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Prior to the Middle Ages, history did not record the names of many individual artists, whether men or women. Women began to be known as artists only towards the end of the sixteenth century.

The goal of this chapter is to discuss key values and archetypes of Russian culture that have developed over several centuries of Russian history. This fundamental introduction is important because these values and archetypes have successfully manifested themselves through various institutions of the Russian Empire, the Soviet Union and post-Soviet Russia. What are they and what are their roots? Answers to these questions can help us better understand Russian economic and business culture that shapes the behaviour of entrepreneurs, investors and employees in the current economy, and also political and legal traditions that play enormous roles in establishing and running a new enterprise in contemporary Russia. In particular, the state will play an important role in our narrative; indeed, in Russia, one cannot talk about business without talking about the state. Evolution of property rights and economic freedoms, risks and advantages of state interventions in the market economy and relationships with local authorities or regulatory bodies, including legendary issues of "autocracy" and "corruption," have enormous importance for business in Russia.

THIS ARTICLE EXPLORES HISTORIC ISLAM AND ISLAM AS A SYSTEM OF IDEAS, PRACTICES, AND CULTURAL TRAITS IN RELATION TO GOVERNMENT. IT EXAMINES THE INFLUENCE OF THE WEST ON ISLAM AND OFFERS A ROUGH CLASSIFICATION OF REGIMES. RELIGION AND THE STATE AND THE THINKING OF MUSLIMS OUSIDE THE MIDDLE EAST ARE EACH REVIEWED. THE ARTICLE CONCLUDES THAT AT THE PRESENT DAY, MOST ISLAMIC COUNTRIES ARE DISCOVERING THAT WHILE THEY HAVE GAINED INDEPENDENCE, THEY ENJOY NEITHER JUSTICE NOR FREEDOM. THERE ARE SOME WHO SEE IN DEMOCRACY THE SUREST WAY TO ATTAIN BOTH.

Cases of food poisoning with botulinum toxin have been reported as far back as Roman times. Emperor Leo VI of Byzantium prohibited the manufacturing of blood sausages with a law due to cases attributed to poisoning with Atropa belladonna. It was later proven that atropine does not have the effects described in the cases during his reign. It was not until the 19th century that scientists began detailed studies of the rising number of cases in which the patients reported nausea, vomiting, relaxation of muscles and inability to breathe properly. Such "outbreaks" of cases were reported in southern Germany and Belgium in short succession, which led medical scientists to believe they were connected. The toxin was first identified by Justinus Kerner - a German medical officer in Wuertemberg, as "fatty acids" or "fat toxin". He failed to point the source of the toxin, however, he recognized the potential for medical use. Later in the 19th century Emile Pierre van Ermengem, a Belgian scientist, successfully identified the source of the "fatty acids". It was later called Botulinum toxin after the Latin word for sausages "botulus". Since then this substance, produced by C. botulinum, has been studied in detail by scientists around the world and many uses have been found. It is utilized in the treatment of neurological conditions, posttraumatic conditions, muscle spasms, irregular sweating, chronic pain, skin wrinkles, etc. The military have found use for it as well - the potency of the toxin can be effectively used in closed environments.

This essay provides an historical overview of welfare reform efforts prior to enactment of The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 by the 104th Congress. The author argues that the 1996 Act reaffirmed the labor market as the major arbiter of economic well-being of American citizens. In so doing, passage of the Act signified the formal end of income maintenance for able-bodied parents and released the federal government from assuming major responsibility for reducing poverty per se.

This essay provides an historical overview of welfare reform efforts prior to enactment of The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 by the 104th Congress. The author argues that the 1996 Act reaffirmed the labor market as the major arbiter of economic well-being of American citizens. In so doing, passage of the Act signified the formal end of income maintenance for able-bodied parents and released the federal government from assuming major responsibility for reducing poverty per se.