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We develop an integrative conceptual framework that seeks to explain individual differences in digital skills. Building on practice engagement theory, this framework views the continued usage of digital technologies at work and in everyday life (ICT use) as the key prerequisite for the acquisition of digital skills. At the same time, the framework highlights that ICT use is itself contingent upon individual and contextual preconditions, most notably literacy skills. We apply this framework to data from two recent German large-scale studies (total N 5,281) that offer objective measures of adults' digital skills. Findings support our framework's view of ICT use as a key prerequisite for digital skills. Moreover, they demonstrate that literacy skills have strong associations with digital skills, largely by virtue of their indirect associations through ICT use. By comparison, regional digital cultures evince only limited explanatory power for individual differences in digital skills.

Arguing that social capital is embedded in social context, explored are specific societal interaction settings to shed light on social capital generation & social capital's interrelatedness with political & social institutions. Focus is on two very distinct localities in the Netherlands, & Robert Putnam's approach to social capital underpins the analysis of a wide range of indicators. Drawing on 1996/97 survey data from 273 respondents in neighborhoods of Asten & Dordrecht & other sources of information, local patterns & levels of social capital, the impact of individual differences on local social capital, & the contextual & cultural correlates of differences in local social capital are examined. Findings reveal the existence of generalized social capital among the better off & a degree of network capital among the less well off who depend on their neighborhood. 2 Tables, 16 References. J. Zendejas

Investigates the relation of organizational characteristics to levels of employees' earnings, drawing on data from the 1991 National Organizations Study. It is generally found that the larger the organization, the higher the level of earnings across establishments. Further, earnings are higher in organizations that are more differentiated & formalized. The presence of internal labor markets is most strongly associated with higher earnings. In terms of gender differences, the long-standing conclusion that women earn appreciably less than men is supported. Separation of organizational & individual effects on earnings proved impossible, because the research design employed data from only one respondent in most organizations. It is suggested that a more comprehensive explanation of the relation between organization size & earnings level will have to take into account the possibility that size affects the dispersion of earnings as well as their average levels. 2 Tables, 1 Appendix. D. M. Smith

Examines the nature, challenges, & implications of the new cultural politics of difference (CPD). The distinctive characteristics of CPD are (1) a rejection of homogeneity in favor of diversity, multiplicity, & heterogeneity; (2) the privileging of the concrete, specific, & particular; & (3) emphasis on the context, flexibility, & provisional nature of knowledge. It is argued that CPD represents a creative response to the precise circumstances of the present historical moment in which various groups & individuals seek transformation & deconstruction of marginalizing discourses, institutions, & practices. However, many proponents of CPD face a continual struggle between their dual commitments to deconstruction of institutional borders & their own roles as academics or administrators within these institutions. These cultural critics must also confront an intellectual challenge: the synthesis of academic knowledge & action with the world of history, culture, & society. Advocates of CPD must attempt to forge alliances & solidarity while simultaneously asserting the importance of difference, personal autonomy & agency, & individual freedom. 1 Figure. T. Sevier

Scottish devolution stands as an example for change within the UK constitution & its politics. As a model of democracy, the Scottish Parliament has committed itself to exploring new methods of consultation, participation, & consensus building; the idea of plural & multilayered democracy in Europe; & developing a stronger relationship between citizens & government. It is working to achieve gender balance in the Parliament, allowing petitions by individual citizens, & increasing communication & education through technology. Still, it is subject to the negative feelings left over from 20th-century prejudice against politicians & their activities & the influence of the media in the hands of owners & editors committed to neoliberal & economistic views. Scottish voters also express some disillusionment & disappointment, not as a lack of support for its existence, but in the desire for greater change. The devolution process must boldly reach its goals or face the discredit that most other elected governments in this post-political age have experienced. L. A. Hoffman

Argues that the Russian route to & through modernity produced a "dissimulating" form of individualism. The argument points to a civilization explanation of the various routes to modernity, & to the importance of the difference between Western & Eastern Christendom as civilizations. It is posited that the twin triumphs of modernity & capitalism were also the triumphs of a Western civilization based on a confessional sort of individualism in the self-identical subject. Eastern individualism was delayed, & the route to modernity was grounded in a dualism, a modernizing state & a dissimulating collectivism of the traditional peasantry. Industrialization & migration to the cities allowed for the eventual emergence of an intimate sphere in which beliefs & intentions could be separated from actions. This was encouraged by the communist state through its totalitarian surveillance policies. The communist regime attempted to overcome the old dual Russia through its own construction & attempted control of private space. The result, however, was a new dualism, now of state & dissimulating individual. 27 References. V. Rios

The influence of both external & internal factors on the development of individual political consciousness & identity is explored among activists in a left-wing (Students for a Democratic Society [SDS]) & a right-wing (Young Americans for Freedom [YAF]) political movement during the 1960s. Data are drawn from a larger study by the author (1999) that has followed members of these movements through their adult lives. Karl Mannheim's (1952) theory of generations is drawn on to explain how two key external factors -- historical location & social background -- created these two widely divergent political movements among young people during this era. Two key internal factors affecting the political consciousness & identity formation of individual activists are identified -- peer relations & organizational size. It is argued that these external & internal factors were not discrete, but interacted to help frame political issues & shape movement development & commitment. K. Hyatt Stewart

The influence of both external & internal factors on the development of individual political consciousness & identity is explored among activists in a left-wing (Students for a Democratic Society [SDS]) & a right-wing (Young Americans for Freedom [YAF]) political movement during the 1960s. Data are drawn from a larger study by the author (1999) that has followed members of these movements through their adult lives. Karl Mannheim's (1952) theory of generations is drawn on to explain how two key external factors -- historical location & social background -- created these two widely divergent political movements among young people during this era. Two key internal factors affecting the political consciousness & identity formation of individual activists are identified -- peer relations & organizational size. It is argued that these external & internal factors were not discrete, but interacted to help frame political issues & shape movement development & commitment. K. Hyatt Stewart

Investigates the impacts on unemployment of state interventions in the labor market via taxes & transfer payments, highlighting impacts on work incentives/income maintenance. The European tax benefit model, EUROMOD, is used to analyze distributions of replacement rates -- the degree to which an individual/household standard of living while employed is maintained during unemployment -- in 4 countries -- Denmark, France, Spain, & the UK -- with different welfare state systems. Factors that influence replacement rates are considered, comparing different demographic groups & income sources. 6 Tables, 1 Figure. K. Hyatt Stewart

Assesses Jurgen Habermas's & John Rawls's utopian but realistic conceptions of international justice. They agree that national sovereignty must be limited by respect for universal rights & peoples must be permitted to interpret those rights in accordance with their own political traditions. Important differences between Rawls's political liberalism & Habermas's cosmopolitan liberalism are pointed out. There is agreement with Habermas that peace & justice require the development of an international democratic federation of liberal democracies & political groups. However, it is argued that neither Habermas nor Rawls presents an adequate account of the equal importance of economic, social, & cultural rights. The rights of minorities & immigrants are examined to contend that a liberal democracy must recognize the rights of groups as well as the rights of individuals. Other suggestions for ways to achieve the proper balance between civil/political rights & cultural, economic, & social rights are offered, including restructuring the UN; "opening up" global banking/trading institutions; & gaining multilateral cooperation between the most powerful nations.

Examines the philosophical arguments made in Karl Marx's dissertation, a work dedicated to moving beyond Hegelian philosophy by determining the conditions in which an abstract generality becomes a concrete objectivity. This subject is pursued in the context of a demonstration that a basic philosophical difference exists between the philosophies of Democritus & Epicurus, in that Epicurus distinguishes between the atom as principle & structural element, while Democritus remains aware only of the latter. While Marx ultimately failed to find an answer to his general question, it is suggested that the exercise produced an invaluable, basic Marxist insight: the epistemological foundations of science cannot be established on the basis of a form of individual reductionism; rather, science can be constructed only on the basis of a notion of the collective individual. 15 References. D. Ryfe

This chapter explores how youth unemployment, discontinuous employment, and working in low-quality jobs affect individuals' subsequent occupational conditions. Using cross-sectional and longitudinal EU-SILC data (2005–2012) for five countries, the chapter distinguishes between different types of good and bad jobs, examining the effect of family background on successful transitions. Findings show that young people from families of higher social class have better chances of making transitions into good-quality jobs than do youth from lower class families. Securing a good entry job is crucial to achieving a successful outcome, whereas experiencing either brief periods of unemployment or employment continuity has limited effects. These mechanisms are evident across all countries considered. The findings reinforce established knowledge on patterns of stratification, evidencing a direct channel of social transmission of inequalities through education and an indirect channel through better labor market entries.

Variations in forms & levels of participation in social movements are examined in terms of identity theory & commitment as functions of both individual differences & differences in social structure, location, & interaction. The concept of identity in social psychology is reviewed, noting its cultural & collective dimensions & the ways that it employs self-categorization in collapsing "group" & "social category." Ways that identity theory can explain social movement recruitment; the impact of identities related to friends, family, or other social networks on individual decisions to participate -- or not -- in social movements; commitment to a movement; & the salience of the collective identity gained through social movement participation are analyzed. 39 References. K. Hyatt Stewart

This chapter examines the extent to which people in the second half of life felt threatened by the COVID-19 pandemic, whether there were differences between middle-aged and older individuals, and the role of self-rated health. This chapter also addresses how people perceived their influence on contracting COVID-19.