Suchergebnisse

This book investigates electoral procedures and their effects on individual participation in different elections within multi–level political systems. My basic research expectation is that electoral differences – i.e. differences in electoral procedures, for example between the 2009 European Parliament (EP) election and the previous national parliamentary elections in the member states of the European Union (EU) – reduce the individual understanding and thus participation in the EP election. As I show, the individual voter knows less about the EU than about her domestic politics, due to the EU's lower political salience. Instead, the multi–level structure of the EU and its member states enables the individual to resort to political knowledge acquired on the domestic level, using it as a proxy for knowledge of the EU. That is, the individual employs a domestic perspective on the EU. But electoral differences cause this domestic perspective to fail, due to inappropriate reliance on other political knowledge. As a consequence, individual political knowledge about the EU is lower, reducing the individual understanding of the EU and the EP election. On the one hand, this lower understanding implies that political knowledge is more relevant in the context of electoral differences. It increases the individual's awareness of electoral differences, enabling her to overcome the consequences of such differences for the EU and the EP election. On the other hand, electoral differences also mean that greater political knowledge has a demobilizing effect. If the consequences of the differences are not in line with the individual's political preferences, they discourage her from casting a ballot for the EP. In short, electoral differences matter, diminishing the individual understanding of the EU and reducing individual participation in the EP election.

"Die Organisation kollektiver Aktionen kann mit Hilfe von Computersimulationen optimiert werden. Zu diesem Zweck wird in der vorliegenden Arbeit ein akteurzentrierter Ansatz verfolgt, in dessen Rahmen die individuelle Teilnahmeentscheidung eines Akteurs auf der Basis einer Erweiterung der Theorie des geplanten Verhaltens modelliert wird. In das Modell der individuellen Teilnahmeentscheidung gehen die Variablen Einstellung, Ertrag, subjektive soziale Norm und die wahrgenommene Handlungskontrolle bezüglich der Teilnahme ein. Durch den Einbezug dieser vier Variablen werden verschiedene sozialwissenschaftliche Theorien (Elaboration Likelihood Model; Theorie des geplanten Verhaltens; Rational Choice Theorie) integriert. Diese Theorien ermöglichen die Konzeption von Interaktionen zwischen den Individuen, wodurch der Effekt von Personen, die andere Personen für die Teilnahme an einer kollektiven Aktion anwerben, untersucht werden kann. Aus Simulationen einer Population mit 10.000 unterschiedlichen Individuen wird ermittelt, welchen Einfluss die Anwerbeform der motivierenden Personen, die Höhe der Beiträge der Teilnehmer zum Kollektivgut, die Grösse des Kollektivguts und die Ausstattung der Aktivatoren (Überzeugungstraining oder Möglichkeit zu belohnen) auf die Effektivität kollektiver Aktionen hat. Die Simulationsergebnisse werden schliesslich zu umsetzbaren Empfehlungen für die Organisation kollektiver Aktionen zusammengefasst." (Autorenreferat)

Kurumsallaşmamış ekonomilerde genellikle denetim takdirlerinde sonuç farklılıklarının esastan farklılığı, denetimsel yargı çatışmalarını beraberinde getirdiği bir gerçekliktir. O halde bu tür ekonomi ve bunun kurumlarında denetim bir esasın maddi gerekçesi midir? Yoksa standartlara uygunluğun maddi beyanımıdır? Muhasebe uygulamaları uygunluk gerekçesi ile farklılaştırılmasına karşın, uygunluk kendi başına bir gerekçe olmayıp, gerekçeden yoksun öznel sonucun ifadesidir. Denetim takdirlerinde de uygunluğun uygunluğu, doğruluğu ifade etmeyip doğruluğun asgari ölçüsüdür. Bunun yanında bütünlüğün doğruluğu ile eşdeğer de değildir. Uygunluğun uygunluğu ile doğruluğun bütünlüğü arasındaki fark, gerçekte beklenti boşluğu olarak ifade edilen doğruluk boşluğudur. Bu anlamda yönetim beyanlarının muhasebe standartlarına uygunluğu beyanı üzerinden, denetçinin yönetim beyanlarının doğruluğunun doğruluğu beyanı bir mecazdır. Bu çalışmada nesnel muhasebe kavram, ilke ve standartlarının genel kabul görmesine karşın, subjektif kişimsel uygunluk gerekçeleriyle farklılaştırmaların teorik gerekçesi aranmıştır. Buna göre denetim takdirlerinde kişimsel denetimin nedeni, hukuk sistemlerinin etkin olmaması ile yapılan işlemlerin doğruluk üzerinden yapılmayıp, uygunluk üzerinden yapılmasıdır. Çünkü hukuk sistemi gelişmemiş ülkelerde doğruluğun azami ölçüsü yasaya uygunluk olup, buna paralel olarak denetimin takdirlerinde ise doğruluğun azami ölçüsü standartlara uygunluk kabul edilebilmektedir. Oysa doğruluk olmadan standartlara ve/veya yasaya uygunluk, doğruluğun asgari ölçüsü olup, tamlık azami ölçüdür. ; İt is fact that audit differences conflict among institutions and Countries. İs core of audit substance over form or form over substance? Not suitable for living a full life likethe same things, with appropriate controls are not equivalent in audit. if All countries were a single country on earth, in a world where the current eligibility criteria, relating to the same place and time accounting / auditing practices would also differ from each other. Although different conformity with accounting practices that reason, "compliance" is not a reason in itself, is a statement of the grounds of lack of results. Appreciate the convenience of the compliance audit, the minimum degree of accuracy is not stated accuracy. Besides, the accuracy of this cohesion is not the equivalent. Compliance with the correctness of the integrity of the compliance difference between the actual accuracy of the expectations gap is expressed as a space. In this sense, compliance with accounting standards, statements of management's declaration on the management of the accuracy of the correct statement is a metaphor. Objective of this study, although accounting concepts, principles and standards generally accepted, for reasons different updates subjective cultural appropriateness of the theoretical justifications were sought. Accordingly, the reason for the low quality of supervision discretion, the absence of effective legal systems, to not make transactions over the accuracy, compliance is made over. Because the legal system in underdeveloped countries, accuracy and legality of the maximum size of the control of the accuracy of recognition is the maximum size eligibility standards. Yet, Standards and / or legality is not the maximum size of accurate. Unlike measure is the minimum of accuracy

"Durch diese Arbeit soll die Hypothese, dass voreheliches Zusammenleben keinen Einfluß auf das spätere Scheidungs- bzw. Trennungsrisiko mit dem Partner des vorehelichen Zusammenlebens hat, getestet werden. Zwei theoretisch relevante Annahmen führen zu dieser Hypothese. Die erste akzentuiert die haushaltsökonomisch begründbare funktionale Äquivalenz beider Beziehungsformen. Die zweite, aus dieser Grundannahme ableitbare Überlegung bezieht sich auf die Operationalisierung relevanter Variablen, von der behauptet wird, dass diese in einer neuen Form für Ehen mit vorheriger nichtehelicher Lebensgemeinschaft geschehen muss, um den theoretisch intendierten Informationsgehalt zu erhalten. Der Vergleich zweier ereignisanalytischer Modelle, von denen eines diese entsprechend operationalisierten Variablen berücksichtigt, zeigt, dass das Eingehen einer nichtehelichen Lebensgemeinschaft ohne Einfluss auf die Ehestabilität ist, wenn theoretische Überlegungen in einer methodisch korrekten Form umgesetzt werden." (Autorenreferat)

Ein Verständnis von Demokratie als "stets im Kommen oder im Werden" schließt fort- und immerwährende Verhandlungsprozesse mit ein. Das Ausbleiben von Konflikten oder die Versuche des Einebnens und Nivellierens von Widersprüchen oder gar deren Negation sind dann Indizien der Gefährdung von Demokratisierung und gesamtgesellschaftlicher Entwicklungsmöglichkeiten. Der vorliegende Beitrag betont die Bedeutung von Widerständigkeit für Demokratisierung. Der vorgestellte Ansatz der Reflexion auf Unterscheidungen - un/doing difference - verabschiedet die stillschweigende Vorstellung, dass es vorab feststehende und gegebene Individuen oder Gruppen mit bestimmten Eigenschaften gibt, an die unterschiedliche Angebote und Interventionen gerichtet werden können. Es ist eine differenzsensible Herangehensweise, die latente Unterschiede aufgreift und ihnen im Handeln - im Sinne von Ungleichheiten - Bedeutung verleiht. Den Abschluss des Beitrages bilden vier Strategien im Kontext politischer Bildungsarbeit, um Pluralität und Kontingenz sichtbar zu machen: Pluralisierung und Konkurrenz ermöglichen; Löschung durch Nichtbeachten; ironische Entlarvung von Selbstverständlichkeitsannahmen; eingeführte Kategorien stehen lassen und zugleich Alternativen fördern. (DIPF/Orig.) ; An understanding of democracy as "always coming or becoming" involves constant and perpetual negotiation processes. The absence of conflicts or the attempts to smooth out and level contradictions or even negate them are indicators of the threat to democratization and to opportunities for the development of society as a whole. This article stresses the significance of resistance for democratization. This approach to reflection on difference – un/doing difference – dismisses the implicit idea that there are established and preexisting individuals or groups with specific characteristics to whom the different course offerings and interventions can be directed. It is an approach that is sensitive to difference, one that takes up latent differences and gives them meaning through action in the sense of disparities. The article concludes by identifying four strategies for political education work that make plurality and contingency visible: allowing pluralization and competition; disregarding difference; ironic exposing of assumed matters of course; abandoning established categories and at the same time promoting alternatives. (DIPF/Orig.)

"Selbsttötung ist eine höchst individuelle und extreme Handlung und in psychopathologischer Sichtweise Symptom einer Krankheit. Danach sind psychische Störungen und Suchtkrankheiten die wesentlichen Einflussgrößen auf die gegen die eigene Person gerichtete Aggression, die sich in Suizidalität niederschlägt. In soziologischer Sichtweise ist Suizidalität Ausdruck eines Ungleichgewichts zwischen den Bedürfnissen einer Person und den normativen Vorgaben einer kollektiven Ordnung, die die individuellen Möglichkeiten zur Bedürfnisbefriedigung massiv einschränkt (Durkheim). Dies kann der Fall sein in gesellschaftlichen oder individuellen Krisensituationen, wenn die Möglichkeiten der Bedürfnisbefriedigung sinken. Von daher wird der Anstieg der Suizidalität im höheren Lebensalter zumeist mit der Zunahme von kritischen Lebensereignissen und Einschränkungen in der gesellschaftlichen Teilhabe begründet. Übersehen wird dabei jedoch, dass die Ressourcen zum Umgang mit der erhöhten Vulnerabilität in dieser Lebensphase ungleich verteilt sind. Von daher erscheint es fraglich, ob 'Lebensmüdigkeit' im höheren Lebensalter tatsächlich vor allem durch Alter oder Krankheit beeinflusst ist. Es ist vielmehr davon auszugehen, dass es sich um einen multikausal und mehrdimensional bedingten Zustand handelt. Anhand der Leistungsdaten der Gmünder Ersatzkasse (GEK) lässt sich die Frage beantworten, welche Bedingungen Suizidalität im höheren Lebensalter beeinflussen. Grundlage der Analysen bilden die individuellen und im Längsschnitt verknüpften Angaben der GEK-Versicherten. Berücksichtigt werden über 60-jährige Versicherte mit einer nach ICD-10 diagnostizierten Suizidalität in den Jahren 2001 und 2005. Die GEK war ursprünglich eine süddeutsche Arbeiter-Ersatzkasse. Von daher sind auch heute noch unter den versicherten Älteren Männer und frühere Metallarbeiter überrepräsentiert. Die Suizidalität wird daher für Männer und Frauen getrennt untersucht und nach Familienstand sowie früherer Erwerbstätigkeit differenziert betrachtet. Darüber hinaus wird das Krankheitsgeschehen der letzten 24 Monate vor der Diagnose von Suizidalität mit einbezogen." (Autorenreferat)

Individual Character Assessment in Design Law The aim of this master's thesis is to reveal the challenges of assessing design's individual character in practice. The requirement of individual character in today's design law is understood as the requirement for a design to be distinguishable at a certain level so that from an informed user's perspective the overall impression that the design creates would be different from the prior art. The first part of this work summarizes on disclosing the conceptual notions of design law that are relevant to this topic as well as the existing legal regulation of design law. The main focus of this part is to reveal the basic aspects of the two main requirements for design's legal protection – novelty and the individual character. The second part of this work is devoted to answering the main question of this study – how are the individual character of a design assessed in practice. Whereas the practice of the national courts of the Republic of Lithuania on this topic is poor, assessment of the design's individual character is analyzed according to the case law of the judicial authorities of the European Union. Some aspects are as well discussed according to the case law of the United Kingdom. The problematic aspects of the assessment of design's individual character are revealed from the perspective of the overall impression possessed on the informed user, issues that can arise while evaluating the freedom of the designer and also according to nature of the product. Attention is as well drawn on a new and not yet studied aspect in the doctrine – the problem of protecting a new generation of a design, with respect to two relevant judgements of the General Court of the European Union that gave different answers to this question. The last part of this study is for considering the relation between copyright law and design law. The basic differences of each of these intellectual property rights are discussed, as well as the principle of double protection opportunity. Also the requirement of originality for a work of art in the copyright law is compared with the requirement of the design's individual character. In addition, the newest approach of the European Court of Justice, considering the level of originality for a design to qualify for copyright protection, is presented and evaluated.

Individual Character Assessment in Design Law The aim of this master's thesis is to reveal the challenges of assessing design's individual character in practice. The requirement of individual character in today's design law is understood as the requirement for a design to be distinguishable at a certain level so that from an informed user's perspective the overall impression that the design creates would be different from the prior art. The first part of this work summarizes on disclosing the conceptual notions of design law that are relevant to this topic as well as the existing legal regulation of design law. The main focus of this part is to reveal the basic aspects of the two main requirements for design's legal protection – novelty and the individual character. The second part of this work is devoted to answering the main question of this study – how are the individual character of a design assessed in practice. Whereas the practice of the national courts of the Republic of Lithuania on this topic is poor, assessment of the design's individual character is analyzed according to the case law of the judicial authorities of the European Union. Some aspects are as well discussed according to the case law of the United Kingdom. The problematic aspects of the assessment of design's individual character are revealed from the perspective of the overall impression possessed on the informed user, issues that can arise while evaluating the freedom of the designer and also according to nature of the product. Attention is as well drawn on a new and not yet studied aspect in the doctrine – the problem of protecting a new generation of a design, with respect to two relevant judgements of the General Court of the European Union that gave different answers to this question. The last part of this study is for considering the relation between copyright law and design law. The basic differences of each of these intellectual property rights are discussed, as well as the principle of double protection opportunity. Also the requirement of originality for a work of art in the copyright law is compared with the requirement of the design's individual character. In addition, the newest approach of the European Court of Justice, considering the level of originality for a design to qualify for copyright protection, is presented and evaluated.

Individual Character Assessment in Design Law The aim of this master's thesis is to reveal the challenges of assessing design's individual character in practice. The requirement of individual character in today's design law is understood as the requirement for a design to be distinguishable at a certain level so that from an informed user's perspective the overall impression that the design creates would be different from the prior art. The first part of this work summarizes on disclosing the conceptual notions of design law that are relevant to this topic as well as the existing legal regulation of design law. The main focus of this part is to reveal the basic aspects of the two main requirements for design's legal protection – novelty and the individual character. The second part of this work is devoted to answering the main question of this study – how are the individual character of a design assessed in practice. Whereas the practice of the national courts of the Republic of Lithuania on this topic is poor, assessment of the design's individual character is analyzed according to the case law of the judicial authorities of the European Union. Some aspects are as well discussed according to the case law of the United Kingdom. The problematic aspects of the assessment of design's individual character are revealed from the perspective of the overall impression possessed on the informed user, issues that can arise while evaluating the freedom of the designer and also according to nature of the product. Attention is as well drawn on a new and not yet studied aspect in the doctrine – the problem of protecting a new generation of a design, with respect to two relevant judgements of the General Court of the European Union that gave different answers to this question. The last part of this study is for considering the relation between copyright law and design law. The basic differences of each of these intellectual property rights are discussed, as well as the principle of double protection opportunity. Also the requirement of originality for a work of art in the copyright law is compared with the requirement of the design's individual character. In addition, the newest approach of the European Court of Justice, considering the level of originality for a design to qualify for copyright protection, is presented and evaluated.