Suchergebnisse

A growing body of research suggests female- and male-headed households in low- and middle-income countries differ in terms of crop choices, access to resources for growing different crops, and values placed on crops for home consumption versus market sale. To better understand relationships between gender of the household head, household resources, individual values, and crop choices, we draw on original survey data collected from 1,001 rural households in Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. Bivariate and multivariate analyses suggest that female-headed households are less likely to grow cash crops, reflecting a combina­tion of resource constraints and social norms. However, on average, female-headed households plant more diverse food crops per hectare of land to which they have access, consistent with past findings suggesting crop diversity is a strategy em­ployed by resource-constrained female-headed households to meet household food security needs. We also find that women surveyed on behalf of their households place a higher value on crops for food security, while men more frequently empha­size income potential. These results provide novel cross-country evidence on how female- and male-headed households, and women and men farmers within households, may prefer different crops and also face different levels of access to resources needed for market-oriented agriculture. Such findings support recent calls for development practitioners to carefully consider how market-oriented programs and policies may differentially affect female- and male-headed households and individuals residing within them. We also under­score the importance of collecting gender-disaggre­gated data to capture meaningful differences in preferences and constraints across women and men at the inter- and intra-household level. ; International Treaty for Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture ; European Union ; Peer Review

Iron, vitamin A and zinc deficiencies are the top three micronutrients contributing to disability‐adjusted life years globally. The study assessed the factors associated with iron, vitamin A, and Zinc deficiencies among Nepalese children (n = 1709) aged 6–59 months using data from the 2016 Nepal National Micronutrient Status Survey. The following cut‐off points were applied: iron deficiency [ferritin 8.3 mg/L], vitamin A deficiency (retinol‐binding protein < 0.69 μmol/L) and zinc deficiency (serum zinc < 65 μg/dl for morning sample and <57 μg/dl for afternoon sample). We used multiple logistic regression adjusted for sampling weights and clustering to examine the predictors of micronutrient deficiencies. The prevalence of iron depletion (ferritin), tissue iron (sTfR), vitamin A and zinc deficiencies were 36.7%, 27.6%, 8.5% and 20.4%, respectively. Children were more likely to be iron deficient (ferritin) if aged 6–23 months, stunted, and in a middle‐wealth quintile household. Vitamin A deficiency was associated with development region and was higher among children living in severe food‐insecure households and those who did not consume fruits. Zinc deficiency was higher among children in rural areas and the poorest wealth quintile. The Government of Nepal should focus on addressing micronutrient deficiencies in the early years, with emphasis on improving food systems, promote healthy diets, among younger and stunted children and provide social cash transfer targeting high‐risk development regions, poorest and food insecure households.

Abstract
Entity resolution (record linkage or deduplication) is the process of identifying and linking duplicate records in databases. In this paper, we propose a Bayesian graphical approach for entity resolution that links records to latent entities, where the prior representation on the linkage structure is exchangeable. First, we adopt a flexible and tractable set of priors for the linkage structure, which corresponds to a special class of random partition models. Second, we propose a more realistic distortion model for categorical/discrete record attributes, which corrects a logical inconsistency with the standard hit-miss model. Third, we incorporate hyperpriors to improve flexibility. Fourth, we employ a partially collapsed Gibbs sampler for inferential speedups. Using a selection of private and nonprivate data sets, we investigate the impact of our modeling contributions and compare our model with two alternative Bayesian models. In addition, we conduct a simulation study for household survey data, where we vary distortion, duplication rates and data set size. We find that our model performs more consistently than the alternatives across a variety of scenarios and typically achieves the highest entity resolution accuracy (F1 score). Open source software is available for our proposed methodology, and we provide a discussion regarding our work and future directions.

Livestock farming sector significantly contributes to sustainable food security in many countries of Sub-Saharan Africa. It provides income and employment to a large segment of rural population in the countries of the Sahel such as Mauritania which face frequent climatic shocks. Keeping livestock also improves the availability of animal-source food for household consumption. In this study, we assess the role of livestock ownership and stock size in reducing severe food insecurity in rural Mauritania using data from a recent nationally representative household survey. We construct a food security index based on responses to the twelve questions asked in the survey, and use instrumental variables to correct for endogeneity problems. Our results suggest that livestock can have a positive role in improving food security in rural Mauritania. Compared to an agricultural household, the probability of being food insecure is 23.6% lower in a livestock-farming household for all types of livestock. Ownership of large (cows and camels) and small (goat and sheep) ruminants is associated with 16.3% and 21.6% greater probability of escaping from severe food insecurity. There is also some evidence for the size effect. A 1% increase in stock size (measured in tropical units) is associated with about 10% lower level of severe food insecurity among rural farm households. The beneficial contribution of livestock in insuring household food security is particularly visible among poor households. The results also show that livestock diversification has an important effect on the food security of households which practice this adaptation strategy to improve their food security. Helping farm households improve and expand their animal stock can therefore provide an answer to the challenges arising from multiple climatic and economic shocks and thus reduce severe food insecurity in the rural areas. ; L'élevage contribue de manière significative à la sécurité alimentaire durable dans de nombreux pays. Il fournit des revenus et des emplois ...

Non esiste una definizione standard di spreco alimentare, così come non esistono metodologie uniformi per calcolarlo. Gli studi finora realizzati sullo spreco sono carenti, i dati raccolti spesso insufficienti. Il cibo viene sprecato ad ogni stadio della filiera alimentare, dal campo alla tavola. Nei Paesi Membri dell'Unione Europea, le famiglie – secondo dati elaborati da Eurostat- sono le principali responsabili dello spreco. Secondo la FAO, ogni europeo spreca ogni anno 179 chili di alimenti. Last Minute Market, spin off accademico che si occupa di ridurre e recuperare lo spreco, ha stimato che a livello domestico in Italia si sprecano mediamente il 17% dei prodotti ortofrutticoli acquistati, il 15% di pesce, il 28% di pasta e pane, il 29% di uova, il 30% di carne e il 32% di latticini. Da un punto di vista economico, lo sperpero alimentare significa una perdita di 1.693 euro l'anno per famiglia. Per inquadrare lo spreco alimentare domestico in Italia e gettare luce su dati contrastanti emersi da diversi studi finora realizzati, la tesi – dopo aver presentato stime a livello globale, europeo e italiano – si concentra sull'analisi dei dati emersi da un questionario sullo spreco domestico, compilato da 3.087 italiani tra il mese di novembre e quello di dicembre 2012. L'indagine socio-economica è stata realizzata in collaborazione con la Commissione Europea (DG JCR, Istituto per la Tutela della Salute dei Consumatori) e il Karlsruhe Institut für Technologie. Il questionario è stato posto sulla piattaforma online surveymonkey. La tesi ha avuto come obiettivi l'identificazione di dati quantitativi circa "quanto si spreca" , "cosa si spreca", l'individuazione delle cause sociali, valoriali, comportamentali e di stile di vita, dello spreco alimentare delle famiglie italiane, l'impatto economico dello spreco sul budget domestico e l'elaborazione di profili di consumatori attraverso la cluster analysis. ; There is no standard definition of food waste, as there are no uniform methods for calculating it. Studies carried out to date on food waste are lacking and the data collected are often insufficient. Food is wasted at every stage of the food chain, from farm to table. In the European Union families - according to Eurostat -are the main responsible for food waste generation. According to FAO, Europeans waste 179 kg of food every year. Last Minute Market, academic spin-off whose aim is to reduce and recover waste, estimates that in Italy on average 17% of fruit and vegetables purchased, 15% of fish, 28% of pasta and bread, 29% of eggs, 30% meat and 32% of dairy products are wasted at the domestic level. From an economic point of view, food waste means a loss of 1,693 euros per year per family. In order to analyze and quantify household food waste in Italy and shed light on dissimilar data which have so far emerged from various studies, the thesis focuses on the examination of data derived from a questionnaire that was completed by 3,087 Italians between November and December 2012. The socio-economic survey was realized in collaboration with the European Commission (DG JCR, Institute for Health and Consumers Protection) and the Karlsruhe Institut für Technologie. The questionnaire was uploaded on SurveyMonkey, an online platform that is particularly useful when it comes to examining self-selected samples. The main aims of the thesis are the identification of quantitative data about "how much is wasted " and " what is wasted ", the identification of social causes, values, behavior and lifestyle that lead to food waste, the economic impact of food waste on families' budget and the development of consumer profiles through the cluster analysis.

The Chinese government is in the process of providing health insurance to the uninsured rural population by expanding the rural Cooperative Medical System (CMS) to every rural county. Using the China Health Surveillance Baseline Survey in 2001, we conducted a case study on two CMS pilot programs and investigated whether or not enrolling in these CMS pilot programs has led to an increase in health care utilization and a decrease in the likelihood of catastrophic health spending for rural residents. Matched data sets are produced using propensity score and the instrumental variable (IV) method is used. We have found that the CMS pilot programs have had a significant and positive effect on the probability of seeking medical care and the number of visits. However, the CMS programs did not seem to have had a significant impact on households' out‐of‐pocket health expenditure and on reducing catastrophic spending. The findings generated from the matched data are consistent with those obtained from the full set of data and those obtained from the IV method. (JEL I18)

To avert the continued deterioration of Philippine forests and its negative consequences on the environment, the Aquino administration executed the National Greening Program (NGP) as the reforestation initiative of the government from 2011 to 2016. This study focuses on the scoping and process evaluation of the NGP using household survey, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions data gathered from the randomly chosen sites in the provinces of Zambales, Negros Occidental, and Dinagat Islands. Key results showed that the NGP household recipients experienced some marginal increase in average real income, though it was not statistically significant. The same is true when comparing NGP household recipients versus non-NGP household recipients. Propensity score matching results revealed that the effects of NGP on the local people have evidently induced bigger household size, higher number of working household members, and positive perception on NGP activities. In summary, there is no "one-size fits all" NGP strategy that would increase the likelihood of success. Recommended modification in the next program on Natural Forest and Landscape Restoration Program can focus on adjustments in allocated budget for forest development per hectare, revisions of incentives appropriate in a given reforestation site, and increased support to forest protection of existing forests, among many other suggested actions.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Paspol-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 522 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 508 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 14 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 13 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 13 per cent area are very shallow to shallow (150 cm).  About 13 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy, 38 per cent area loamy and 47 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Maximum of 69 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 0.75%) in 4.5 ppm) in available iron and 17 per cent is deficient (<4.5 ppm).  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 144(28) 298(57) Guava - 130(25) Maize 16(3) 427(82) Sapota - 130(25) Bajra 16(3) 427(82) Pomegranate - 288(55) Groundnut - 204(39) Musambi 127(24) 160(31) Sunflower 98(19) 189(36) Lime 127(24) 160(30) Redgram - 288(55) Amla 16(3) 427(82) Bengal gram 158(30) 285(55) Cashew - 16(3) Cotton 98(19) 344(66) Jackfruit - 130(25) Chilli - 443(85) Jamun - 158(30) Tomato 16(3) 396(76) Custard apple 287(55) 155(30) Brinjal 48(9) 394(76) Tamarind - 158(30) Onion 46(9) 298(57) Mulberry - 204(39) Bhendi 77(15) 366(70) Marigold - 443(85) Drumstick - 288(55) Chrysanthemum - 443(85) Mango - 2(<1)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Paspol-1 is located at North latitude 160 47' 31.324" and 160 45' 26.562" and East longitude 770 18' 25.677'' and 770 16' 42.31" covering an area of about 522.02 ha coming under Pasapoola, Arakera. K and Gabapura Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Paspol-1 micro watersheds of Gopalapur subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 36 farmers were sampled in Paspol-1 micro-watershed among households surveyed 14 (38.89%) were marginal, 11 (30.56%) were small, 3 (8.33 %) were semi medium, 3 (8.33 %) were medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 103 (55.08%) men and 84 (44.92%) were women. The average population of landless was 4.2, marginal farmers were 4.9, small farmers were 5.5, semi medium farmers 6.7 and medium farmers were 5.7.  Majority of the respondents (41.71%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 57.75 per cent illiterates, 34.77 per cent pre university education and 4.81 per cent attained graduation.  About, 94.44 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 2.78 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 67.38 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 61.11 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 22.22 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 72.22 per cent possess TV, 11.11 per cent possess mixer grinder, 91.67 per cent possess mobile phones and 19.44 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 50.00 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.78 per cent possess tractor, 25.00 per cent possess bullock cart and 36.11 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 2.78 per cent possess local cow and 11.11 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.88, women available in the micro watershed was 1.38, hired labour (men) available was 15.13 and hired labour (women) available was 12.25.  Further, 2.78 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2  In the study area, about 3.21 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 2400.00 kms for about 6.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 70.53 per cent (36.83 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 29.47 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 5.00 live bore wells and 5.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 16.67 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Paddy and Green gram and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.11 per cent.  Out of the sample households 91.67 percent possessed bank account and 52.78 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 91.67 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 20.00 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 65.00 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Paddy and Green gram was Rs.30292.60, 56128.76, 44689.05, 54769.64 and 42769.64 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.30, 1: 1.30, 1: 1.10, 1: 1.30 and 1:1.90 respectively.  Further, 44.44 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.78 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 121635.56 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 67850.00 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 2 horticulture trees and 29 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1277.78 for land development and Rs. 6944.44 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 2.63 per cent depends on own funds.  Regarding marketing channels, 91.67 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 91.67 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (44.44%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 83.33 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 77.78 per cent of the households and 22.22 per cent households has LPG connection. 3  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 91.67 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 61.11 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (102.78%), pulses (97.22%) and oilseeds (30.56%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (72.22%) wild animal menace on farm field (77.78%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (86.11%), inadequacy of irrigation water (47.22%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (86.11%), high rate of interest on credit (86.11%), low price for the agricultural commodities (83.33%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (80.56%), inadequate extension services (58.33%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market(77.78%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

OBJECTIVE: To describe the prevalence of food insecurity in First Nations households across Canada while identifying barriers and enablers to traditional food (TF) consumption. METHODS: The First Nations Food, Nutrition and Environment Study is a cross-Canada participatory study of on-reserve First Nations from 2008 to 2018. The Household Food Security Survey Module was used to capture income-related challenges experienced by First Nations households. Households were classified as food secure, or marginally, moderately, or severely food insecure. Barriers and enablers to TF access and use were identified describing the Indigenous experience. RESULTS: Almost half of on-reserve First Nations households were food insecure and the prevalence was higher than that for non-Indigenous households in Canada. On-reserve food insecurity prevalence was higher in western regions of Canada. First Nations households with children experienced greater food insecurity than those without children. More adults experienced severe food insecurity than children. Most adults would like to have more TF in their diet but state that factors such as financial and household constraints, industrial activities, government regulations, climate change, and fear of contamination impede greater access. Food costs were substantially higher in remote First Nations communities, but remoteness was not associated with food security in multivariable analysis. CONCLUSION: Existing systems have been unsuccessful in curbing the food insecurity in First Nations households. Improving food security hinges on achieving Indigenous Food Sovereignty, the key to long-term conservation and stewardship of the land and the co-management of these by Indigenous Peoples. Studies investigating the feasibility of increasing TF from an Indigenous perspective are required.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kavalur East-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 370 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 96 per cent is covered by soils and 4 per cent is by water bodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 5 soil series and 8 soil phases (management units) and 3 Land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  Entire area has clayey soils at the surface.  About 47 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  Entire area is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  Entire area has moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) to very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction.  About 91 per cent of the soils are non saline (16 dsm-1) in electrical conductivity (EC).  Organic carbon is low (0.75%) in 10 per cent area.  Entire area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Entire area is high (>20 kg/ha) in available sulphur.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 94 per cent area.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area.  Available copper and manganese are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 28 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 17 (5) 327 (88) Pomegranate - 188 (51) Maize - - Guava - - Bajra - - Jackfruit - - Groundnut - - Jamun - 39 (11) Sunflower 17 (5) 171 (46) Musambi 40 (11) 149 (40) Cotton 17 (5) 326 (88) Lime 40 (11) 149 (40) Red gram - 39 (11) Cashew - - Bengalgram 17 (5) 326 (88) Custard apple 40 (11) 149 (40) Chilli - - Amla - 344 (93) Tomato - - Tamarind - 39 (11) Drumstick - 189 (50) Marigold - 344 (93) Mulberry - 188 (51) Chrysanthemum - 344 (93) Mango - - Jasmine - 156 (42) Sapota - - Crossandra - 156 (42) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 3 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Kavalur East-1 micro-watershed (Koppal taluk and district) is located in between 15016' – 15019' North latitudes and 75058' – 76001' East longitudes, covering an area of about 435.01 ha, bounded by Kavalura, Alavandi and Thalakalla villages with length of growing period (LGP) 60-90 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Kavalur East-1 micro-watershed (Koppal taluk and district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 54.0 to 46.0 per cent to the total sample population. Majority of male population in medium farmers (75.0%) and female population (25.0%) in semi- medium farmers.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 60.0 per cent to the total sample population. About 80.0 per cent of younger comes under marginal farmer of size group.  Literacy population is around 80.0 per cent of sample households. The highest in marginal farmers (100 %) of size groups.  Social groups belong to other backward caste is around 66.7 per cent. About 100 per cent of other backward caste in marginal farmers.  Firewood is the main source of energy for cooking among 55.6 per cent of sample farm households.  About 33.3 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  About 55.6 per cent of farm households are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system was about 66.7 per cent of households.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 77.8 per cent.  Around 10 per cent of households co-operated to in institutional participation among them majority of participating households are medium farmers. 2  Rural migration to urban centre for employment is prevalent among 66.7 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 22.2 per cent of sample households. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 2.0 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The dry land account for 92.7 % and fallow land is 7.3 % of total cultivated land of the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation is around 33.3 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation is around 48.1per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 7845 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 101783 per household, about 22.2 per cent of sample farmers are having sprayer.  The average value of livestock is around Rs. 35000 per household; about 100 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 1738 kilo calories against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 2250 kilo calories. Around 88.9 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 13314 per household: All sample farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.200. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 7580/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in wheat (Rs. 13159) followed by greengram (Rs. 8403), bengalgram (Rs.5254), maize (Rs. 1161) bajra (Rs. 1053) and sorghum and sunflower are negative return.  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 2632/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in sorghum (Rs.1378) and maize (Rs. 494).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in greengram (Rs.42645) followed by bengalgram (Rs. 37600), wheat (Rs. 34694), bajra (Rs. 22111), sorghum (Rs. 20076), sunflower (Rs.20630) and maize (Rs. 7244). 3 Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is greengram (40.9 %) followed by coriander (21.8 %) bengalgram (19.1 %), sunflower (13.4 %) and bajra (4.8 %).  Kavalur East-1 Micro-watershed, major soils are soil belagattii (BGT) series is having moderately deep soil depth cover around 3.15 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growingg sorghum. Ravanaki (RNK) soil series are having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 42.1 per cent of areas, crops are sorghum, Dambarahalli (DRL) series is have moderately deep soil depth cover around 40.11 % of area. crops are bajra (33.3%), bengalgram (20.0%), greengram (13.3%) and maize (33.3%) and BDR soil series are having very deep soil depth cover around of area, crop are bengalgram (39.9%), sorghum (27.9%), sunflower (15.5% ) and wheat (16.7%)  The data on cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for sorghum range between Rs. 21084/ha in BDR soil (with BCR of 0.90) and Rs. 7612/ha in BGT soil (with BCR of 1.54).  In bengalgram the cost of cultivation is Rs.18853/ha in DRL soil (with BCR of 1.10) and Rs.10383/ha in BDR soil (with BCR of 1.78).  In sunflower the cost of cultivation is Rs.23740/ha in BDR soil (with BCR of 0.90) bajra cultivation is Rs 8827/ha in DRL soil (with BCR of 1.12).  In wheat the cost of cultivation in Rs 15297/ha in BDR soil (with BCR of 1.86).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications on deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in bajra (25.3 %), bengal gram 4 (23.6 %), coriander (89.3 %), green gram (65.1 %), sorghum (62.7 to 36.6 %) and sunflower (46.7 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kavalur East-4 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 461 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 99 per cent is covered by soils and one per cent is by water bodies. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 5 soil series and 6 soil phases (management units) and 2 Land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  Entire area has clayey soils at the surface.  About 76 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 58 per cent area has nearly level (0-1%) lands and 42 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  About 58 per cent area is slight eroded (e1) and 42 per cent area is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  Entire area has strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) to very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction.  Entire area is non saline (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  About 45 per cent area is low (20 ppm) in available sulphur.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 3 per cent area.  Available iron is deficient (4.5 ppm) in 51 per cent area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 11 per cent area.  Available copper and manganese are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 28 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 352 (76) 108 (23) Pomegranate - 360 (78) Maize - - Guava - - Bajra - - Jackfruit - - Groundnut - - Jamun - 359 (78) Sunflower 352 (76) 8 (2) Musambi 352 (76) 8 (2) Cotton 359 (78) 100 (22) Lime 352 (76) 8 (2) Red gram 359 (78) Cashew - - Bengalgram 359 (78) 100 (22) Custard apple 359 (78) 100 (22) Chilli - - Amla - 459 (99) Tomato - - Tamarind - 360 (62) Drumstick - 360 (78) Marigold - 459 (99) Mulberry 101 (22) Chrysanthemum - 459 (99) Mango - - Jasmine - 100 (22) Sapota - - Crossandra 336 (73) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 2 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which inturn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Kavalur East-4 micro-watershed (Koppal taluk and district) is located in between 15016' – 15019' North latitudes and 75058' – 76001' East longitudes, covering an area of about 435.01 ha, bounded by Kavalura, Alavandi and Thalakalla villages with length of growing period (LGP) 60-90 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Kavalur East-4 micro-watershed (Koppal taluk and district) are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 48.5 to 51.5 per cent to the total sample population. Majority of male population in large farmers (75.0 %) and female population (61.5%) in medium farmers.  Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 66.7 per cent to the total sample population. About 100 per cent of younger comes under small farmer of size group.  Literacy population is around 90.9 per cent of sample households. The highest in semi medium farmers (92.3%) of size groups.  Social groups belong to other backward caste is around 12.5 per cent. Around 50.0 per cent of other backward caste in semi medium farmers.  Firewood is the main source of energy for cooking about 62.5per cent of sample farm households.  About 25.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  About 50 per cent of farm households are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system was among 62.5 per cent of households.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 50 per cent.  Around 12.1 per cent of households co-operated to in institutional participation among them majority of participating households are medium farmers. 2  Rural migration to urban centre for employment is prevalent among 25.0 per cent of sample households.  Women participation in decisions making are around 75.0 per cent of sample households. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 6.8 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to medium and small farmers. The dry land account for 48.7 % and fallow land is 51.3 % of total cultivated land of the sample farmers.  Agriculture is the main occupation is around 22.4 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation is around 53.1 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 59290 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 53578 per household; about 37.5 per cent of sample farmers are having weeder.  The average per capita food consumption is around 1951.2 kilo calories against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 2250 kilo calories. Around 100 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs. 39196 per household: All sample farm households are below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.1233. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 4843/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in sunflower (Rs. 10808) followed by bengalgram (Rs. 8566), sorghum (Rs. 3504), greengram (Rs. 1922) and maize is negative return.  The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 1387/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in maize (Rs.1976) and sorghum (Rs. 798).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in bengalgram (Rs.36558) followed by sunflower (Rs. 31203), sorghum (Rs.19501), greengram (Rs. 16300) and maize (Rs. 15092). 3 Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is bengal gram (44 %) followed by greengram (26.3 %) sorghum (20.7 %), sunflower (4.9 %) and maize (4.0 %).  Kavalur East-4 Micro-watershed, major soils are soil Ravanaki (RNK) series is having shallow soil depth cover around 21.64 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing bengalgram. Bardur (BDR) soil series are having verydeep soil depth cover around 56.09 per cent of areas, crops are bengalgram, sorghum, sunflower, maize and green gram.  The data on cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for bengal gram range between Rs. 15018/ha in BDR soil (with BCR of 1.47) and Rs. 12792/ha in RNK soil (with BCR of 1.29).  In green gram the cost of cultivation is Rs.9171/ha in BDR soil (with BCR of 1.22).  In maize the cost of cultivation is Rs 14169/ha in BDR soil (with BCR of 1.10).  In sunflower the cost of cultivation is Rs.17002 /ha in BDR soil (with BCR of 1.65) and sorghum cultivation is Rs 10678/ha in BDR soil (with BCR of 1.47).  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in bengal gram (41 to 63 %), green gram (61.8 %), maize (78.3 %), sorghum (66.4 %) and sunflower (13.5 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Sambar-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 663 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 640 ha (96%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils and about 23 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 12 soil series and 17 soil phases (management units) and 7 land use class.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 95 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm) and 3 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm).  About 30 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils, 36 per cent clayey soils and 31 per cent are sandy soils at the surface.  About 96 per cent area of the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 94 per cent area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 2 per cent area are nearly level (0-1%).  An area of about 94 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded, 0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 24 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorous.  About 3 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 12 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 6 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available iron is deficient (4.5 ppm) in an area of 95 per cent.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (150 cm) and 3 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm).  About 30 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils, 36 per cent clayey soils and 31 per cent are sandy soils at the surface.  About 96 per cent area of the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 94 per cent area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 2 per cent area are nearly level (0-1%).  An area of about 94 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded, 0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 24 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorous.  About 3 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 12 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 6 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available iron is deficient (4.5 ppm) in an area of 95 per cent.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (150 cm) and 3 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm).  About 30 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils, 36 per cent clayey soils and 31 per cent are sandy soils at the surface.  About 96 per cent area of the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 94 per cent area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 2 per cent area are nearly level (0-1%).  An area of about 94 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded, 0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 24 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorous.  About 3 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 12 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 6 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available iron is deficient (4.5 ppm) in an area of 95 per cent.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0 and <2.  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers in watershed planning helps in strengthening institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthening agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in cotton (19 to 66.3 %), maize (62 %), paddy (54.2 to 56 %), and red gram (27.3 to 47.6 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

This paper characterizes the trade-off between the income gains and the inequality costs of trade using survey data for 54 developing countries. Tariff data on agricultural and manufacturing goods are combined with household survey data on detailed income and expenditure patterns to estimate the first order effects of the elimination of tariffs on household welfare. We assess how these welfare effects vary across the distribution by estimating impacts on the consumption of traded goods, wage income, farm and non-farm family enterprise income, and government transfers. For each country, the income gains and the inequality costs of trade liberalization are quantified and the trade-offs between them are assessed using an Atkinson social welfare index. We find average income gains from liberalization in 44 countries and average income losses in 10 countries. Across countries in our sample, the gains from trade are 1.8 percent of real household expenditure on average. We find overwhelming evidence of a trade-off between the income gains (losses) and the inequality costs (gains), which arise because trade tends to exacerbate income inequality: 46 countries face a trade-off, while only 8 do not. These trade-offs are typically resolved in favor of lower tariffs. In the majority of developing countries, the prevailing tariff structure thus induces sizeable welfare losses.

Unemployment is a global concern; therefore many developing countries focus on entrepreneurship development and small business promotion as a possible solution. Entrepreneurs are regarded as drivers of the economy as they not only provide income for themselves but also create job opportunities for other people. The South African Government focuses on job creation as a priority, involving many strategies and policies. However, many marginalised and impoverished people still do not benefit from these policies. The central purpose of this article is to analyse poor people's perceptions of the role of government in creating jobs and assistance in providing entrepreneurial skills training and support. A socio-economic household survey, consisting of approximately 3200 households, was conducted within various areas in the Metsimaholo, Moqhaka, Ngwathe and Mafube Local Municipalities, all located in the rural Northern Free State region in South Africa. Results of the survey show that 68.3% of participants feel that government is not doing enough to create jobs while a total of 49.1% indicated that government could assist in job creation by providing entrepreneurial skills training. A total of 56.2% indicated that they would like to open a small business. Improved government support and initiatives could lead to many poor households generating their own income through entrepreneurial activities. ; http://ifrnd.org/ResearchPapers.aspx?VolumeID=234 ; http://ifrnd.org/journal/index.php/jebs/article/view/613

Unemployment is a global concern; therefore many developing countries focus on entrepreneurship development and small business promotion as a possible solution. Entrepreneurs are regarded as drivers of the economy as they not only provide income for themselves but also create job opportunities for other people. The South African Government focuses on job creation as a priority, involving many strategies and policies. However, many marginalised and impoverished people still do not benefit from these policies. The central purpose of this article is to analyse poor people's perceptions of the role of government in creating jobs and assistance in providing entrepreneurial skills training and support. A socio-economic household survey, consisting of approximately 3200 households, was conducted within various areas in the Metsimaholo, Moqhaka, Ngwathe and Mafube Local Municipalities, all located in the rural Northern Free State region in South Africa. Results of the survey show that 68.3% of participants feel that government is not doing enough to create jobs while a total of 49.1% indicated that government could assist in job creation by providing entrepreneurial skills training. A total of 56.2% indicated that they would like to open a small business. Improved government support and initiatives could lead to many poor households generating their own income through entrepreneurial activities. ; http://ifrnd.org/ResearchPapers.aspx?VolumeID=234 ; http://ifrnd.org/journal/index.php/jebs/article/view/613