fuentes son analizadas desde una perspectiva textual pero, fundamentalmente, desde una mirada sociocultural que permite acercamos alas micropolíticas escolares, a la vida cotidiana y a aspectos del contexto sociohistórico. En este sentido, nuestra tesis propone dar cuenta de un espacio vacante en la investigación realizada hasta el momento dando cuenta del lugar del lector y su formación como ciudadano argentino a partir de las practicas de lectura escolares; es decir, plantearnos la hipótesis de que durante el periodo estudiado uno de los mecanismos de nacionalización puestos en juego en la escuela fue la utilización del discurso literario y sus practicas de lectura en pos de la argentinización. Además, plantearnos que a pesar de los mecanismos, rituales y modos de intervención del Estado para la nacionalización, los lectores alumnos y los maestros se apropiaron de la literatura desde sus propias experiencias socioculturales, resistiendo al discurso hegemónico ; This thesis deals with the history of reading in Argentinean primary schools within the framework of national identities construction between 1900 and 1940. Firstly, we provide a socio-cultural framework by starting off with an analysis of the education policies that were implemented during that period then, we move on to a thorough survey of the concrete classroom reading practices. Therefore, in this thesis we look into several sources to find out the discourses and representations of school literary reading as seen by officials, pedagogists, teachers and student readers; the role played by didactic devices in the training of school-aged readers and the diversity of reading books genre according to didactic objectives. Also, we explore which ways of reading and reading practices prevailed at school and how the canon of those literary texts that entered into the school circuit came into being. In this sense, our test case will be the censorship and cultural translation undergone by the Argentinean codes of Edmundo De Arnicis's novel Corazón, which was withdrawn from the school circuit during Ramos Mejia's office at the National Education Council because it was considered a threat to cultural and linguistic nationalization. It was replaced by Argentinean cultural translations. We analize the controversy with regard to the inclusion of novels as school readings, reading practices, appropriations and didactic proposals regarding texts and, finally, we carry out a descriptive-comparative analysis of cultural translations texts. Our research is framed within the transdisciplinary perspective; political, pedagogic, cultural, social and historical relations are set. A qualitative methodological device was created to account for the numerous sources, be it because of format - written, oral or iconic- or because of origin - school bureaucracy, didactic systematization texts, narrations of the practice, pedagogic and school magazine articles, reading books and so on. These sources are analyzed textually but above all, socioculturally, which allows us to gain insight into school micropolitics, daily life and aspects of the sociocultural context In this sense, our thesis sets out to account for a vacuum in the research done so far accounting for the role of the reader and the school reading practices meant to turn them into Argentinean citizens, that is, we hypothesize that during the period under investigation one of the nationalization mechanisms at play at school was the use of literary discourse and its reading practices in the Dursuit of Argentinization. Moreover, we Suggest that in spite of the mechanisms, rituals and modes of state intervention to nationalize, student and teacher readers appropriated literature from their own sociocultural experiences, thus resisting the hegemonic discourse ; Fil: Sardi, Valeria. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación; Argentina.

En esta tesis se aborda la historia de la lectura en la escuela primaria argentina en el contexto de la construcción de identidades nacionales entre 1900 y 1940. Para esto, partimos de un análisis de las políticas educativas que se implementaron durante ese período, en tanto marco sociohistórico, para luego abocarnos a un relevamiento exhaustivo de las prácticas de lectura concretas que se llevaron a cabo en las aulas. En esta tesis, entonces, nos ocupamos de relevar en múltiples fuentes los discursos y representaciones sobre la lectura Iiteraria en la escuela desde la perspectiva de funcionarios, pedagogos, docentes y lectores alumnos; el lugar de los dispositivos didácticos en la formación de los lectores en edad escolar y la diversidad de géneros de libros de lectura de acuerdo a los objetivos didácticos. Por otro lado, también nos ocupamos de indagar cuales fueron los modos de leer y practicas de lectura habituales en la escuela y cómo se fue constituyendo el canon de textos Iiterarios que ingresaba en el circuito escolar. En este sentido, tomamos como caso testigo el episodio de censura y traducción cultural a los códigos argentinos de la novela Corazón de Edmundo De Amicis que fue retirada del circuito escolar durante la gestión de Ramos Mejia al frente del Consejo Nacional de Educación por considerar que era una amenaza a la nacionalización cultural y lingüística y fue sustituida por traducciones culturales argentinas. Para esto, analizamos la polémica en tomo a la inclusión de la novela como lectura escolar; las practicas de lectura, apropiaciones y propuestas didácticas en torno al texto y, por ultimo, hacemos un análisis descriptivo comparativo de los textos de las traducciones culturales. Nuestra investigación se enmarca en una perspectiva transdisciplinar y se establecen relaciones con dimensiones políticas, pedagógicas, culturales, sociales e históricas. Para ello fue necesario crear un aparato metodológico cualitativo que diera cuenta de la multiplicidad de fuentes, va sea par el formato -escritas, orales e icónicas- o por el origen -de la burocracia escolar, textos de sistematización didáctica, narrativas de la practica, artículos de revistas pedagógicas y escolares, libros de lectura, etc-. Estas fuentes son analizadas desde una perspectiva textual pero, fundamentalmente, desde una mirada sociocultural que permite acercamos alas micropolíticas escolares, a la vida cotidiana y a aspectos del contexto sociohistórico. En este sentido, nuestra tesis propone dar cuenta de un espacio vacante en la investigación realizada hasta el momento dando cuenta del lugar del lector y su formación como ciudadano argentino a partir de las practicas de lectura escolares; es decir, plantearnos la hipótesis de que durante el periodo estudiado uno de los mecanismos de nacionalización puestos en juego en la escuela fue la utilización del discurso literario y sus practicas de lectura en pos de la argentinización. Además, plantearnos que a pesar de los mecanismos, rituales y modos de intervención del Estado para la nacionalización, los lectores alumnos y los maestros se apropiaron de la literatura desde sus propias experiencias socioculturales, resistiendo al discurso hegemónico ; This thesis deals with the history of reading in Argentinean primary schools within the framework of national identities construction between 1900 and 1940. Firstly, we provide a socio-cultural framework by starting off with an analysis of the education policies that were implemented during that period then, we move on to a thorough survey of the concrete classroom reading practices. Therefore, in this thesis we look into several sources to find out the discourses and representations of school literary reading as seen by officials, pedagogists, teachers and student readers; the role played by didactic devices in the training of school-aged readers and the diversity of reading books genre according to didactic objectives. Also, we explore which ways of reading and reading practices prevailed at school and how the canon of those literary texts that entered into the school circuit came into being. In this sense, our test case will be the censorship and cultural translation undergone by the Argentinean codes of Edmundo De Arnicis's novel Corazón, which was withdrawn from the school circuit during Ramos Mejia's office at the National Education Council because it was considered a threat to cultural and linguistic nationalization. It was replaced by Argentinean cultural translations. We analize the controversy with regard to the inclusion of novels as school readings, reading practices, appropriations and didactic proposals regarding texts and, finally, we carry out a descriptive-comparative analysis of cultural translations texts. Our research is framed within the transdisciplinary perspective; political, pedagogic, cultural, social and historical relations are set. A qualitative methodological device was created to account for the numerous sources, be it because of format - written, oral or iconic- or because of origin - school bureaucracy, didactic systematization texts, narrations of the practice, pedagogic and school magazine articles, reading books and so on. These sources are analyzed textually but above all, socioculturally, which allows us to gain insight into school micropolitics, daily life and aspects of the sociocultural context In this sense, our thesis sets out to account for a vacuum in the research done so far accounting for the role of the reader and the school reading practices meant to turn them into Argentinean citizens, that is, we hypothesize that during the period under investigation one of the nationalization mechanisms at play at school was the use of literary discourse and its reading practices in the Dursuit of Argentinization. Moreover, we Suggest that in spite of the mechanisms, rituals and modes of state intervention to nationalize, student and teacher readers appropriated literature from their own sociocultural experiences, thus resisting the hegemonic discourse ; Fil: Sardi, Valeria. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación; Argentina.

En esta tesis se aborda la historia de la lectura en la escuela primaria argentina en el contexto de la construcción de identidades nacionales entre 1900 y 1940. Para esto, partimos de un análisis de las políticas educativas que se implementaron durante ese período, en tanto marco sociohistórico, para luego abocarnos a un relevamiento exhaustivo de las prácticas de lectura concretas que se llevaron a cabo en las aulas. En esta tesis, entonces, nos ocupamos de relevar en múltiples fuentes los discursos y representaciones sobre la lectura Iiteraria en la escuela desde la perspectiva de funcionarios, pedagogos, docentes y lectores alumnos; el lugar de los dispositivos didácticos en la formación de los lectores en edad escolar y la diversidad de géneros de libros de lectura de acuerdo a los objetivos didácticos. Por otro lado, también nos ocupamos de indagar cuales fueron los modos de leer y practicas de lectura habituales en la escuela y cómo se fue constituyendo el canon de textos Iiterarios que ingresaba en el circuito escolar. En este sentido, tomamos como caso testigo el episodio de censura y traducción cultural a los códigos argentinos de la novela Corazón de Edmundo De Amicis que fue retirada del circuito escolar durante la gestión de Ramos Mejia al frente del Consejo Nacional de Educación por considerar que era una amenaza a la nacionalización cultural y lingüística y fue sustituida por traducciones culturales argentinas. Para esto, analizamos la polémica en tomo a la inclusión de la novela como lectura escolar; las practicas de lectura, apropiaciones y propuestas didácticas en torno al texto y, por ultimo, hacemos un análisis descriptivo comparativo de los textos de las traducciones culturales. Nuestra investigación se enmarca en una perspectiva transdisciplinar y se establecen relaciones con dimensiones políticas, pedagógicas, culturales, sociales e históricas. Para ello fue necesario crear un aparato metodológico cualitativo que diera cuenta de la multiplicidad de fuentes, va sea par el formato -escritas, orales e icónicas- o por el origen -de la burocracia escolar, textos de sistematización didáctica, narrativas de la practica, artículos de revistas pedagógicas y escolares, libros de lectura, etc-. Estas fuentes son analizadas desde una perspectiva textual pero, fundamentalmente, desde una mirada sociocultural que permite acercamos alas micropolíticas escolares, a la vida cotidiana y a aspectos del contexto sociohistórico. En este sentido, nuestra tesis propone dar cuenta de un espacio vacante en la investigación realizada hasta el momento dando cuenta del lugar del lector y su formación como ciudadano argentino a partir de las practicas de lectura escolares; es decir, plantearnos la hipótesis de que durante el periodo estudiado uno de los mecanismos de nacionalización puestos en juego en la escuela fue la utilización del discurso literario y sus practicas de lectura en pos de la argentinización. Además, plantearnos que a pesar de los mecanismos, rituales y modos de intervención del Estado para la nacionalización, los lectores alumnos y los maestros se apropiaron de la literatura desde sus propias experiencias socioculturales, resistiendo al discurso hegemónico ; This thesis deals with the history of reading in Argentinean primary schools within the framework of national identities construction between 1900 and 1940. Firstly, we provide a socio-cultural framework by starting off with an analysis of the education policies that were implemented during that period then, we move on to a thorough survey of the concrete classroom reading practices. Therefore, in this thesis we look into several sources to find out the discourses and representations of school literary reading as seen by officials, pedagogists, teachers and student readers; the role played by didactic devices in the training of school-aged readers and the diversity of reading books genre according to didactic objectives. Also, we explore which ways of reading and reading practices prevailed at school and how the canon of those literary texts that entered into the school circuit came into being. In this sense, our test case will be the censorship and cultural translation undergone by the Argentinean codes of Edmundo De Arnicis's novel Corazón, which was withdrawn from the school circuit during Ramos Mejia's office at the National Education Council because it was considered a threat to cultural and linguistic nationalization. It was replaced by Argentinean cultural translations. We analize the controversy with regard to the inclusion of novels as school readings, reading practices, appropriations and didactic proposals regarding texts and, finally, we carry out a descriptive-comparative analysis of cultural translations texts. Our research is framed within the transdisciplinary perspective; political, pedagogic, cultural, social and historical relations are set. A qualitative methodological device was created to account for the numerous sources, be it because of format - written, oral or iconic- or because of origin - school bureaucracy, didactic systematization texts, narrations of the practice, pedagogic and school magazine articles, reading books and so on. These sources are analyzed textually but above all, socioculturally, which allows us to gain insight into school micropolitics, daily life and aspects of the sociocultural context In this sense, our thesis sets out to account for a vacuum in the research done so far accounting for the role of the reader and the school reading practices meant to turn them into Argentinean citizens, that is, we hypothesize that during the period under investigation one of the nationalization mechanisms at play at school was the use of literary discourse and its reading practices in the Dursuit of Argentinization. Moreover, we Suggest that in spite of the mechanisms, rituals and modes of state intervention to nationalize, student and teacher readers appropriated literature from their own sociocultural experiences, thus resisting the hegemonic discourse ; Fil: Sardi, Valeria. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación; Argentina.

Seit Beginn der 1990er Jahre werden in vielen europäischen Städten integrierte Entwick-lungsprogramme umgesetzt. Als politisches Instrument verfolgen sie das Ziel, neue Stadtpolitiken im Mehrebenensystem zu platzieren, die zur Lösung lokaler Probleme – wie sozialer Exklusion in benachteiligten Nachbarschaften – beitragen sollen. Heute stellen integrierte Entwicklungsprogramme eine der vielversprechenden politischen Antworten dar, um multi-dimensionale Problemlagen und "negative Diskriminierungen" der "wahrhaft Benachteiligten" zu bewältigen, die sich zunehmend in den Peripherien der Städte abspielen. Um ein solch hohes Ziel realisieren zu können, greifen integrierte Entwicklungsprogramme auf "weiche" und "kommunikative" Planungsinstrumente zurück, durch die unterschiedliche Akteure befähigt werden, in formellen Planungsprozessen zu kooperieren. Ausgehend von den eigenen empirischen Untersuchungen zwischen den Jahren 2005 und 2007, wurden in der vorliegenden Studie mittels qualitativer Forschungsmethoden die Koordinationsprozesse in zwei unterschiedlichen integrierten Entwicklungsprogrammen in Mailand und Frankfurt untersucht. An zentraler Stelle stand die Frage nach den Vertrauensbeziehungen der Akteure und deren Wirken auf das jeweilige Programm. Dabei wurde konzeptionell und empirisch zwischen personenbasiertem und institutionellem Vertrauen unterschieden. Während der täglichen Umsetzung von Governance auf der Quartiersebene konnte festgestellt werden, dass die theoretisch noch zu ziehende Trennung zwischen Formalität und Informalität in der Praxis von den Akteuren umgangen und zusehends verzerrt wurde. Auch die Zuordnung von Kompetenzen der einzelnen vertikalen Verwaltungsebenen konnte stellenweise nicht mehr eindeutig nachvollzogen werden, da durch die Kooperation unterschiedlicher Akteure auch unterschiedliche Interessen, unterschiedliche Kompetenzen und verschiedene Handlungsroutinen Einzug in das Programm gehalten hatten. Regionale und städtische Vertreter, private und öffentliche Akteure, Zivilgesellschaft und Markt stellten zusammen ein Kaleidoskop von Visionen und Interessen auf, in dem das Komplexitätsniveau derart anstieg, dass die erfolgreiche Umsetzung des Programms wiederholt gefährdet wurde. Durch das Fehlen starker, formeller Mechanismen und regelnder Strukturen fiel personenbasiertem und institutionellem Vertrauen, als informellen Mechanismen, die Bedeutung zu, die hohe Komplexität zu reduzieren. In beiden Programmen reagierten die Akteure auf die Komplexität des Programms erwar-tungsgemäß mit einem relativ hohen Niveau an personenbasiertem Vertrauen. Während aber in Frankfurt dieses personenbasierte Vertrauen durch institutionelles Vertrauen ergänzt wurde, stellte sich der Aufbau institutioneller Strukturen im Mailänder Kontext als schwierig dar. Infolge dessen war das Mailänder Programm wiederholt von schweren Problemen innerhalb des Koordinationsprozesses betroffen. Als Ergebnis kann festgehalten werden, dass institutionellem Vertrauen eine sehr viel stärkere Bedeutung innerhalb integrierter Entwicklungsprogramme zufällt, da dadurch innerhalb der Programme neue Regelungsstrukturen geschaffen werden, die dazu führen, eine neue politische Kultur zu etablieren. Integrierte Entwicklungsprogramme erscheinen damit nicht nur als lokal begrenzte politische Intervention, ihnen liegt vielmehr eine übergeordnete Bedeutung inne. Das vorliegende Werk wirft einen kritischen Blick auf integrierte Entwicklungsprogramme, indem es das hohe Komplexitätsniveau der Koordinationsprozesse betrachtet und hinterfragt. Nach mehr als zwei Dekaden der Durchführung integrierter Entwicklungsprogramme in europäischen Städten und nachdem die Europäische Kommission in der Leipzig-Charta erneut auf die Wichtigkeit von Governance in diesem Zusammenhang verwiesen hat, möchte diese Analyse dazu beitragen, mithilfe eines neo-institutionellen Ansatzes in der wissenschaftlichen Diskussion vor allem das hohe planerische Risiko eines auf Governance aufbauenden Planungswegs zu thematisieren. ; Since the 1990s integrated urban development programmes have been established in almost all European cities. They are a political instrument for implementing new urban policies in the multilevel system of urban policies and are aimed at tackling local problems such as social exclusion and urban deprivation in "deprived" neighbourhoods. Today, integrated development programmes are considered to be the most promising political answer to overcome multifaceted "negative discriminations" and to prevent further deterioration of the conditions of the "truly disadvantaged" in the urban peripheries of European cities. In order to realize this ambitious objective integrated development programmes place emphasis on "weak" and "communicative" planning tools that enable various actors to cooperate in formal planning processes. Based on empirical findings gathered between 2005 and 2007, I have analyzed coordination processes in two different integrated development programmes in the periphery of Milan (Italy) and Frankfurt (Germany). In my empirical research, I approached co-ordination processes in both case studies by interpersonal and institutional trust. Unlike traditional modes of urban planning, in both case studies coordination and cooperation included formal as well as informal mechanisms. During the daily implementation of Governance on the local level, in both case studies existing boundaries between formality and informality became blurred and even the contour of the levels of vertical political-administrational structures got increasingly fuzzy and barely traceable due to different levels of interests, different levels of authority and different routines of all actors involved. Regional and urban as well as local representatives, private and public actors, civil society and the market have built together a kaleidoscope of visions and interests, where the level of complexity repeatedly challenged the success of both programmes. Within this environment the level of trust appears as crucial. As expected, actors in both programmes have shown a relatively high degree of interpersonal trust relations. But, while in Frankfurt these relations have been supplemented by institutional trust, the Milanese programme failed in developing a stable institutional arrangement. As a result, the Milanese programme has been faced with serious problems regarding the process of coordination. Accordingly, institutional trust seems to be more important for bridging the gap caused by the absence of traditional planning processes and their structuring order. Institutional trust relates to new roles, routines and norms that are expected to establish a new political culture. As thus, local governance programmes should no longer be understood as only a territorial intervention in the neighborhood, but have a more important meaning to urban politics. This book offers a rather critical perspective of integrated development programmes by questioning the high level of complexity of coordination processes. After more than two decades of integrated planning in Europe and the European Commission's recent appeal to strengthen the governance tools for integrated programmes, the author tries to propose an alternative perspective on integrated development programmes now taking into account also the difficulties and the high level of risk within this planning process. ; Dall'inizio degli anni '90 in molte città europee sono stati messi in atto i Programmi di Sviluppo Integrato. Essi rappresentano lo strumento per l'implementazione di nuove politiche locali nel sistema multilivello delle policies urbane, e sono rivolti alla soluzione di problemi quali l'esclusione sociale e la deprivazione urbana nei quartieri svantaggiati. Oggi, i Programmi di Sviluppo Integrato sono considerati la risposta più promettente sia per la soluzione delle situazioni problematiche multidimensionali sia per la prevenzione dell'ulteriore deterioramento di quelle condizioni di reale svantaggio presenti nelle periferie urbane delle città europee. Al fine di realizzare un obiettivo così ambizioso, tali Programmi si affidano a strumenti di pianificazione "morbidi" e "comunicativi", che mettono in grado i diversi attori di cooperare nei processi formali di pianificazione. A partire dai risultati di precedenti ricerche, svolte tra il 2005 ed il 2007, nel presente studio vengono analizzati i processi di coordinamento di due diversi Programmi di Sviluppo Integrato, quello di Milano e quello di Francoforte attraverso la questione della fiducia interpersonale e istituzionale. Diversamente dalle modalità tradizionali della pianificazione urbana, nei due casi esaminati, la cooperazione e il coordinamento implicavano sia meccanismi formali che informali. Nella pratica quotidiana del doing Governance a livello locale, i confini esistenti tra informalità e formalità divengono sfumati, spesso oltrepassati o vistosamente distorti dagli attori coinvolti. Tale sovrapposizione rende persino complesso individuare in modo chiaro la suddivisione delle competenze dei singoli livelli politico-amministrativi, poiché, assieme ai diversi attori, nel programma sono coinvolti interessi, livelli di autorità e prassi differenti. I rappresentanti della politicà regionale che locale, la società civile e il mercato hanno costruito un caleidoscopio di interessi e punti di vista in cui il livello di complessità aumenta tanto da mettere a rischio l'attuazione degli stessi programmi. Il grado di fiducia è dunque cruciale. In entrambi i programmi, come prevedibile, gli attori hanno mostrato un grado relativamente alto di fiducia nelle relazioni interpersonali, ma, mentre a Francoforte queste relazioni si sono integrate con la fiducia istituzionale, nel contesto milanese la costituzione di strutture istituzionali stabili è risultata problematica. Il risultato è stato che il programma di Milano e il processo di coordinamento in particolare, hanno dovuto affrontare seri problemi. All'interno dei Programmi di Sviluppo Integrato la fiducia istituzionale ricopre un'importanza ulteriore, poiché, proprio grazie a questa, vengono create nuove strutture regolatrici, all'interno dello programma stesso, che contribuiscono a stabilire una nuova politica culturale, colmando quel gap causato dall'assenza dei processi di pianificazione tradizionali. Allo stesso modo, i Programmi di Governance locale non possono considerarsi semplicemente meri interventi politici su di un quartiere ma assumono maggiore importanza per le politiche urbane. Il filo conduttore alla base di questo testo è una prospettiva critica dei Programmi di Sviluppo Integrato che osserva e mette in discussione l'elevata complessità dei processi di coordinamento. Dopo più di due decenni di attuazione di questi Programmi nelle città europee e dopo che la commissione europea, con la Carta di Lispia, ha rafforzato l'importanza della Governance in questo ambito, questo libro fornisce, attraverso un approccio neo-istituzionale, un contributo alla discussione e alla tematizzazione dei rischi che i processi di pianificazione comportano.

Structural and Dynamical Properties of Atactic Polystyrene in the Interface and Interphase Region Surrounding Grafted and Ungrafted Silica Nanoparticles The composite industry has long achieved enhanced material properties by mixing micro sized inorganic filler particles with a polymer matrix1,2. This is because the combination of two or more different materials can have a synergistic effect on the overall composite material properties imparting advantages that are absent in the individual constituents. A well-known example is that of adding carbon black as reinforcing material to increase tire strength, toughness, and resistance to tear and abrasion3,4. To achieve improved materials performance, the design of conventional composites has typically focused on reducing the dimensions of the filler particles. This is done in order to increase the filler surface area to enable greater interaction with the polymer matrix. Consequently, these efforts have received a significant boost with the dawn of the 'nano era'. Wherein experimental methods and tools are now used to synthesize, characterize, and investigate matter at the nano-scale level [10-9 m] which is close to molecular and atomic dimensions. The advent of such methods is exciting as it suddenly offers new possibilities of creating novel materials that can be tailored at very small dimensions. This expectation has been derived from the notion that the behavior of materials at their nanoscale level directly influences their microscopic properties and consequently their bulk macroscopic characteristics. As is typical in any emerging field, the challenge is to understand the fundamental aspects that control the final observable properties of these composite materials. In contrast to the behavior of materials in conventional composites, recent experimental observations of polymer nanocomposites have demonstrated multifunctional changes in their properties. Examples include - but are not limited to - the decrease in the polymer viscosity5, shifts in the polymer glass transition temperature6,7, and changes in the composite material's thermo-mechanical8,9 properties. However, what is still lacking and remains unclear are the fundamental explanations for the differences in the behavior between conventional composites and nanocomposites. In order to address questions pertaining to these differences, this PhD work was part of a large European Union consortium of universities and industrial partners, NanoModel. The aim of the group was to develop a unified scientific understanding from both experimentalists and theoreticians on the behavior of polymers in the presence of a surface. Such understanding of the important controlling parameters would ultimately support the design of industrial polymer nanocomposite materials. Therefore, both the structural and dynamical investigations always sought to address some of several important open questions that necessitated this work. These questions include among other things: (1) Does a nanoparticle influence the behavior of the surrounding polymer? (2) Since the dispersion state of the nanoparticles is known to control the resulting nanocomposite properties, which controlling parameters are important in obtaining a well-mixed polymer nanocomposite? (3) What role does the size/dimension of the nanoparticle play? (4) Is it necessary to graft or attach polymers to the filler particles, in other words, functionalizing the nanoparticles to facilitate their dispersion in the polymer melt? (5) How long should the grafted polymer chains be relative to the bulk polymer and which grafting density is optimal to achieve a good dispersion state? (6) To what extent are the polymer properties in the interface (next to the surface) and interphase (where grafted and bulk free polymer chains mix) region changed if they are at all? (7) Which parameters influence the width or extent of both the interface and interphase region? (8) Can we observe the same phenomena or changes by employing both experimental and theoretical approaches? Therefore, the contribution of this PhD thesis within the NanoModel framework was to investigate the structural and dynamical properties of atactic polystyrene in the vicinity of a silica nanoparticle as a model system for polymer nanocomposites at the atomistic level (see Figure 1.1 for a simulation snapshot). This model system was chosen because of its importance to the NanoModel partners since bulk polystyrene is an important, largely used, and well characterized polymer while silica is a typical traditional filler particle. Naturally, consortium partners like BASF would find it invaluable to produce new tailored plastics with superior properties to the traditional ones. At the same time, partners like BOSCH and CRP-FIAT would benefit from knowing the nanoparticle effect on the mechanical properties and the processing of the nanocomposite which directly impacts their injection molding processes for example. On the experimental front, Fribourg University, Juelich, and Epidoris were involved in nanocomposite sample preparation and characterization. These experimental results validated those obtained from computational studies from TU Darmstadt, National University of Athens, Trieste University, and BASF. Therefore, the influence of the nanoparticles of various diameters (3.0, 4.0, and 5.0 nm) and grafting states (0.0, 0.5, and 1.0 chains/nm2) on atactic polystyrene was studied. To perform this work, a computer molecular dynamics (MD) simulation tool, YASP10, was employed. This tool numerically solves Newton's equations of motion for a system of interacting atoms to generate a trajectory of their movements. Following this, the resulting trajectories can be analyzed for different properties that characterize the structure, dynamics, and thermodynamics of the system. The use of atomistic MD simulations has the advantage of being able to investigate both static and dynamic properties of a system in fine detail. The ensuing results have the benefit of being related to experimental observations such as those probed by nuclear magnetic resonance11 (NMR) and dielectric spectroscopy12 (DS) studies. Additionally, other experimental techniques like neutron, x-ray, and light scattering now allow the determination of the atomistic structure of a material. Thus, computer modeling techniques interface with and complement experimental methods in understanding the link between structural and dynamical properties of polymers. While many experimental5,6,9,13-20 investigations have been performed to study the behavior of polymers at surfaces, very few atomistic21-25 computer modeling studies have been done. This necessitates the development a unified theoretical and experimental understanding of the polymer static and dynamic modifications in the presence of a surface. This is important because such changes determine in part the overall material properties. Examples of these material properties include their mechanical strength, appearance, how well they can be processed, and the duration of the polymer aging process. Additionally, this work sets a foundation for coarse-grained simulations, which investigate longer polymer chains and bigger systems. Static and dynamic properties of polymers determine whether nanoparticles form clusters or are well dispersed in a polymer melt. This is a pivotal challenge in experimental techniques because it is difficult to control the dispersion of nanoparticles, which finally determines the resulting material properties. Parameters that influence the static, dynamic, and nanoparticle dispersion state include - but are not limited to - the nanoparticle size, grafting density, the ratio of the length of grafted to free chains, and surface-polymer interactions. Therefore, developing an understanding of how these parameters interplay with each other will aid in the control and tailoring of the final nanoparticle dispersion state. The first half of this cumulative PhD thesis, chapter 2, presents results of the atactic polystyrene structure around the nanoparticle. The quantities of interest were the polymer density, radius of gyration, and its orientation relative to the nanoparticle surface. The analysis of the computer simulation output trajectory files resolved these polymer properties as a function of distance from the nanoparticle surface to quantify the surface effect. Varying both the polymer grafting density and the nanoparticle surface curvature enabled the understanding of how these two parameters interplay and influence the polymer's structural properties. For instance, the extents of the polymer density modifications under the influence of the nanoparticle surface indicate the wettability of the surface by the polymer. This is important in mitigating adhesive failure and mechanical stress distribution in the nanocomposite material. At the same time, the density changes directly influence the polymer dynamical properties like the glass transition temperature and polymer aging processes. Therefore, understanding and being able to control these changes is vital since polymer properties like the elastic modulus and conductivity amongst many other physical properties change significantly around the polymer glass transition. These observations underscore not only the importance of the polymer in the interface region but also the width of the interphase region. The latter is influenced by the nanoparticle grafting state and the nanoparticle curvature as investigated in this work but also on the length ratio between the grafted and free polymer chains. While changes in the polymer radius of gyration give a measure of how stretched a polymer coil is, this has the effect of directly influencing the packing of polymer chains and their orientation. Additionally, the induced orientation of the polymer and its segments is important in processes that depend on transport properties such as electrical and thermal conductivity. Therefore, the different polymer structural properties are interlinked and understanding their cause-and-effect gives tuning parameters in the design of polymer nanocomposites. Complementary to structural properties discussed in chapter 2, chapter 3 forms the second half of this thesis and discusses the dynamical properties of the polymer. These included the mean-squared displacement (MSD) of the polymer chain center-of-mass and reorientational dynamics of intramolecular segment vectors. These quantities were also calculated under different nanoparticle grafting states and surface curvature. Changes in the polymer chain MSD and the reorientation of its end-to-end vector have given a measure of the global polymer mobility. To understand the local dynamics at the monomer level, the reorientation of a three-monomer and the C-Cpara segment vector as well as the backbone C-H bond vector was investigated (see Figure 1.2). The advantage of obtaining such a local resolution is that it allows for comparison with experimental NMR and DS studies which probe the C-H bond vector and the C-Cpara segment vectors, respectively. To develop a unified understanding, explanations of the dynamical property changes were linked to the previously observed structural properties either in the interface or interphase region, see chapter 2. The objectives to this thesis were to use the molecular dynamics simulation tool (YASP), setup the model system under investigation, perform the simulations, and write analysis programs to determine the different polymer properties. Therefore, I interpreted, understood, and explained my results in light of their interconnectedness as well as results from other simulations and experimental work on polymer nanocomposite systems. Finally, this work ends with chapter four which encompasses the conclusions and an outlook for further investigations.

Es de hacer presente que el sistema de queja se aplicó recién en el año 1961, y que con posterioridad se realizaron varias Comisiones de Encuestas que según veremos se han constituido en un número bastante considerable por lo que omitimos mencionarlas aquí, pudiendo verse las realizadas en Von Potobsky Geraldo y Héctor Bartolomei de la Cruz, La organización Internacional del Trabajo, Ed Astrea 1990 pp. 115/117. Nacionales y Extranjeros. Pasantía y funciones realizadas en la OIT en distintas Universidades de la ciudad. Es de recordar que a pesar de la importancia que los autores de la Constitución de la OIT le habían acordado al procedimiento de quejas, prácticamente no se utilizó durante los primeros cuarenta años desde su creación en 1919. Como lo enseña Valticos, se recurrió por primera vez en el caso de la queja presentada por el Gobierno de Ghana, respecto a la aplicación por Portugal del Convenio sobre la abolición del trabajo forzoso (num. 105), en sus territorios africanos. En 1968 este procedimiento fue utilizado a propósito de los Convenios 87 y 98 por el gobierno militar que había asumido el poder en Grecia. En 1974 por la observancia en Chile del Convenio sobre la discriminación (empleo y ocupación, 1957 (num.111)). Luego también se aplicó el procedimiento en diversas oportunidades y por último en 1990, el que da origen al presente comentario sobre la Comisión de Encuesta para examinar la queja respecto de Nicaragua del Convenio sobre la libertad sindical y la protección del derecho de sindicación, 1948 (num. 87); del Convenio sobre el derecho de sindicación y negociación colectiva, 1949 (num. 98), y del Convenio sobre la Consulta tripartita (normas internacionales del trabajo, 1976 en (num. 144). Si bien es cierto que las comisiones de encuestas que se sucedieron en el tiempo han sido muy numerosas lo es porque este procedimiento, que es de mayor envergadura que los demás, es utilizado como ultima ratio luego de haber sido agotadas instancias previas (contactos directos, etcétera). También es de valorar la onerosidad que significa para la OIT la integración de dichas comisiones, normalmente de juristas de distintos países, como así también, honorarios y erogaciones por viajes que muchas veces se deben reiterar. Y a pesar de los resultados obtenidos fueron muy positivos y por tal motivo el sistema tiene plena vigencia hasta la actualidad. Parece una obviedad, pero resulta útil que a los fines de lograr el cumplimiento de las normas jurídicas y también las morales, es indispensable establecer un control sobre las mismas como modo de asegurar así su cumplimiento. Si se carece de sistemas de control suficientes o si produjeran discriminaciones o situaciones de desigualdad entre los destinatarios, o resultan ineficientes, no es posible admitir que los preceptos normativos o morales sean cumplidos. Indiscutiblemente, el debido control esta dirigido al cumplimiento de las normas jurídicas o morales para evitar así las sanciones, que si bien en el Derecho Internacional del Trabajo no tienen imperatividad, las inobservancias de obligaciones también producen o provocan formas sancionadoras. Es incuestionable que sin éstas no podría hablarse de coactividad del derecho, pues la esencia de la coactividad consiste en la posibilidad de aplicar una sanción, posibilidad que representa una fuerza espiritual, una presión psíquica, una amenaza que debe motivar el cumplimiento del derecho y que cuando resulta ineficaz se lleva a la práctica, aplicándose las sanciones para restaurar el orden perturbado. Ahora bien, muchas veces las sanciones morales tienen mayor vigor y trascendencia ejemplarizadora que la imperatividad de las leyes. Éste es precisamente el sistema adoptado por la OIT, previo agotar ante un conflicto, por intermedio de la persuasión, el entendimiento para evitar la aplicación del régimen sancionatorio. Por lo que se ha considerado de interés para la aplicación del procedimiento de las mismas a realizarse en el futuro. ; It should be noted that the system of complaints was only applied in 1961, and that later several Commissions of Inquiry were carried out which, as we shall see, have been constituted in a considerable number, and so we omit to mention them here, such as those carried out in Von Potobsky Geraldo and Héctor Bartolomei de la Cruz, La organización Internacional del Trabajo, Ed Astrea 1990 pp. 115/117. Nationals and Foreigners. Internship and functions carried out in the ILO in different Universities of the city. It should be remembered that despite the importance that the authors of the ILO Constitution had accorded to the complaints procedure, it was practically not used during the first forty years since its creation in 1919. As Valticos teaches, it was used for the first time in the case of the Ghanaian Government's complaint concerning Portugal's application of the Abolition of Forced Labour Convention (No. 105) in its African territories. In 1968 this procedure was used in connection with Conventions 87 and 98 by the military government that had assumed power in Greece. In 1974 for the observance in Chile of the Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention, 1957 (No. 111). Subsequently, the procedure was also applied on several occasions, and finally in 1990, which gave rise to this commentary on the Commission of Inquiry to examine the complaint concerning Nicaragua under the Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise Convention, 1948 (No. 87); the Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention, 1949 (No. 98); and the Tripartite Consultation (International Labour Standards) Convention, 1976 (No. 144). It is true that the commissions of enquiry that followed one another over time have been very numerous because this procedure, which is larger than the others, is used as the ultima ratio after previous instances have been exhausted (direct contacts, etc.). It is also worth valuing the cost to the ILO of the integration of these commissions, usually jurists from different countries, as well as fees and expenses for travel that often must be reiterated. And in spite of the results obtained, they were very positive and for this reason the system is fully valid to this day. It seems obvious, but it is useful that in order to achieve compliance with legal rules and also morals, it is essential to establish a control over them as a way to ensure compliance. If there is a lack of sufficient control systems or if they produce discrimination or situations of inequality among the addressees, or if they are inefficient, it is not possible to admit that the normative or moral precepts are complied with. Indisputably, the due control is directed to the fulfillment of the juridical or moral norms to avoid the sanctions, that although in the International Labor Law they do not have imperative, the nonobservances of obligations also produce or provoke sanctioning forms. It is unquestionable that without these it would not be possible to speak of coactivity of the law, since the essence of coactivity consists in the possibility of applying a sanction, a possibility that represents a spiritual force, a psychic pressure, a threat that must motivate the fulfillment of the right and that when it is ineffective is put into practice, applying the sanctions to restore the disturbed order. However, moral sanctions often have greater vigour and exemplary transcendence than the imperative of laws. This is precisely the system adopted by the ILO, after exhausting, in the face of a conflict, through persuasion, the understanding to avoid the application of the sanctioning regime. Therefore, it has been considered of interest for the application of the procedure of the same to be carried out in the future.

Dieses Kapitel fasst die wichtigsten Erkenntnisse des Forschungsprojekts Stand des Wissens zu Schweizer Tramsystemen im Mischverkehr zusammen. Der Fokus liegt dabei auf der Beschreibung der aktuellen Situation der Tramsicherheit in der Schweiz sowie der Sicherheitspraxis und -massnahmen bei den entsprechenden Akteuren. Die Schweizer Regulation mit Relevanz für Tramsysteme ist grundsätzlich funktional, d. h. es werden Sicherheits- respektive Schutzziele vorgegeben, aber nicht, auf welchem Wege oder mit welchen Mitteln diese erfüllt werden müssen. Dabei soll der «Stand der Technik» berücksichtigt werden. Es wird also eher ein Rahmen vorgegeben, anstatt die Regelungen in allen Einzelheiten vorzuschreiben. Es gibt im schweizerischen Recht keine spezifisch auf Tramsysteme ausgerichteten Gesetze und Verordnungen. Trams gelten als Eisenbahnen, weshalb die Eisenbahngesetzgebung zur Anwendung kommt. Da Trams aber im Strassenraum verkehren, spielt auch die Strassenverkehrsgesetzgebung eine Rolle. Das Tram hat in der Schweiz vor allen anderen Strassenverkehrsteilnehmern Vortritt. Dieses Vortrittsrecht kann bei ungenügender Kenntnis anderer Verkehrsteilnehmer zu gefährlichen Situationen führen, beispielsweise bei über das mit dem motorisierten Verkehr geteilte Tramtrassee markierten Fussgängerstreifen ohne Lichtsignalanlage oder nicht signalgesteuerten Kreisverkehrsplätzen mit Tramquerung. Die Verantwortung für die Betriebssicherheit tragen in der Schweiz die Trambetreiber. Die Hersteller sind verantwortlich für die Sicherheit ihrer Produkte. Das Bundesamt für Verkehr überwacht, ob Betreiber und Hersteller diese Verantwortung wahrnehmen. Es gibt diverse verschiedene Quellen für Tramunfalldaten in der Schweiz, die sich hinsichtlich Auflösung, Detailgrad, Abdeckung, Standardisierung und öffentliche Verfügbarkeit stark unterscheiden. Hauptanalysequellen der verschiedenen Akteure sind die Unfalldatenbanken der Betreiber, die Unfalldatenbank des Bundesamtes für Strassen (von der Polizei erfasst Unfälle), die Ereignisdatenbank des Bundesamtes für Verkehr (durch die Betreiber gemeldete Ereignisse) und für Einzelereignisse die Unfalluntersuchungsberichte der Schweizerischen Sicherheitsuntersuchungsstelle. Zum Vergleich von Unfalldaten werden üblicherweise Kennzahlen verwendet. Dazu sind Daten zu Verkehrsleistung, Streckennetzkilometer, Linienlängen, Anzahl Kurse, Rollmaterial usw. notwendig. Für eine angemessen Berücksichtigung des Kontextes werden zudem Daten zu Verkehrsmengen des motorisierten Individualverkehrs und des Langsamverkehrs sowie zur Infrastruktur benötigt. Diese Kontextdaten sind nicht in einer einheitlichen Form verfügbar und ihre Beschaffung ist mit einem erheblichen Aufwand verbunden. Vergleiche der Sicherheitslage, beispielsweise für verschiedene Städte, haben aufgrund der Unterschiede in der Datenerfassung und möglicherweise fehlender Kontextinformationen immer eine begrenzte Aussagekraft. Die vier Tramnetze in der Schweiz weisen deutliche Unterschiede hinsichtlich Bevölkerungsdichte, Netztopologie und Betriebskonzept auf. Trotz dieser Unterschiede differiert die mittlere Streckenbelastung (mittlere Anzahl Trams auf einem Netzabschnitt pro Stunde) nur wenig. Bei den spezifischen Unfallzahlen, also beispielsweise Unfälle pro Kompositions-Kilometer, bestehen grosse Unterschiede zwischen den Netzen. Eine Untersuchung durch Dritte für die Jahre 2010–2012 ergab in Zürich eine deutlich höhere Anzahl schwere Unfälle pro Kompositions-Kilometer als in den anderen Netzen. Basel und Genf wiesen vergleichbare Werte, Bern deutlich die geringsten Werte auf. Die häufigste Ursache von Unfällen mit Trambeteiligung ist die Missachtung des Vortrittsrechts der Strassenbahn (bei etwa einem Drittel der Unfälle). Etwa ein Sechstel der Unfälle wird durch Missachtung von Lichtsignalanlagen verursacht, ein weiteres Sechstel geht auf Fehlverhalten von Fussgängern zurück. Häufigste Verursacher von Unfällen mit Trambeteiligung sind in allen vier Tramsystemen die Personenwagen. An zweiter Stelle finden sich die Fussgänger. Bei den Unfallfolgen sind aber die Fussgänger am stärksten betroffen, da sie im Gegensatz zu Insassen von Personenwagen praktisch ungeschützt sind. Letztere erleiden denn auch nur sehr selten schwere Verletzungen bei Kollisionen mit Trams. Eher wenig auffällig hinsichtlich des Unfallgeschehens sind Velofahrer, was an deren vergleichsweise geringer Anzahl liegen dürfte. Kommt es aber zu einem Unfall, sind die Folgen für Velofahrer ähnlich gravierend wie für Fussgänger. Die vier Tramnetze der Schweiz weisen eine ähnliche Anzahl Kreisverkehrsplätze auf, welche vom Tramtrassee gequert werden; bezogen auf die Netzlänge variiert die Kreisverkehrsdichte hingegen erheblich. Der Anteil der Tramkollisionen bei Kreisverkehrsplätzen an allen Tramkollisionen weist zwischen den Systemen grosse Unterschiede auf. Wird dieser Anteil hingegen ins Verhältnis zur Kreisverkehrsdichte auf dem Tramnetz gesetzt, werden die Unterschiede zwischen den drei Systemen Bern, Basel und Genf sehr viel kleiner. Dies ist interessant vor dem Hintergrund, dass vom Tram gequerte Kreisverkehrsplätze in Genf als grosses Problem wahrgenommen werden, in Bern und Basel hingegen nicht. In Zürich ist die Kreisverkehrsdichte auf dem Tramnetz sehr tief, und auch der Anteil Kreisverkehrs-Tramunfälle bleibt selbst in Relation zur Kreisverkehrsdichte deutlich unterhalb der anderen Systeme. Georeferenzierte Unfalldaten erlauben die räumliche Auswertung von Unfallorten und die Identifikation von Unfallschwerpunkten. Aufgrund der geringen Anzahl Tramunfälle ist es allerdings schwierig, die statistische Signifikanz von ermittelten Schwerpunkten zu überprüfen. Im Rahmen dieses Projektes wurden Daten der Verkehrsunfallstatistik des Bundesamtes für Strassen räumlich ausgewertet. Eine qualitative Analyse der ermittelten Unfallschwerpunkte zeigt, dass diese grösstenteils an vorhersehbaren Stellen liegen: bei Fussgängern in Innenstadtbereichen und Plätzen mit hohem Fussgängeraufkommen, also an Orten mit vielen Querungen der Tramgeleise durch Fussgänger; bei Motorfahrzeugen bei Kreuzungen mit hohem Verkehrsaufkommen und auf Streckenabschnitten mit Abbiegemöglichkeit über die Tramgeleise für den Parallelverkehr. Für die Schwerpunkte von Kollisionen mit Velo/Mofa lassen sich hingegen kaum einfache Erklärungen finden. Ein Vergleich von Unfallcluster-Analysen ohne und mit Gewichtung der Unfallfolgen (mittels Opferäquivalenten) zeigt, dass es sowohl Cluster mit grosser Unfallzahl und vergleichsweise geringen kumulierten Auswirkungen als auch solche mit eher kleiner Unfallzahl und hohen kumulierten Auswirkungen gibt. Daher scheint für Analysen von Unfallclustern die Berücksichtigung der Unfallfolgen angebracht, wobei die Gewichtung mittels Opferäquivalenten eine angemessene Methode ist. Die Aussagekraft der räumlichen Analysen bleibt aufgrund der geringen Unfallzahlen und der Verwendung von Daten aus mehreren Jahren beschränkt. Ergänzend zur Auswertung der Unfalldaten sollten daher immer detaillierte Fallanalysen bei Unfallschwerpunkten durchgeführt werden, welche Rückschlüsse auf tatsächliche Unfallursachen und mögliche Massnahmen erlauben. Es gibt in der Schweiz keine einheitliche Definition des Begriffs Beinaheunfall. Im Allgemeinen wird darunter eine Situation verstanden, in der das Fehlverhalten eines Beteiligten oder mehrerer Beteiligter einen gefährlichen Zustand hervorruft, welcher aber nicht in einen Unfall mündet. Der entsprechende Standort wird demzufolge als gefährlich empfunden, obwohl statistisch keine Unfallschwerpunkte nachzuweisen sind. Die häufigsten Umstände von Beinaheunfällen in der Schweiz sind aus Sicht der Trambetreiber fehlende physische Trennungen bei Eigentrassierungen, Konflikte mit Abbiegern auf Kreuzungen, die Nichtbeachtung der Lichtsignalanlage oder anderer Signale auf Kreuzungen und die Nichtbeachtung des Tramvortritts in Kreisverkehrsplätzen. Die Trambetreiber schliessen fehlerhafte Handlungen des eigenen Fahrpersonals zwar nicht aus, führen als Ursache für gefährliche Situationen und Beinaheunfälle aber hauptsächlich die fehlende Wahrnehmung des Trams seitens der anderen Verkehrsteilnehmer auf. Einerseits spielt der fehlende Sichtkontakt eine wichtige Rolle, andererseits wird insbesondere bei Fussgängern eine starke Tendenz bei der Ablenkung durch elektronische Geräte wie Smartphones oder Tablets (visuelle Ablenkung) und Kopfhörer (auditive Ablenkung) beobachtet. Im Mischverkehr sehen die Betreiber die Hauptverursacher gefährlicher Situationen in Velofahrern und Fussgängern – häufig in Innenstadtbereichen, wo der Langsamverkehr sehr hohe Dichten aufweist. Auf Abschnitten mit Eigentrassierung, wo in der Schweiz oft physische Abgrenzungen fehlen und zahlreiche Kreuzungsmöglichkeiten für andere Strassennutzer bestehen, sehen die Betreiber die Hauptverursacher in motorisierten Strassenfahrzeugen. In solchen Abschnitten werden gefährliche Situationen durch die hohe Geschwindigkeit des Trams verschärft. Die Erfassung von Unfalldaten geschieht in der Schweiz bei schweren Unfällen potenziell durch drei Stellen: den entsprechenden Trambetreiber, die zuständige Polizeibehörde und die Schweizerische Sicherheitsuntersuchungsstelle SUST. Die Erfassung von Ereignissen durch die Betreiber ist nicht vereinheitlicht, und auch bei den Polizeibehörden gibt es in der Praxis Abweichungen bei der Dateneingabe in die nationale MISTRA-Unfalldatenbank des Bundesamtes für Strassen. Durch eine einheitliche Erfassung wären Vergleiche zwischen den Tramnetzen möglich und es könnten trotz der geringen Unfallzahl aussagekräftige Datenanalysen durchgeführt werden. Wichtig erscheint in jedem Fall eine präzise Georeferenzierung der Unfalldaten. Es gibt ungenutzte Möglichkeiten zur Datenerfassung, welche sowohl in der Unfallanalyse als auch in der Prävention eingesetzt werden könnten. Beispiele sind der Einsatz von Frontkameras oder die georeferenzierte Erfassung von Schnellbremsungen. Allerdings gibt es dabei bedeutende rechtliche und technische Hürden. Die vorhandenen Unfalldaten werden vor allem durch die lokalen Polizeibehörden relativ umfassend ausgewertet. Um eine maximale Wirkung dieser Analysen sicherzustellen, ist eine enge Zusammenarbeit der Polizei mit den Trambetreibern und weiteren Akteuren (z. B. Tiefbauamt) von grosser Bedeutung. Der Personalschulung kommt bei der Unfallprävention eine grosse Bedeutung zu – entsprechend geniesst sie bei den Betreibern einen hohen Stellenwert. Nützliche Hilfsmittel sind Fotos und Videoaufnahmen von Unfällen und Beinaheunfällen oder Übersichten über gefährliche Situationen entlang einer Linie. Im Falle eines Unfalls helfen Checklisten und stellen eine einheitliche Handlungsweise sicher. Tramsicherheitskampagnen dienen insbesondere der Bewusstseinsbildung zum allgemeinen Tramvortritt und zu den Eigenschaften des Trams (Bremsweg). Eine klare Zielsetzung und anschliessende Evaluation der Wirkung ist empfehlenswert. Bei der Infrastrukturplanung sollten präventive Sicherheitsmassnahmen eine hohe Priorität geniessen und Teil von gestalterischen Lösungen sein. Dazu sollte die Erfahrung der Trambetreiber systematisch in den Infrastrukturplanungsprozess von Strassenräumen mit Trams einbezogen und adäquat berücksichtigt werden. Ein sicherer Trambetrieb ist stark von nicht direkt durch die Trambetreiber beeinflussbaren Elementen abhängig. Insbesondere haben die Gestaltung des Verkehrsraums und die Steuerung der Verkehrstechnik einen grossen Einfluss auf die Sicherheit. So können übersichtliche Kreuzungen mit klar den jeweiligen Spuren zugeteilten Lichtsignalen viele Probleme mit Abbiegern über das Tramtrassee verhindern. Eine gute Zusammenarbeit aller beteiligten Akteure ist für eine sichere und auch betrieblich geeignete Lösung solcher Situationen von zentraler Bedeutung. Beim Rollmaterial spielt insbesondere das Crashverhalten mit schweren Strassenfahrzeugen (Sicherheit der Traminsassen und insbesondere der Tramführerin) und mit Fussgängern (Sicherheit des Fussgängers) eine grosse Rolle. Wichtig ist, in einer frühen Engineering-Phase bereits sämtliche Schutz- und Sicherheitsfunktionen zu berücksichtigen, damit auf spätere «aufgesetzte» Lösungen verzichtet werden kann. This chapter summarises the main findings of the research project State of the art of Swiss tramways in mixed traffic zones. The focus is on the description of the current safety situation in Switzerland and the safety practices and measures of the relevant stakeholders. Swiss regulation with respect to tram safety is functional, i.e., safety and protection targets are prescribed, but not how they have to be achieved and what means must be used. Thereby, the state of the art of technology must be considered. In summary, regulation rather provides a frame than detailed prescriptions. In Swiss legislation, there are no specific laws or ordinances only concerning tram systems. By law, trams are considered as railways, therefor railway legislation applies. Because trams operate on streets, also road legislation is relevant. In Switzerland, trams have right of way over all other road users. This right of way can lead to dangerous situations in cases where other road are not aware of it. For example, in the case of zebra crossings marked over the tramway that is shared with motorised vehicles, pedestrians might assume that they have right of way over trams because they do have right of way over cars in the exact same location. Another example are roundabouts crossed with tram tracks, where cars do not expect to have to yield while they are on the ring road of the roundabout. Responsibility for operational safety is borne by the tram operators and for product safety by manufacturers in Switzerland. The Federal Office of Transport supervises whether operators and producers perform the associated duties correctly. There are several sources for tram accident data in Switzerland. They differ strongly with respect to resolution, level of detail, coverage, standardisation and public availability. Main data sources for safety analyses are the accident databases of the operators, the accident database of the Federal Roads Office (accidents investigated by the police), the incident database of the Federal Office of Transport (incidents reported by operators), and the investigation reports by the Swiss Transportation Safety Investigation Board (concerning single incidents). To compare accident data, ratio measures are used usually. This requires data on service provided, network length, line length, number of vehicles in operation, type of rolling stock, etc. Furthermore, for adequate consideration of context, data is needed on traffic volumes of both motorised transport and human powered mobility. These context data are not available in standardised form and their acquisition is costly. Comparison of safety situation, e.g., in different cities, have limited validity due to differences in data recording and possibly lack of context information. The four tram networks in Switzerland are considerably different with regard to population density, network topology, and operating concepts. Nevertheless, the average network load (average number of trams on a section per hour) is similar in all networks. Looking at accident ratios, e.g., accidents per tram kilometre, there are large differences between the networks. A study for the years 2010–2012 showed a considerably higher number of severe accidents per tram kilometre in Zurich than in the other three networks. Ratios for Basel and Geneva were similar, while Berne clearly had the lowest value. The most common cause of accidents is disrespect of the tram's right of way (roughly one third of all accidents involving trams). About a sixth of tram accidents are caused by disrespect of traffic lights (by other road users), another sixth by misconducts of pedestrians. The main source of accidents involving trams are, in all four networks, cars. They are followed second by pedestrians. However, if consequences of accidents are considered, pedestrians are affected strongest because they are unprotected. Passengers of cars, on the other hand, only rarely suffer from severe injuries from accidents involving a tram. Accidents involving trams and bicycles are less common, which is mainly due to the smaller number of bicycles in overall street users. In case of accidents involving a tram, the consequences for cyclists are similarly grave as for pedestrians. The four tram networks in Switzerland have a similar number of roundabouts crossed by a tramway. However, relating to tram network length, the roundabout (with tramway) density is very different. The ratio of accidents at roundabouts involving a tram and this roundabout density is similar in Basel, Berne and Geneva. This is interesting given that roundabouts crossed by a tramway are considered a big safety issue in Geneva, but not so much in Basel and Berne. In Zurich, the roundabout density is much lower, as is the number or roundabout-related accidents. Accident data with georeferences allow for the spatial analysis of accident locations and the identification of accident hot spots. However, due to the low number of tram accidents, it is difficult to test for statistical significance of such analyses. In the present project, data form the accident database of the Federal Roads Office have been analysed spatially. The qualitative analysis of the identified accident hot spots shows that they are mostly in predictable locations: in the case of pedestrians, in inner city areas and squares with a high number of pedestrian traffic, thus, in locations with frequent crossings of the tramway by pedestrians; in the case of cars, at intersections with high traffic volumes and on sections where cars cross over tram tracks when turning. Hot spots of accidents with bicycles, on the other hand, cannot be easily explained. A comparison of accident cluster analyses without and with weighting of accident consequences (with victim equivalent values) shows that there are both clusters with high accident numbers and low cumulative consequences and clusters with relatively low accident numbers but high cumulative consequences. Therefore, it seems adequate to use weighting of accident consequences for accident cluster analyses. The explanatory power of spatial accident analyses remains limited due to the small number of accidents and the use of data from several years. Therefore, complementary to the examination of accident data, individual case analyses should be conducted to conclude about accident sources and adequate measures. In Switzerland, there is no standard definition of the term "near accident". Commonly, a near accident is understood to be a situation where the malpractice of one or several involved parties leads to a dangerous state, without this state resulting in an actual accident. The respective location is therefore perceived as dangerous, even though no statistical accident hot spot can be determined. From the perspective of tram operators, the most common circumstances of near accidents in Switzerland are lack of physical separation in sections with reserved tracks, conflicts with turning vehicles on intersections, disrespect of traffic lights or road signs and disrespect of tram right of way in roundabouts. The operators do not rule out the possibility of malpractice by their drivers, but they do see the cause of dangerous situations and near accidents mainly in the lack of tram perception by other road users. On the one hand, this involves insufficient visibility conditions (e.g., caused by obstacles), on the other hand, operators observe an increase in distracted pedestrians, mainly due to electronic equipment such as smartphones or tablets (visual distraction) and headphones (auditory distraction). In mixed traffic, operators see pedestrians and cyclists as the main causers of tram accidents, often in inner city areas with high density of human powered mobility users. On reserved tracks, where there is often no physical separation between the tramway and other road users and many crossing possibility of the latter exist, the operators see car users as the main causers of tram accidents. In such locations, dangerous situations are aggravated due to the high tram speed. The recording of accident data in Switzerland is mainly conducted by three parties: the tram operator, the local police, and the Swiss Transportation Safety Investigation Board (in severe cases). Recording of events by the operators is not standardized, and there are also differences in recording practices of police authorities and their data input into the national road accident database of the Federal Roads Office. A standardised and consistent recording would facilitate comparisons between tram networks and enable more significant analyses. In any case, precise georeference for accident data is crucial for later spatial analyses. There are unused possibilities of data acquisition that could be used for accident analysis as well as prevention. For example, this includes using frontal cameras in tram vehicles or the georeferenced recording of emergency braking manoeuvres. However, there are serious legal and technical barriers to be considered. Existing accident data is analysed in detail mostly by local police authorities. In order to ensure the impact of such analyses, tight cooperation between police authorities, tram operators, and further stakeholders (e.g., civil engineering department of the respective city) is crucial. Drivers' education is highly relevant for accident prevention. Accordingly, operators assign a high priority to it. Useful tools are pictures or videos of accidents or near accidents or overviews of dangerous locations along a line. In the case of an actual accident, check lists help to ensure consistent actions. In infrastructure planning, preventive safety measures should be included from the beginning as part of design solutions and be given a high priority. For this, it is important to include the experience and knowledge of tram operators in respective infrastructure design and planning teams. Safe operation of a tram system depends on many aspects that cannot be influenced directly by tram operators. Particularly, the design of public and road space and traffic operation and management have a high impact on tram safety. For example, clear intersection layouts with unambiguously attributed traffic lights per traffic lane can prevent many problems frequently occurring with cars turning across the tramway. Therefore, tight collaboration between all stakeholders is a key to safe operation of trams that also consider the quality of operation. Concerning rolling stock, the crash behaviour of trams with heavy road vehicles such as trucks (safety of tram passengers and particularly driver) and with pedestrians (safety of pedestrians) is particularly important. Generally, it is crucial to include all safety requirements and targets in an early engineering phase in order to avoid later, "attached" measures.

The article is devoted to the analysis of the causes of the emergence of posttruths, which were updated not only in the present, but also in the rather distant past. The article has a number of concepts that are close in meaning to the concept of "post-truth." This thesis is important because it explains the reason for the existence of post-truth: the decline of the elite, layers of ethos, creating a higher culture and cultivating honor and truthfulness. Another reason is the secularization of public life, which separates the truth from the sphere of sacrum. Particular attention n is focused on the presentation of a Russian understanding of truth and truth. It is based on a philosophical tradition integrated into Orthodoxy. Note that moral subjectivity outside the law, characteristic of understanding the truth in the USSR and inherent in the communist morality of the Bolsheviks, led to mass crimes during the Stalinist period. It is proved that in Poland the elitist ethos that existed between the two world wars, significantly weakened after the Second World War and gradually "eroded" after 1989. During this period, factors of this ethos, such as Catholicism, historical identity, literature were weakened, and with them the national identity as a whole, which reduced the weight of elements based on dignity in public life, and, consequently, the truth as one of them. The attention is focused on the fact that in the modern world, as a result of a number of new political, economic and cultural phenomena, the truth has acquired a distinctly relativistic dimension, and the new reality has found ideological expression in the concept of postmodernity. The conclusions are formulated that today people get the feeling that they are living in a world of chaos: information, value and cultural. The consequence of this is a significant weakening of the categories of rational thinking, the culture of discussion, the intellectual dimension of higher culture, and the political and cultural fragmentation of society. The weakening of the level of subjectivity of individuals and social communications and the formation of fluid identities deepen the existing crisis, which finds expression, including in the phenomenon of post-truth. ; Статья посвящена анализу причин появления постправды, которые актуализировались не только в современности, но и достаточно отдаленном прошлом. Приведен ряд понятий, которые по смыслу близки к понятию «постправда». Подчеркнем, что существование постправды в значительной степени обусловлено упадком элитарных, этосных слоев, творящих высшую культуру и культивирующих честь и правдивость, а также секуляризацией общественной жизни, отделившей правду от сферы сакрума. Особое внимание уделено изложению русского понимания правды и истины, основанного на философской традиции, погруженного в православие. Отметим, что внеправовой моральный субъективизм, характерный для понимания правды в СССР и присущий коммунистической нравственности большевиков, приводил к массовым преступлениям в период сталинского правления. Доказано, что в Польше элитарный этос, который существовал еще в период между двумя мировыми войнами, существенно ослаб после Второй Мировой войны и постепенно «размылся» после 1989 года. В этот период такие факторы этого этоса, как католицизм, историческая идентичность, литература, были ослаблены, а вместе с ними и национальная идентичность в целом, что снизило вес элементов, основанных на достоинстве, в общественной жизни, а, следовательно, и правды как одного из них. Акцентировано внимание на том, что в условиях современного мира, в результате ряда новых политических, экономических и культурных явлений, правда приобрела отчетливо релятивистское измерение, а новая действительность нашла идейное выражение в концепции постмодерности. Сформулированы выводы о том, что сегодня у людей появляется ощущение, будто они живут в мире хаоса: информационного, ценностного и культурного. Следствием этого является значительное ослабление категорий рационального мышления, культуры дискуссии, интеллектуального измерения высшей культуры, политико-культурная фрагментизация общества. Ослабление уровня субъектности индивидов и социальных связей и формирование текучих идентичностей углубляют существующий кризис, который находит свое выражение, в том числе, в явлении постправды. ; Стаття присвячена аналізу причин появи постправди, що актуалізувалися не лише в сучасності, але й у досить віддаленому минулому. Наведено низку понять, що за своїм змістом є близькими до поняття «постправда». Підкреслемо, що існування пост правди значною мірою зумовлено занепадом елітарних, етосних прошарків, що творили вищу культуру й культивували честь і правдомовність, а також секуляризацією суспільного життя, що відокремила правду від сфери сакруму. Особлива увага приділена викладанню російського розуміння правди та істини, заснованого на філософській традиції, зануреного у православ'я. Зазначимо, що поза правовий моральний суб'єктивізм, характерний для розуміння правди в СРСР і притаманний комуністичній моральності більшовиків, призводив до масових злочинів у період сталінського правління. Доведено, що в Польщі елітарний етос, який існував ще в період між двома світовими війнами, суттєво занепав після Другої Світової війни і поступово «розмився» після 1989 року. У цей період такі чинники цього етосу, як католицизм, історична ідентичність, література,були ослаблені, а разом з ними національна ідентичність в цілому,що знизило вагу елементів, базованих на гідності, в суспільному житті, а отже, і правди як одного з них. Акцентовано увагу на тому, що в умовах сучасного світу, внаслідок низки нових політичних, економічних і культурних явищ правда набула виразно релятивістського виміру, а нова дійсність знайшла ідейне вираження в концепції постмодерності. Сформульовано висновки про те, що сьогодні у людей з'являється відчуття, ніби вони живуть у світі хаосу: інформаційного, ціннісного і культурного. Наслідком цього є значне ослаблення категорій раціонального мислення, культури дискусії, інтелектуального виміру вищої культури, політично-культурна фрагментаризація суспільства. Зниження рівня суб'єктності індивідів і соціальних зв'язків та формування плинних ідентичностей поглиблюють наявну кризу, котра знаходить своє вираження, в тому числі, у явищі постправди.

AbstractIn this paper are analyzed the rules of the EU and the Council ofEurope and the jurisprudence of the ECHR, on criminalization ofdenial or justification of genocide, specifically the Holocaust of theJews to the Nazis in the Second War World. In view of the rising ofneo-Nazi parties and Nazi violence in other areas, such as football, itis concluded that it is appropriate to include the criminalization ofjustification of Nazi genocide in the European criminal codes, whenthis is done with racist intent and seeking to reopen these similarpractices or publicly inciting to discrimination or to use violenceagainst people because of their race, religion or national or ethnicorigin. It is examined existing legislation in the field of internationaland European law and it has been identified some of its deficiencesand it is proposed some guidelines as lege ferenda in line as they areindicated in the Recommendation No. 7 of the ECRI, which is not alegislative text, suggesting according to the author's opinion that thecriminal offense of negationism of genocide should be reduced to thejustification of the Nazi Holocaust, according to the jurisprudence ofthe Nuremberg military Tribunal, established by the London Agreementof 8 April 1945, or at most strictly to the genocides recognizedby International Courts, and that the crime should not be extendedto the crimes against humanity or war crimes. Finally, it is notedthat the term «genocide» in relation to the criminalization of theirjustification nowdays, should be used as a legal concept, referred onlyto genocide declared as such by international tribunals, since the NurembergTribunal, so that the criminal offense of denial of genocideshould not be applied to previous historical events before that date.On the one hand, the legally protected good would be the equal dignityof every human person, in conjunction with other rights suchas freedom of expression and opinion. In this context of criminalproceedings, the recommendations of the ECRI distinguish betweenhate speech with different forms of crime and genocide denial as acrime framed within the previous, but with a specific offense. Thewrongdoer that wants to be prevented is racial discrimination orinjury to the dignity of the person. It is suggested that discoursesof denial and / or justification of genocide will be addressed withinthe crimes of racial discrimination and considered as a special form ofhate speech cases in which such discourse takes the form of a publicdenial, trivialization, justification or condoning crimes of genocide,whose existence has been recognized by the courts. It must respondalso to the intention of denigrating or stigmatizing individuals orcurrent groups because of their race, religion, nationality or ethnic or national origin. The criminalization of this speech is related to its objective, which is hurting individuals or groups. What follows is that there must be incitement or provocation to denigrate individuals or groups, which requires willful misconduct with racist intent and that the speech is made in public. The content of the unjust is that a certain danger of unlawful acts against persons or groups is generated. Two other features that must come together to give rise to crime ofhate speech is that speech reflects or promotes an unjustified assumptionthat emits who is considered superior to a person or a group whoare subject to that criticism. Besides that speech shall be intended toincite or reasonably expect the effect of inciting others to commit actsof violence, intimidation, hostility or discrimination against thosetargeted by the critical discourse, ; Resumen:En este artículo se analiza la normativa de la UE y del Consejo deEuropa, así como la jurisprudencia del TEDH, sobre la penalizaciónde la negación o justificación de los genocidios, concretamente delHolocausto de los judíos a manos de los nazis en la II Guerra Mundial.A la vista de la creciente oleada de partidos neonazis y de laviolencia nazi en otros ámbitos, como el del futbol, se concluye que espertinente la inclusión de la penalización de la justificación del genocidionazi en los códigos penales europeos, cuando ésta se realiza conintención racista y con ánimo de reinstaurar en el presente prácticassimilares o de incitar públicamente a la discriminación y a usar laviolencia contra personas por razón de su raza, religión o por su origennacional o étnico. Examinada la legislación existente en el ámbito delderecho internacional europeo se señalan algunas de sus deficienciasy se propone unas pautas de lege ferenda, en la línea de lo indicadoen las Recomendaciones n.º 7 y n.º 15 de la ECRI, que no son textosnormativos, sugiriendo en opinión de la autora que el delito deberíareducirse a la justificación del Holocausto nazi, según la jurisprudenciasentada en el Tribunal militar de Nuremberg, establecido por el Acuerdo de Londres del 8 de abril de 1945, o como mucho estrictamente a los genocidios reconocidos por Tribunales Internacionales, y que el tipo penal no debería hacerse extensivo ni a los crímenes contra la humanidad, ni a los crímenes de guerra. Se apunta que el término «genocidio», en relación con la penalización de su justificación en la actualidad, debería usarse según su concepción jurídica, referida sólo a los genocidios declarados como tales por Tribunales Internacionales, a partir del Tribunal de Nuremberg, de manera que el delito penal de negacionismo y/o justificación de genocidio no debiera ser aplicado a hechos históricos anteriores a esa fecha. Por un lado el bien jurídico protegido sería la igual dignidad de cada persona humana, en conjunción con otros derechos como la libertad de expresión y de opinión. En este contexto de actuación penal, las recomendaciones de la ECRIdistinguen entre el discurso del odio con sus diferentes formas delictivasy la negación del genocidio como un delito encuadrado dentro delos anteriores, pero con un tipo penal específico. El hecho lesivo quese quiere prevenir es la discriminación racial o la lesión de la dignidadde la persona. Se sugiere que los discursos de negación y/o justificacióndel genocidio se afronten dentro de los delitos de discriminaciónracial y se consideren como una forma especial de discurso del odio lossupuestos en los que dicho discurso adquiera la forma de una negaciónpública, trivialización, justificación o condonación del crímenes degenocidio, cuya existencia haya sido reconocida por los tribunales,debiendo responder a la intencionalidad de denigrar o estigmatizar apersonas o grupos actuales por razón de su raza, religión nacionalidado por su origen étnico u nacional. La criminalización de este discursoestá relacionado con su objetivo, que es herir a individuos o grupos.De lo que se deriva que debe haber incitación o provocación de denigrara personas o grupos, que se exige dolo con intención racista yque el discurso se realice de modo público. El contenido del injustoes que se genere un peligro cierto de actos ilícitos contra las personaso grupos.Otras dos características que deben confluir para dar lugar a delito dediscurso de odio es que ese discurso refleje o promueva una asuncióninjustificada de que quien lo emite se considera superior a una personao a un grupo que son objeto de esa crítica. Además ese discurso debetener como intención el incitar o esperar razonablemente el efecto deincitar a otros a cometer actos de violencia, intimidación, hostilidado discriminación contra quienes va dirigido el discurso crítico, yaque de este modo esto constituye una forma especialmente seria dediscurso de odio. AbstractIn this paper are analyzed the rules of the EU and the Council ofEurope and the jurisprudence of the ECHR, on criminalization ofdenial or justification of genocide, specifically the Holocaust of theJews to the Nazis in the Second War World. In view of the rising ofneo-Nazi parties and Nazi violence in other areas, such as football, itis concluded that it is appropriate to include the criminalization ofjustification of Nazi genocide in the European criminal codes, whenthis is done with racist intent and seeking to reopen these similarpractices or publicly inciting to discrimination or to use violenceagainst people because of their race, religion or national or ethnicorigin. It is examined existing legislation in the field of internationaland European law and it has been identified some of its deficiencesand it is proposed some guidelines as lege ferenda in line as they areindicated in the Recommendation No. 7 of the ECRI, which is not alegislative text, suggesting according to the author's opinion that thecriminal offense of negationism of genocide should be reduced to thejustification of the Nazi Holocaust, according to the jurisprudence ofthe Nuremberg military Tribunal, established by the London Agreementof 8 April 1945, or at most strictly to the genocides recognizedby International Courts, and that the crime should not be extendedto the crimes against humanity or war crimes. Finally, it is notedthat the term «genocide» in relation to the criminalization of theirjustification nowdays, should be used as a legal concept, referred onlyto genocide declared as such by international tribunals, since the NurembergTribunal, so that the criminal offense of denial of genocideshould not be applied to previous historical events before that date.On the one hand, the legally protected good would be the equal dignityof every human person, in conjunction with other rights suchas freedom of expression and opinion. In this context of criminalproceedings, the recommendations of the ECRI distinguish betweenhate speech with different forms of crime and genocide denial as acrime framed within the previous, but with a specific offense. Thewrongdoer that wants to be prevented is racial discrimination orinjury to the dignity of the person. It is suggested that discoursesof denial and / or justification of genocide will be addressed withinthe crimes of racial discrimination and considered as a special form ofhate speech cases in which such discourse takes the form of a publicdenial, trivialization, justification or condoning crimes of genocide,whose existence has been recognized by the courts. It must respondalso to the intention of denigrating or stigmatizing individuals orcurrent groups because of their race, religion, nationality or ethnic or national origin. The criminalization of this speech is related to its objective, which is hurting individuals or groups. What follows is that there must be incitement or provocation to denigrate individuals or groups, which requires willful misconduct with racist intent and that the speech is made in public. The content of the unjust is that a certain danger of unlawful acts against persons or groups is generated. Two other features that must come together to give rise to crime ofhate speech is that speech reflects or promotes an unjustified assumptionthat emits who is considered superior to a person or a group whoare subject to that criticism. Besides that speech shall be intended toincite or reasonably expect the effect of inciting others to commit actsof violence, intimidation, hostility or discrimination against thosetargeted by the critical discourse

La metodología circunstanciada de la enseñanza de la lengua y la literatura desarrollada y argumentada a lo largo de esta investigación se presenta como un modo de renegociar los encastres de perspectivas de las didácticas de la lengua o la literatura que hoy muestran en la Argentina su historia de entramados y superposiciones de diversos estatutos de saberes. Estas reconfiguraciones, estudiadas en las últimas cuatro décadas, no son ajenas a las coyunturas políticas, ni a los mecanismos de reproducción y producción de la cultura escolar y del sistema educativo, expresados en las particularidades de la disciplina escolar. Por ello, esta metodología se articula en tres fundamentos que no sobreimprimen nuevas prerrogativas didácticas a las reconfiguraciones de la enseñanza de la lengua y la literatura que actualmente encarnan la disciplina escolar y el sistema educativo en tres de sus niveles [primario, pero con especial atención al secundario e ingresos a la educación superior]. Básicamente, y más allá de sus matices, se trata de reconfiguraciones que develan la reificación de la lectura y la escritura como contenidos de enseñanza en nombre de criterios de utilidad y realidad para los docentes y alumnos. Así, se explica que los efectos de este estado de situación van consolidando un vacío metodológico revelado a través de relatos que permiten recuperar una historia reciente de la enseñanza de la lengua y la literatura en la Argentina, de los devenires de cada una de sus perspectivas, que, en apariencia, no se cruzarían. Sin embargo, puestos en relación, muestran los hechos en los que esas perspectivas se conjugaron, acaso conjuraron, e iniciaron sus complejas, y, a veces, no tan nítidas, alianzas. No obstante, ninguna perspectiva se impone por completo. Mirados sus efectos desde el trabajo docente, se encuentra un encastre entre el textualismo cognitivista, la psicogénesis y la más reciente perspectiva sociocultural e histórica, que abonan a una argamasa de saberes desestabilizadores de la enseñanza de la lengua y la literatura como rito de institución. Por el contrario, con sus prerrogativas siempre articuladas en retóricas de "cómo debe ser la mejor enseñanza" de la lengua y la literatura, de la lectura y la escritura, suman categorías, conceptos, recortes de líneas teóricas, investigaciones, por lo general, todos disímiles, para remodelarlos en orientaciones por demás distantes y ajenas a las realizaciones cotidianas del trabajo docente.Los fundamentos aquí planteados, entonces, se circunstancian en los modos en que docentes y alumnos dicen que se realiza la enseña de la lengua y la literatura. Asimismo, se expone que una idea de cambio radical no es pertinente para la comprensión de prácticas/acciones sociales como las educativas institucionales, y que, en realidad, es necesario recuperar en sentido estricto, y de las teorías sociales, la noción de cambio como variación de la reproducción y producción social. Por lo tanto, los postulados desarrollados para una metodología circunstanciada de la enseñanza de la lengua y la literatura están pensados en ese orden de la variación y no del aplastamiento de los sentidos que, histórica y culturalmente, la constituyen e instituyen ; The detailed methodology of the education of the Language and the Literature, developed and argued throughout this investigation, appear like a way to renegotiate the sockets of perspective of didactic of the Language or the Literature that today show in Argentina their history of half-framed and superpositions of diverse statutes of knowledge. These reconfigurations, studied in last the four decades, are not other people's to the political conjunctures, nor to the mechanisms of reproduction and production of the scholastic culture and the educative system, expressed in the particularitities of the scholastic discipline. For that reason, this methodology articulates in three foundations that new didactic prerogatives to the reconfigurations of the education of the Language do not print and the Literature that at the moment the scholastic discipline and the educative system in three of their levels incarnate (primary, but with special attention to secondary and the income to the superior education). Basically, and beyond its shades, one is reconfigurations that reveal the reading and the writing like contents of education in name of criteria of utility and reality for the teachers, professors and students. Thus, it is explained that the effects of this state of situation are consolidating a revealed methodologic emptiness through stories that allow, to recovers a recent history of the education of the Language and Literature in Argentina, of ways of each one of their perspective, that, in appearance, would not be crossed. Nevertheless, put in relation, they show the facts in which those perspectives were conjugated, perhaps they swore in, and they initiated its complex, and, sometimes, not so clear ones, alliances. However, no perspective prevails completely. Watched its effects from the educational work, is a socket between the textualismo cognitivista, the psicogénesis and the most recent sociocultural and historical perspective, that pay to a destabilizing the knowledge of the education of the Language and Literature like institution rite. On the contrary, with its always articulated prerogatives in rhetorics of "how it must be the best education" of the Language and the Literature, the reading and the writing, they add categories, concepts, cuts of theoretical lines, investigations, generally, all dissimilar ones, to model them in directions distant and beside the point other people's to the daily accomplishments of the educational work. The foundations raised here, then, are locates in the ways in which educational and students they say that it is made the standard of the Language and Literature. Also, it is exposed that an idea of radical change is not pertinent for the understanding of practices/educative social actions like the institutional ones, and that, in fact, is necessary to recover in strict sense, and of the social theories, the notion of change like variation of the reproduction and social production. Therefore, the postulates developed for a detailed methodology of the education of the Language and Literature, are thought about that order of the variation and not of the crushing of the senses that, historically and culturally, constitute it and institute ; Fil: Cuesta, Carolina. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación; Argentina.

La metodología circunstanciada de la enseñanza de la lengua y la literatura desarrollada y argumentada a lo largo de esta investigación se presenta como un modo de renegociar los encastres de perspectivas de las didácticas de la lengua o la literatura que hoy muestran en la Argentina su historia de entramados y superposiciones de diversos estatutos de saberes. Estas reconfiguraciones, estudiadas en las últimas cuatro décadas, no son ajenas a las coyunturas políticas, ni a los mecanismos de reproducción y producción de la cultura escolar y del sistema educativo, expresados en las particularidades de la disciplina escolar. Por ello, esta metodología se articula en tres fundamentos que no sobreimprimen nuevas prerrogativas didácticas a las reconfiguraciones de la enseñanza de la lengua y la literatura que actualmente encarnan la disciplina escolar y el sistema educativo en tres de sus niveles [primario, pero con especial atención al secundario e ingresos a la educación superior]. Básicamente, y más allá de sus matices, se trata de reconfiguraciones que develan la reificación de la lectura y la escritura como contenidos de enseñanza en nombre de criterios de utilidad y realidad para los docentes y alumnos. Así, se explica que los efectos de este estado de situación van consolidando un vacío metodológico revelado a través de relatos que permiten recuperar una historia reciente de la enseñanza de la lengua y la literatura en la Argentina, de los devenires de cada una de sus perspectivas, que, en apariencia, no se cruzarían. Sin embargo, puestos en relación, muestran los hechos en los que esas perspectivas se conjugaron, acaso conjuraron, e iniciaron sus complejas, y, a veces, no tan nítidas, alianzas. No obstante, ninguna perspectiva se impone por completo. Mirados sus efectos desde el trabajo docente, se encuentra un encastre entre el textualismo cognitivista, la psicogénesis y la más reciente perspectiva sociocultural e histórica, que abonan a una argamasa de saberes desestabilizadores de la enseñanza de la lengua y la literatura como rito de institución. Por el contrario, con sus prerrogativas siempre articuladas en retóricas de "cómo debe ser la mejor enseñanza" de la lengua y la literatura, de la lectura y la escritura, suman categorías, conceptos, recortes de líneas teóricas, investigaciones, por lo general, todos disímiles, para remodelarlos en orientaciones por demás distantes y ajenas a las realizaciones cotidianas del trabajo docente.Los fundamentos aquí planteados, entonces, se circunstancian en los modos en que docentes y alumnos dicen que se realiza la enseña de la lengua y la literatura. Asimismo, se expone que una idea de cambio radical no es pertinente para la comprensión de prácticas/acciones sociales como las educativas institucionales, y que, en realidad, es necesario recuperar en sentido estricto, y de las teorías sociales, la noción de cambio como variación de la reproducción y producción social. Por lo tanto, los postulados desarrollados para una metodología circunstanciada de la enseñanza de la lengua y la literatura están pensados en ese orden de la variación y no del aplastamiento de los sentidos que, histórica y culturalmente, la constituyen e instituyen ; The detailed methodology of the education of the Language and the Literature, developed and argued throughout this investigation, appear like a way to renegotiate the sockets of perspective of didactic of the Language or the Literature that today show in Argentina their history of half-framed and superpositions of diverse statutes of knowledge. These reconfigurations, studied in last the four decades, are not other people's to the political conjunctures, nor to the mechanisms of reproduction and production of the scholastic culture and the educative system, expressed in the particularitities of the scholastic discipline. For that reason, this methodology articulates in three foundations that new didactic prerogatives to the reconfigurations of the education of the Language do not print and the Literature that at the moment the scholastic discipline and the educative system in three of their levels incarnate (primary, but with special attention to secondary and the income to the superior education). Basically, and beyond its shades, one is reconfigurations that reveal the reading and the writing like contents of education in name of criteria of utility and reality for the teachers, professors and students. Thus, it is explained that the effects of this state of situation are consolidating a revealed methodologic emptiness through stories that allow, to recovers a recent history of the education of the Language and Literature in Argentina, of ways of each one of their perspective, that, in appearance, would not be crossed. Nevertheless, put in relation, they show the facts in which those perspectives were conjugated, perhaps they swore in, and they initiated its complex, and, sometimes, not so clear ones, alliances. However, no perspective prevails completely. Watched its effects from the educational work, is a socket between the textualismo cognitivista, the psicogénesis and the most recent sociocultural and historical perspective, that pay to a destabilizing the knowledge of the education of the Language and Literature like institution rite. On the contrary, with its always articulated prerogatives in rhetorics of "how it must be the best education" of the Language and the Literature, the reading and the writing, they add categories, concepts, cuts of theoretical lines, investigations, generally, all dissimilar ones, to model them in directions distant and beside the point other people's to the daily accomplishments of the educational work. The foundations raised here, then, are locates in the ways in which educational and students they say that it is made the standard of the Language and Literature. Also, it is exposed that an idea of radical change is not pertinent for the understanding of practices/educative social actions like the institutional ones, and that, in fact, is necessary to recover in strict sense, and of the social theories, the notion of change like variation of the reproduction and social production. Therefore, the postulates developed for a detailed methodology of the education of the Language and Literature, are thought about that order of the variation and not of the crushing of the senses that, historically and culturally, constitute it and institute ; Fil: Cuesta, Carolina. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación; Argentina.

La metodología circunstanciada de la enseñanza de la lengua y la literatura desarrollada y argumentada a lo largo de esta investigación se presenta como un modo de renegociar los encastres de perspectivas de las didácticas de la lengua o la literatura que hoy muestran en la Argentina su historia de entramados y superposiciones de diversos estatutos de saberes. Estas reconfiguraciones, estudiadas en las últimas cuatro décadas, no son ajenas a las coyunturas políticas, ni a los mecanismos de reproducción y producción de la cultura escolar y del sistema educativo, expresados en las particularidades de la disciplina escolar. Por ello, esta metodología se articula en tres fundamentos que no sobreimprimen nuevas prerrogativas didácticas a las reconfiguraciones de la enseñanza de la lengua y la literatura que actualmente encarnan la disciplina escolar y el sistema educativo en tres de sus niveles [primario, pero con especial atención al secundario e ingresos a la educación superior]. Básicamente, y más allá de sus matices, se trata de reconfiguraciones que develan la reificación de la lectura y la escritura como contenidos de enseñanza en nombre de criterios de utilidad y realidad para los docentes y alumnos. Así, se explica que los efectos de este estado de situación van consolidando un vacío metodológico revelado a través de relatos que permiten recuperar una historia reciente de la enseñanza de la lengua y la literatura en la Argentina, de los devenires de cada una de sus perspectivas, que, en apariencia, no se cruzarían. Sin embargo, puestos en relación, muestran los hechos en los que esas perspectivas se conjugaron, acaso conjuraron, e iniciaron sus complejas, y, a veces, no tan nítidas, alianzas. No obstante, ninguna perspectiva se impone por completo. Mirados sus efectos desde el trabajo docente, se encuentra un encastre entre el textualismo cognitivista, la psicogénesis y la más reciente perspectiva sociocultural e histórica, que abonan a una argamasa de saberes desestabilizadores de la enseñanza de la lengua y la literatura como rito de institución. Por el contrario, con sus prerrogativas siempre articuladas en retóricas de "cómo debe ser la mejor enseñanza" de la lengua y la literatura, de la lectura y la escritura, suman categorías, conceptos, recortes de líneas teóricas, investigaciones, por lo general, todos disímiles, para remodelarlos en orientaciones por demás distantes y ajenas a las realizaciones cotidianas del trabajo docente.Los fundamentos aquí planteados, entonces, se circunstancian en los modos en que docentes y alumnos dicen que se realiza la enseña de la lengua y la literatura. Asimismo, se expone que una idea de cambio radical no es pertinente para la comprensión de prácticas/acciones sociales como las educativas institucionales, y que, en realidad, es necesario recuperar en sentido estricto, y de las teorías sociales, la noción de cambio como variación de la reproducción y producción social. Por lo tanto, los postulados desarrollados para una metodología circunstanciada de la enseñanza de la lengua y la literatura están pensados en ese orden de la variación y no del aplastamiento de los sentidos que, histórica y culturalmente, la constituyen e instituyen ; The detailed methodology of the education of the Language and the Literature, developed and argued throughout this investigation, appear like a way to renegotiate the sockets of perspective of didactic of the Language or the Literature that today show in Argentina their history of half-framed and superpositions of diverse statutes of knowledge. These reconfigurations, studied in last the four decades, are not other people's to the political conjunctures, nor to the mechanisms of reproduction and production of the scholastic culture and the educative system, expressed in the particularitities of the scholastic discipline. For that reason, this methodology articulates in three foundations that new didactic prerogatives to the reconfigurations of the education of the Language do not print and the Literature that at the moment the scholastic discipline and the educative system in three of their levels incarnate (primary, but with special attention to secondary and the income to the superior education). Basically, and beyond its shades, one is reconfigurations that reveal the reading and the writing like contents of education in name of criteria of utility and reality for the teachers, professors and students. Thus, it is explained that the effects of this state of situation are consolidating a revealed methodologic emptiness through stories that allow, to recovers a recent history of the education of the Language and Literature in Argentina, of ways of each one of their perspective, that, in appearance, would not be crossed. Nevertheless, put in relation, they show the facts in which those perspectives were conjugated, perhaps they swore in, and they initiated its complex, and, sometimes, not so clear ones, alliances. However, no perspective prevails completely. Watched its effects from the educational work, is a socket between the textualismo cognitivista, the psicogénesis and the most recent sociocultural and historical perspective, that pay to a destabilizing the knowledge of the education of the Language and Literature like institution rite. On the contrary, with its always articulated prerogatives in rhetorics of "how it must be the best education" of the Language and the Literature, the reading and the writing, they add categories, concepts, cuts of theoretical lines, investigations, generally, all dissimilar ones, to model them in directions distant and beside the point other people's to the daily accomplishments of the educational work. The foundations raised here, then, are locates in the ways in which educational and students they say that it is made the standard of the Language and Literature. Also, it is exposed that an idea of radical change is not pertinent for the understanding of practices/educative social actions like the institutional ones, and that, in fact, is necessary to recover in strict sense, and of the social theories, the notion of change like variation of the reproduction and social production. Therefore, the postulates developed for a detailed methodology of the education of the Language and Literature, are thought about that order of the variation and not of the crushing of the senses that, historically and culturally, constitute it and institute ; Fil: Cuesta, Carolina. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación; Argentina.