Suchergebnisse

Aus der Einleitung: 4.500 Mitarbeiter, zehn Länder, drei Kontinente und fünf Zeitzonen: Das ist die Bilanz der Produktion der elektrischen Zahnbürste "Sonicare Elite 7000" der Firma Philips aus den Niederlanden (vgl. Abb. 1). Bis zu der Verpackung in Seattle haben die Komponenten zwei Drittel des Erdumfangs zurückgelegt. Die "Weltbürste" ist nur eines von zahllosen Beispielen, welches auf die weltumspannenden Produktionsnetze hinweist. Die Ausweitung der internationalen Arbeitsteilung ist der Motor der Weltwirtschaft, die sich laut Weltbank in der "revolutionären Phase" der Globalisierung befindet. Unter Globalisierung versteht man gemeinhin die Zunahme weltweiter Verflechtungen infolge der Ausbreitung und Vertiefung ökonomischer, ökologischer, politischer und kultureller Prozesse. Aus ökonomischer Perspektive steht die Ausbildung weltweiter Märkte im Mittelpunkt, "auf denen Waren und Dienstleistungen gehandelt, Investitionen getätigt, Technologien übertragen und Informationen ausgetauscht werden". Mit zunehmender Interdependenz der Weltwirtschaft hängt das ökonomische und soziale Wohl der Nationen, Regionen und Städte von komplexen Interaktionen auf globaler Ebene ab. Mit anderen Worten, "what happens in any given country or locality is broadly determinedby its role in systems of production, trade and consumption which have become global in scope". Jeder Ort, jede Region oder Nation übernimmt somit innerhalb des von Konkurrenz geprägten Weltsystems eine spezifische Rolle. Der gegenwärtige Strukturwandel im Zeichen der Globalisierung fordert die "Rollenverteilung" des "modernen Weltsystems", dessen Ursprung unter anderem im Europa des 15. Jahrhunderts zu suchen ist, heraus. Vor diesem Hintergrund ist der "ökonomische Auf- bzw. Abstieg von Ländern und Regionen" zu sehen, das heißt es gibt Gewinner und Verlierer des Strukturwandels. Dubai bietet die moderne Version von Tausendundeiner Nacht: es sind vor allem Projekte der Superlative, wie zum Beispiel das einzige Sieben-Sterne Hotel der Welt und aufgeschüttete Inseln in Form einer Palme, die das Bild von Dubai nachhaltig prägen. Künstliche Welten, internationale Sportereignisse, Gesundheitstourismus und an erster Stelle Shopping-Tourismus – Dubai ist in vielfältiger Weise für Touristen aus aller Welt attraktiv. Jedoch beginnt die große Erfolgsgeschichte der Moderne nicht erst mit dem Touristenaufkommen der 1990er Jahre. Dubai konnte sich früh als Dienstleistungs- und Handelszentrum in der Golfregion etablieren, bis in die dreißiger Jahre des 20. Jahrhunderts spielte der Perlenhandel die entscheidende Rolle. Zollfreiheit und Steuervergünstigungen zogen bereits damals zahlreiche Händler an – heute gilt Dubai als einer der bedeutendsten Umschlagplätze für den Goldhandel. Die Erlöse aus den Petrodollars nutzte die Führung seit den 1960er Jahren, um den Standort Dubai durch groß angelegte Infrastrukturprojekte, wie beispielsweise die beiden Tiefseehäfen Jebel Ali und Port Rashid, kontinuierlich zu stärken und für die Nach-Erdöl-Zeit zu sorgen. Zu Beginn des Jahres 2006 machte Dubai mit Schlagzeilen auf sich aufmerksam, die als Menetekel für die etablierten Industrieländer gedeutet werden können: Zum einen der Vorstoß der Dubai Ports World sechs Häfen an der Ostküste der USA zu übernehmen, zum anderen die neu gegründete internationale Börse DIFX (Dubai International Financial Exchange), die Unternehmen aus einem Raum anziehen will, in dem ein Drittel der Weltbevölkerung lebt. Innerhalb von nur 50 Jahren ist Dubai vom verschlafenen Fischerdorf zur "cosmopolitan regionally dominant twenty-first century city" aufgestiegen und hat somit eine einzigartige Entwicklung vollzogen. Auf der Suche nach einer Position in der Weltwirtschaft im Zeitalter der Globalisierung gibt man sich nicht mit der "reaktiven Mittlerrolle" eines "globalisierten" Ortes zufrieden, sondern strebt die aktive Funktion eines "globalen Ortes" an.m Could Dubai become the most important city on earth?" – fragt Nicolson im Online-Angebot der Khaleej Times vom 13. Februar 2006 und bringt damit das Selbstbewusstsein und die Ambitionen der Regierung Dubais auf den Punkt. Scheinbar erwacht hier eine Region, die bisher kaum jemand auf dem "Globalisierungsradar" hatte. Die Globalisierungsdebatte vermittelt oftmals den Eindruck von einem zeitlich "isoliert" auftretenden Phänomen. Der zweite zentrale Begriff des Titels der Arbeit - Weltwirtschaftssystem - wurde gewählt, um den Globalisierungsansatz in einen systematischen (historischen) Zusammenhang zu stellen. Welchen Beitrag leistet die geographische Perspektive? Die Weltwirtschaftlichen Vorgänge und die mit diesen zusammen-hängenden Transporte von Personen sowie von materiellen und immateriellen Gütern und Leistungen sind nicht nur an sich wirtschafts-geographische Arbeitsfelder, sondern ihre Wirkungen auf das innere Gefüge der an den Außenbeziehungen beteiligten Staaten machen sie zu einem wirtschaftsgeographischen Kernbereich. Ein Autor beklagt, dass die Beschäftigung der Geographen mit dem Welthandel immer spärlich ausfiel und seit Mitte des 20. Jahrhunderts zum Stillstand kam. Der Hauptgrund ist der kleine Maßstab, das heißt Übersee- und Welthandel sind mit geographischen Methoden nur schwer fassbar. Ferner hätte man versäumt eine "tragfähige Brücke zur Außenhandelstheorie der Nationalökonomie zu schlagen." Zehn Jahre später greift ein anderer die Problematik wieder auf und stellt sie gleichzeitig in den größeren Zusammenhang der Globalisierungsdiskussion. Obwohl die Prozesse und die Folgen, die mit dem Begriff Globalisierung verbunden sind, Gegenstandsbereich der Geographie sind, seien die Geographen an den zentralen Streitfragen nicht beteiligt: "Geography is rather like the small child in the school playground who always gets missed out when the big children are picking teams". Darüber hinaus moniert er, dass sich die geographische Forschung in großem Maße mit dem Zu- und Abfluss von ausländischen Direktinvestitionen beschäftige, während Handelsströme wenig beachtet würden: "in the case of international trade, what matters are not so much changes in volume - although they are important - as changes in composition". Mit eben jener "composition" in zeitlicher und räumlicher Dimension beschäftigt sich das nachfolgende Kapitel. Eine explizite "Theorie der Weltwirtschaft" existiert nicht. Dennoch sollen die vorgestellten Konzepte1 mit ihren verschiedenen Aspekten in der Gesamtansicht eine erste systematische Annäherung an das Weltwirtschaftssystem darstellen. Den aktuellen Entwicklungen und der Struktur der Weltwirtschaft im Kontext der Globalisierung widmet sich das dritte Kapitel, welches zusammen mit dem zweiten Kapitel einen "theoretischen Rahmen" bildet, innerhalb dessen schließlich die Bedeutung von Dubai herausgearbeitet werden soll.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Inhaltsverzeichnis: 1.EINLEITUNG1 1.1Von der "Weltbürste" zur Weltwirtschaft1 1.2Warum Dubai?2 1.3Forschungsstand und Fragestellung3 2.WELTWIRTSCHAFTSSYSTEM4 2.1Weltsystem-Theorie und "Weltwirtschaften"5 2.1.1Das Weltsystem nach WALLERSTEIN5 2.1.1.1Die Analyse des Weltsystems5 2.1.1.2Das moderne Weltsystem6 2.1.2Die "Weltwirtschaften" nach BRAUDEL8 2.2Die Wirtschaftsräume nach OTREMBA10 2.3Tripolarität der Weltwirtschaft11 2.3.1Die Triade nach OHMAE11 2.3.2Regionale Theorie des Welthandels nach GROTEWOLD12 2.3.3Weltstädte, Global Cities und Steuerungszentralen14 2.4Zusammenfassung16 3.GLOBALISIERUNG DER WELTWIRTSCHAFT19 3.1Problematisierung der Globalisierung19 3.1.1Der problematische Begriff Globalisierung20 3.1.2Das Problem Globalisierung21 3.2Konzeption von Globalisierung22 3.2.1Globalisierung als neue Epoche23 3.2.2Globalisierung als Prozess24 3.2.3Voraussetzungen der Globalisierung24 3.2.3.1Technologische Innovationen24 3.2.3.2Institutionelle Veränderungen26 3.2.3.3Die Integration neuer Märkte27 3.2.4Akteure der Globalisierung27 3.2.4.1Der Nationalstaat als Akteur28 3.2.4.2Global agierende Unternehmen28 3.2.4.3Der Konsument29 3.3Erscheinungsformen der Globalisierung30 3.3.1Globalisierung des Handels30 3.3.1.1Entwicklung der Rahmenbedingungen des Welthandels30 3.3.1.2Entwicklungen im Handel mit Waren und Dienstleistungen31 3.3.1.3Regionale Struktur des Welthandels34 3.3.2Globalisierung der Produktion44 3.3.2.1Von der klassischen zur neuen internationalen Arbeitsteilung44 3.3.2.2Transnationale Unternehmen46 3.3.2.3Ausländische Direktinvestitionen47 3.3.3Globalisierung der Finanzmärkte52 3.3.3.1Das Bretton Woods-System52 3.3.3.2Spekulation versus Effizienz53 3.3.4Globale Transportnetze54 3.3.4.1Die Herausbildung von Transportnetzen55 3.3.4.2Containerlinienschifffahrt55 3.3.4.3Luftverkehr61 3.4Fazit – das globalisierte Weltwirtschaftssystem64 3.4.1Globalisierung versus Regionalisierung65 3.4.2Globale Vernetzung68 3.4.2.1Global Cities als Nodalpunkte von globalen Netzwerken68 3.4.2.2Verbindung der Nodalpunkte69 4.DUBAI IM WELTWIRTSCHAFTSSYSTEM71 4.1Die Golfregion72 4.1.1Die Golfküste unter europäischem Einfluss72 4.1.2Beginn der Öl-Ära73 4.1.3Eine Region hängt am Öltropf74 4.1.3.1Die Ausgangsbedingungen74 4.1.3.2Die Organisation erdölexportierender Länder (OPEC)76 4.1.4Die Golfregion – Dependenz versus internationale Profilierung80 4.2Überblick über die VAE81 4.2.1Politisches System der VAE82 4.2.2Außenwirtschaftspolitik der VAE84 4.2.3Sozio-ökonomische Betrachtung der VAE87 4.2.3.1Entwicklung im Zeichen des Ölreichtums87 4.2.3.2Entwicklung im Zeichen der Diversifizierung91 4.3Dubai – Wirtschaftsstruktur und Standortfaktoren94 4.3.1Der Aufschwung Dubais nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg96 4.3.2Ölinduzierte Entwicklung und Diversifizierungstendenzen98 4.3.2.1Immobilienboom in Dubai101 4.3.2.2Freihandelszonen als Schnittpunkte der Diversifizierungsstrategie 102 4.3.2.3Wer investiert in Dubai?104 4.3.3Handel105 4.3.4Transportwesen108 4.3.4.1Die Häfen Dubais108 4.3.4.2Dubai International Airport 113 4.3.5Tourismus118 4.3.6Finanzen122 4.3.7Produzierendes Gewerbe123 4.4Fazit: Dubais Sonderweg in der Golfregion 124 5.DUBAIS BEDEUTUNG IM GLOBALISIERTEN WELTWIRTSCHAFTS-SYSTEM126 5.1Gewinner und Verlierer der Globalisierung126 5.2Dubai als "Hub" der Golfregion128 5.3Dubai – ein überregionales Steuerungszentrum?131 6.LITERATURVERZEICHNIS132Textprobe:Textprobe: Kapitel 4.3.2; Ölinduzierte Entwicklung und Diversifizierungstendenzen: 1963 begann man in Dubai mit den Bohrungen nach Öl, 1966 stieß man auf Öl und drei Jahre später schließlich wurde das erste Rohöl aus Dubai exportiert. Boomartig strömten Menschen, Güter und finanzielle Mittel nach Dubai. Die Ausweitung der Rohölföderung in den 1970er Jahren und die starke Anhebung des Weltmarktpreises für Rohöl in den Jahren 1973 und 1979 bescherten dem Emirat über die Zahlungen der Ölgesellschaften reiche Finanzmittel. Daraufhin erlebte die Stadt einen beispiellosen "Bau-Boom". Schulen, Krankenhäuser, Straßen und moderne Telekommunikationsnetzwerke wurden aufgebaut. Ein neuer Hafen (Port Rashid) wurde gebaut, der Dubai International Airport (DIA) wurde um einen Terminal erweitert und mit einer erweiterten Landebahn ausgestattet, die für jeden Flugzeugtyp geeignet ist. Mit Jebel Ali baute man den größten künstlichen Hafen der Welt. Um ihn herum wurde die Jebel Ali Freihandelszone (JAFZ) eingerichtet, heute eine unter vielen Freihandelszonen, mit denen Dubai Investoren anlockt. Für die zahlreichen Projekte brauchte man bereits Ende der 1960er Jahre möglichst billige Arbeitskräfte, die man insbesondere in Indien und Pakistan fand. Viele kamen auch aus dem Iran, Europa und arabischen Ländern. 1968 betrug der Anteil der ausländischen Arbeitskräfte 50% der Gesamtbevölkerung Dubais. Zwar hatten die "expatriates" oder "non-nationals" einen beträchtlichen kulturellen Einfluss auf die einheimische Gesellschaft, aber ihr politischer Einfluss in der Zivilgesellschaft war und ist beschränkt, so dürfen sie beispielsweise keine Gewerkschaften bilden. Den entscheidenden Anstoß für den Aufstieg Dubais lieferten die Öleinnahmen, eine weitere entscheidende Antriebskraft waren die lokalen Kaufleute mit ihrem Netzwerk aus internationalen Kontakten. Schon früh diversifizierten sie ihre Geschäftstätigkeiten, finanzierten große Projekte, agierten als Berater und investierten als Aktionäre in private Unternehmen, beispielsweise in die Dubai Telephone Company. Im ersten Golfkrieg bewiesen die Kaufleute ein feines Gespür für Unternehmertum, als sie in den sehr lukrativen Handel mit dem Iran eingebunden waren. Der Handel mit Konsumgütern und Ausrüstungsgegenständen jeglicher Art brachte ihnen und der gesamten Wirtschaft hohe Gewinne ein. Auch die Häfen und angeschlossene Dienstleistungen profitierten von dem Krieg, da die internationale Schifffahrt die sichereren Trockendocks in Dubai den Häfen von Kuwait und Iran vorzog. Seit den frühen 1980er Jahren ist der Handel mit den anderen GCC-Staaten kontinuierlich angewachsen, so dass die Häfen Dubais zu den geschäftigsten der ganzen Region wurden. Seit den 1970er Jahren machte Dubai durch den Bau von Trockendocks, von See- und Flughäfen sowie von Luxushotels, die Einrichtung von Freihandelszonen, das zollfreie Angebot von Uhren, Fotoartikeln, Goldschmuck und Perlen, aber auch das Angebot von Alkohol und Night Life (in Maßen) auf sich aufmerksam. Das moderne Dubai mit seinem Ruf als Handelsplatz steht damit in einer Linie mit dem Dubai vor der Öl-Ära und kann damit auf etwas aufbauen, das SALLOUM als "inherited ability for commerce by its people" bezeichnet. Dubai besitzt nur einen kleinen Anteil von 4% am Erdölvorkommen und 1,9% am Erdgasvorkommen der VAE. Die Lebensdauer beider Ressourcen wird auf 30 bis 40 Jahre geschätzt. Angesichts dessen bestimmte von Beginn an die Notwendigkeit zu alternativen Einkommensquellen für die "Nach-Erdöl-Zeit" das Handeln der Verantwortlichen. Einseitig auf den Industriesektor zu bauen kam aufgrund der nationalen und regionalen Marktenge nicht in Frage. Die politischen Entwicklungen nach dem 11. September 2001 brachten zusätzlich Unsicherheiten bezüglich der Investitionen und Anlagen im Ausland – vor allem in den USA – mit sich. Die Verantwortlichen in Dubai erkannten die Zeichen der Zeit und setzten auf die Privatisierung der Wirtschaft, die Öffnung des Landes für den internationalen Tourismus, die Liberalisierung der Immobilienmärkte sowie des Waren- und Finanzverkehrs. Flankierend dazu wurden Transportwesen, Infrastruktur und IT-Kommunikation den neuen Gegebenheiten angepasst, günstige Arbeits-, Aufenthalts- und Lebensbedingungen für alle Fachkräfte, Investoren und Besucher geschaffen. Im Zeitraum von 1975 bis 1981 verzeichnete das Emirat ein Wachstum des BIP von durchschnittlich 17% pro Jahr. Infolge des Verfalls des Ölpreises und der instabilen Verhältnisse in der Region während des ersten Golfkrieges stagnierte das BIP weitestgehend bis Ende der 1980er Jahre. Von 1990 bis 2000 verzeichnete Dubai ein Wachstum des BIP (in nominalen Preisen) zum Vorjahr von durchschnittlich 7.7%. Für das Jahr 2004 wird das BIP bei KKP mit 30 Mrd. US-$ angegeben. Das Wachstum wurde dabei primär über eine stabile Entwicklung außerhalb des Rohölsektors ("Nicht-Öl-Sektor") erreicht, welcher im Zeitraum von 1990 bis 2000 ein durchschnittliches Wachstum von 11.1% erzielte. Der Rohölsektor hingegen verzeichnete im gleichen Zeitraum einen durchschnittlichen Rückgang von -2.4% pro Jahr. Der Rohölsektor verlor demnach Anteile am BIP zugunsten des Nicht-Öl-Sektors (vgl. Abb. 26). In den 1970er und 1980er Jahren wurde knapp die Hälfte des BIP außerhalb des Rohölsektors erwirtschaftet, ab den 1990er Jahren stieg der Anteil des Nicht-Öl-Sektors am BIP deutlich: Im Jahr 1990 betrug er 65.2% des BIP, 2000 90% und 2004 bereits mehr als 93%. Die Werte belegen die von der Regierung erfolgreich eingeleiteten Diversifizierungsprozesse, insbesondere seit Beginn der 1990er Jahre, so dass die Vulnerabilität des BIP gegenüber Ölpreisschwankungen bedeutend reduziert werden konnte. Der Anteil des Rohöls am BIP Dubais ist mit 7% signifikant geringer als im Landesdurchschnitt, der einen Anteil von 33% verzeichnet (vgl. Abb. 27). Bei einem Anteil von 28% der Bevölkerung steuert Dubai alleine 31% des gesamten Nicht-Öl-Sektors der VAE bei. Besonders dynamisch entwickelten sich die Sektoren Handel, Finanzen, Transport- und Kommunikationswesen, Restaurant- und Hotelgewerbe und das produzierende Gewerbe. Zwischen 1994 und 2000 wuchs das im Hotel- und Gastronomiegewerbe erwirtschaftete BIP um 165.2%, was zu einem Großteil auf die geographische Erschließung der touristisch attraktiven Strandgebiete zurückzuführen ist. Es folgen im gleichen Zeitraum das produzierende Gewerbe (+129.6%), Transport- und Kommunikationswesen (+101.6%) und das Finanz- und Versicherungswesen (+92.2%) (VAN DE BUNT 2003: 31f.). Die neuesten Zahlen zeigen die Fortsetzung der Trends. 2004 wuchs das reale BIP Dubais um 13.3%, die Hauptanteile am Zuwachs hatten dabei: Immobilien (19.8%), produzierendes Gewerbe (15.5%), Bauindustrie (12.6%), Finanz- und Versicherungswesen (12.6%), Handel (10.7%) sowie Transport- und Kommunikationswesen (9.6%). Der Anteil des Transport- und Kommunikationswesens von Dubai ist für über 55% des gleichen Sektors der VAE verantwortlich. Des Weiteren entspricht Dubais Finanzsektor 47% des VAE–Finanzsektors. Kapitel 4.3.2.1, Immobilienboom in Dubai: Der hohe Anteil des Immobiliensektors am BIP-Zuwachs Dubais verweist auf den Boom im Immobiliensektor. Der Wert der geplanten Projekte für die nächsten fünf Jahre wird auf 30 Mrd. US-$ geschätzt. 2004 hatte die Bauindustrie einen Anteil von 13% am Nicht-Öl-BIP. Seit 2000 ist sie mit einer durchschnittlichen jährlichen Rate von 24% gewachsen, was den Bau-Boom widerspiegelt, der sich im Jahre 2003 im Bau von über 2000 Gebäuden niederschlug. Der Bausektor gilt auch als größter Arbeitgeber, 24% aller Arbeitskräfte sind hier beschäftigt, hauptsächlich aus dem Ausland stammende Arbeitnehmer. Spektakuläre Projekte, zum Beispiel "The Palm Jumeirah", "The Palm Jebel Ali" und "The World", locken Käufer schon vor Beginn der Bautätigkeiten an, so dass in Dubai die Immobilien "fast vollständig bereits vom Reißbrett verkauft" werden. Die Käufer spekulieren auf die enormen Wertsteigerungen am Immobilienmarkt Dubais – in keinem anderen Land der Welt sind Immobilien nach Fertigstellung 20% teurer geworden. Initiator und Träger der Projekte ist letztlich das Herrscherhaus beziehungsweise die von ihm kontrollierten Finanzgesellschaften – beispielsweise EMAAR, die 1997 gegründet wurde oder NAKHEEL, 2003 gegründet. In sehr viel geringerem Maße übernehmen auch Privatpersonen und Banken die (Vor-)Finanzierung der "Megaprojekte", wie sie von manchen Offiziellen bezeichnet werden. Nach der Fertigstellung werden sie meist privatisiert, das heißt vollständig oder teilweise an Einheimische vergeben. Im Sinne des Rentierstaates werden somit die Pfründe an die lokale Bevölkerung verteilt, doch die Einkommen werden erst dann erzielt, wenn die Objekte über Immobilienagenturen vermietet, verpachtet oder auch verkauft werden. Die Akteure müssen sich dazu mit einer verschärften Wettbewerbssituation auseinandersetzen. Die vielfältigen Bauaktivitäten generieren ein enormes, qualitativ und preislich hochwertiges Angebot, das die Erschließung des globalen Marktes geradezu herausfordert. Wie bereits angedeutet, sind die meisten Projekte, obwohl noch teilweise in Planung, verkauft, verpachtet oder vermietet. Die Käufer stammen überwiegend aus der Golfregion (40-46%), zu je 15-22% aus Russland und anderen GUSStaaten sowie beispielsweise aus Indien, Japan oder Südkorea. Kapitel 4.3.2.2, Freihandelszonen als Schnittpunkte der Diversifizierungsstrategie: In der Nachkriegszeit setzte die Regierung Dubais auf einen liberalen, "unternehmensfreundlichen" ökonomischen Kurs mit geringen Steuerabgaben und politisch stabilem Rahmen, in der Hoffnung, dadurch Investitionen anzuziehen. Diese Haltung drückt sich besonders in der 1985 gegründeten Jebel Ali Free Zone (JAFZ) aus, die erste in der Region gegründete Freihandelszone. Das Areal wurde unmittelbar im Bereich des schon existierenden Tiefsee-hafens Jebel Ali eingerichtet, der gleichzeitig mit der Gründung ausgebaut wurde. Das Konzept sieht vor, dass innerhalb der "Enklave" Geschäftstätigkeiten frei von Zoll und gesetzlichen Beschränkungen durchgeführt werden können. Unternehmen, die sich in der Freihandelszone niederlassen, nutzen nicht nur die niedrigen Arbeitskosten und Visum-freie Anheuerung der nicht-organisierten Arbeitskräfte, sondern vor allem die Möglichkeit, sich zu 100% an Kapitalgesellschaften zu beteiligen. Für Ausländer ist das außerhalb der Freihandelszonen sonst nicht möglich, es dürfen nach geltendem Recht maximal 49% einer Unternehmung in ausländischen Besitz übergehen. Die Geschäftsleute genießen noch weitere Privilegien: es ist kein Sponsor erforderlich, es ist kein Service Agent bei Zweigniederlassungen erforderlich, zwischen 15-30 Jahre garantierte Steuerbefreiung (Körperschafts- und Einkommenssteuer), freier Kapital- und Gewinntransfer. Grundsätzlich ist die aktive Teilnahme am Wirtschaftsleben der VAE erlaubt, es können Waren importiert und exportiert werden. Die Lizenzen sind jedoch nur auf das Gebiet der jeweiligen Freihandelszone beschränkt, mit der Folge, dass diese Niederlassungen gesellschaftlich als nicht in den VAE niedergelassen gelten. Deshalb erfordert der Export in die VAE einen Handelsvertreter, Importeur oder auch ein Joint Venture in Form einer Vertriebsgesellschaft. Die Entscheidung, sich in innerhalb der VAE oder in einer Freihandelszone niederzulassen, hängt somit wesentlich von dem angestrebten Zielmarkt ab. Ist dieser nicht auf die VAE beschränkt, stellt die Niederlassung in einer Freihandelszone eine sinnvolle Alternative zu einem Standort innerhalb der VAE dar. Seit der Gründung flossen über 2,5 Mrd. US-$ an Investitionen in die JAFZ, in der 2003 2.350 Firmen aus 97 Ländern angesiedelt waren. Neben japanischen Firmen (Nissan, Mitsubishi, Honda, Sony) sind vor allem auch europäische multinationale Unternehmen vertreten, beispielsweise ABB, Shell, BASF und Unilever. In den 1980er Jahren fungierte die JAFZ überwiegend als Lagerungs- und Verteilerzentrum für die multinationalen Unternehmen. In den letzten Jahren ließen sich dort auch Unternehmen des produzierenden Gewerbes nieder, dennoch dominiert der Handel mit 80% die Aktivitäten in dem Areal. Der Erfolg der JAFZ war ausschlaggebend dafür, dass in der Folgezeit noch weitere Freihandelszonen – nicht nur in Dubai – eingerichtet beziehungsweise noch in Planung gegeben wurden. Bemerkenswert sind auch die Bemühungen der Führung, Dubai als IT- und Medienstandort zu positionieren. Die Dubai Internet City stellt die notwendige Infrastruktur bereit, "that enables ICT enterprises to operate locally, regionally and globally from Dubai, with significant competitive advantage". Namhafte Unternehmen wie Microsoft, Oracle und Canon nutzen bereits dieses Angebot. Die Dubai Media City zielt auf internationale Medienunternehmen ab, die sich in den speziell eingerichteten Studios und Bürogebäuden niederlassen sollen. CNN und Reuters haben hier beispielsweise Zweigstellen etabliert. 2004 wurde die erste Produktionsstätte für Chips, CDs, DVDs und Software, das Dubai Silicon Oasis gegründet, das zusammen mit dem Knowledge Village das "knowledge-economy-system" komplettiert. Der Mix aus Industrie und Dienstleistungen in den meisten Freihandelszonen kennzeichnet ebenfalls die Diversifizierung der Wirtschaft Dubais. Zusätzlich zu produzierendem Gewerbe und Logistikunternehmen werden heute auch moderne Dienstleistungen aus dem Bereich Bankwesen, Versicherung und Recht angeboten. Dubais zukünftige Entwicklung ist durch die Entwicklung des Dienstleistungssektors determiniert. Die strukturelle Verschiebung zu einem Dienstleistungszentrum par excellance zeigt sich in den breit gefächerten Dienstleistungsaktivitäten: Handel-, Reparatur-, Restaurant- und Hoteleinrichtungen, Transport- und Kommunikationswesen, Immobiliendienstleistungen, soziale und Personaldienstleistungen, Finanz- und Versicherungswesen, staatliche Leistungen sowie Haushaltsdienstleistungen. Der Anteil des Dienstleistungssektors am BIP Dubais ist von 38% im Jahre 1985 auf 71% 2003 gestiegen (vgl. Abb. 28). Die "Wasserscheide" zu Beginn der 1990er Jahre ist mit dem im gleichen Zeitraum rapide wachsenden BIP in Verbindung zu bringen (vgl. Abb. 26) und bestätigt darüber hinaus die erfolgreiche Diversifizierungsstrategie in den 1990er Jahren. Kapitel 4.3.2.3, Wer investiert in Dubai?: Insbesondere seit den Terroranschlägen von New York und Washington sind die Rückflüsse arabischer Geldanlagen aus Amerika und Europa beträchtlich. Es existieren keine genauen Zahlen über die Privatvermögen im Ausland. Dennoch gilt als sicher, dass allein im Jahr 2002 ein dreistelliges Milliardenvermögen aus Amerika abgezogen wurde, wo Untersuchungen der Finanzbehörden ebenso drohen wie Schadenersatzprozesse im Zusammenhang mit der Finanzierung von Terrornetzwerken wie Al Qaida. Das Geld für die Milliardeninvestitionen stammt demnach vor allem von Investoren der Region, die "heute noch von den Anschlägen vom 11. September 2001 und dem US-amerikanischen Krieg gegen islamisch fundamentalistischen Terror" profitiert. Laut des Global Business Policy Council20 sehen asiatische Investoren Dubai an neunter Stelle der attraktivsten Investitionsstandorte, während Europäer es an 20. Stelle nennen. Unter japanischen und indischen Investoren rangiert Dubai auf dem 6. Platz, Investoren aus der Schweiz setzen Dubai auf den dritten Rang der attraktivsten Investitionsstandorte. ADI in Dubai sind im Jahr 2004 enorm angestiegen, auf 840 Mio. US-$, gegenüber 30 Mio. US-$ im Jahr zuvor21. Investoren des Chemie- und Elektronikbereichs äußern sich sehr zuversichtlich über die Entwicklung des produzierenden Gewerbes der Region. Insbesondere die Freihandelszonen – wie die JAFZ – sind für die Investoren aufgrund der Zoll- und Steuerprivilegien als Standort attraktiv. Die im Jahr 2005 eröffnete Industrial City in Dubai, die Investitionsanreize für die Schwerindustrie bietet, fördert das Interesse der Investoren zusätzlich. Die Direktinvestitionen in das Ausland fallen dagegen gering aus, sie werden auf 1% des BIP geschätzt. Im Vergleich dazu steuern Direktinvestitionen im Ausland zu dem BIP Hongkongs 24%, dem Singapurs 10% und dem der Schweiz 7,9% bei. Die Vorteile der Freihandelszonen-Strategie liegen auf der Hand, doch nicht alle Investoren teilen diese Euphorie. So gibt es beispielsweise Bedenken hinsichtlich der lokalen Geschäftspraktiken und geistigen Eigentumsrechte, da vertrauliche Informationen auf dem engen Raum einer Freihandelszone möglicherweise reibungsloser zu den umgebenden Wettbewerbern diffundieren. Die Bedenken haben jedoch scheinbar eine kulturelle Komponente: Asiatische Unternehmen scheinen sich weniger um mögliche Beeinträchtigungen zu sorgen als europäische oder amerikanische Firmen, wie die Entwicklung des Dragon Mart aufzeigt. Hier können sich bis zu 4.000 chinesische Firmen niederlassen, denen 15.000m² Lagerungseinrichtungen zur Verfügung gestellt werden. Darüber hinaus ist der Aufbau einer "special China Town" vorgesehen, die bis zu 20.000 Händler anziehen möchte. Von den Unternehmensclustern versprechen sich die Verantwortlichen die Stärkung des komparativen Vorteils von Dubai – insbesondere im Hinblick auf asiatische Händler – "as a gateway to serve the Middle East and European Markets". Durch die geplante Erhöhung der Anzahl der Direktflüge in die USA, ausgehend von dem Dubai International Airport, wird auch dieser Markt in stärkerem Maße berücksichtigt werden. Für die Einordnung von Dubais Rolle im Weltwirtschaftssystem ist es notwendig auf einzelne Sektoren näher einzugehen. Nachfolgend werden die Entwicklungen in den Wirtschaftssektoren Handel, Transportwesen, produzierendes Gewerbe, Finanzen sowie Tourismus aufgezeigt.

Die Volkswirtschaftliche Gesamtrechnung ist eine wichtige Grundlage der Wirtschaftsanalyse. Dies gilt nicht nur für die aktuelle Konjunkturbeobachtung, sondern auch für die wirtschaftshistorische Forschung. Bis heute gibt es keine nach anerkannten internationalen Konzepten ermittelte vergleichbare Datenbasis für eine sachgerechte Beurteilung der Ergebnisse der gesamtwirtschaftlichen Entwicklung der DDR im gesamten Zeitraum ihrer Existenz. Im Jahre 2005 wurden mit dem Ergänzungsband der Zeitschrift "Historical Social Research" (HSR - Supplement No. 17/2005, Zentrum für historische Sozialforschung, GESIS Leibniz - Institut für Sozialwissenschaften, Köln) für den Zeitraum von 1970 bis 2000 neue Zeitreihen für wichtige Indikatoren der wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung in Ostdeutschland veröffentlicht (siehe die Studie: Heske, G.: Die gesamtwirtschaftliche Entwicklung in Ostdeutschland 1970 bis 2000, neue Ergebnisse einer volkswirtschaftlichen Gesamtrechnung; Studiennummer: ZA8208, in HISTAT). Mit der vorliegenden Studie legt der Autor eine Vertiefung und vor allem eine Erweiterung des Zeithorizonts der erforderlichen Berechnungen bis 1950 vor. Im Unterschied zu den bisher vorliegenden statistischen Ergebnissen werden in dieser Publikation (HSR-Supplement No. 21/2009. Zentrum für Historische Sozialforschung, Köln) erstmalig für die ehemalige DDR vergleichbare Daten der Entstehung und Verwendung des Bruttoinlandsprodukts für 1950 - 1989 vorgestellt, die auf der Basis der Methodik des Europäischen Systems der volkswirtschaftlichen Gesamtrechnung (ESVG 95) ermittelt wurden. Damit wurde eine vorhandene Datenlücke geschlossen, die bisher die Einschätzung der wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung der DDR behindert hat. Die für die einzelnen Jahre ausgewiesenen Ergebnisse beziehen sich nicht nur auf die Entstehung des Bruttoinlandsprodukts insgesamt, sondern auch auf die Wertschöpfung der Wirtschaftsbereiche und die volkswirtschaftliche Verwendung nach Hauptpositionen. Im Zusammenhang mit der Interpretation der erreichten Ergebnisse werden auch entsprechende Zeitreihen für die Bevölkerungsentwicklung und die Erwerbstätigkeit in der Untergliederung nach Wirtschaftsbereichen herangezogen. Da die für die ehemalige DDR vorgestellten Daten für 1950 bis 1989 im Ergebnis einer Rückrechnung der VGR nach annähernd gleichen methodischen und wirtschaftssystematischen Prinzipien erfolgten, war es möglich entsprechende Vergleiche mit entsprechenden Ergebnissen der früheren BRD durchzuführen. Dementsprechend erfolgte auch eine Zusammenführung der statistischen Daten für beide deutschen Staaten zu einem gesamtdeutschen Ergebnis rückwirkend seit 1950. Eine ausführliche Methoden- und Quellenbeschreibung der vorgelegten Ergebnisse unterstützt eine sachgemäße Interpretation der Daten. Der Autor diskutiert in einem gesonderten Abschnitt auch ähnliche Versuche der Rekonstruktion der VGR der DDR (z.B. Merkel/W./Wahl, S., 1991: Das geplünderte Deutschland. Bonn; Ritschl, A./Spoerer, M., 1997: Das Bruttosozialprodukt in Deutschland nach den amtlichen Volkseinkommens- und Sozialproduktstatistiken. Berlin; Schwarzer, O., 1996: "Die Währung der DDR beruht auf … der gesunden Grundlage der sozialistischen Gesellschaftsordnung". In: Beiträge zur Wirtschafts- und Sozialgeschichte, Band 63, Stuttgart; ders., 1999: Sozialistische Zentralplanungswirtschaft in der SBZ/DDR, Stuttgart; Sleifer, J., 2006: Planning Ahead und Falling Behind, Berlin. Maddison, A., 1995: Monitoring the World Economy 1820-1992, Paris; ders., 2001: The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective, Paris).

Im Mittelpunkt der Arbeit steht die Vorstellung der Ergebnisse einer vorgenommenen Neuberechnung der Entstehung und Verwendung des BIP der DDR für den Zeitraum von 1950 bis 1989 nach den Konzepten des SNA (ESVG), vergleichbar in Methodik und wirtschaftssystematischer Abgrenzung sowie in vergleichbaren DM (Euro)-Preisen. Damit soll auf der Grundlage des methodischen Gerüsts der VGR ein kohärentes System von Indikatoren geschaffen werden, mit dem die wirtschaftliche Gesamtentwicklung der DDR beschrieben und bewertet werden kann.
Die damit verbundenen komplizierten und arbeitsaufwendigen Arbeiten konnten nur schrittweise geleistet werden. Erste Teilergebnisse der Entstehung und Verwendung des BIP der DDR, die sich auf den Teilzeitraum von 1970 bis 1989 bezogen, konnten bereits im Jahre 2005 als HSR-Supplement No. 17 publiziert werden (Heske, G., 2005: Bruttoinlandsprodukt, Verbrauch und Erwerbstätigkeit in Ostdeutschland 1970-2000. Köln Das HSR-Supplementheft steht auch als PDF - Datei zur Verfügung und kann kostenlos unter der Adresse herunter geladen werden). Zur Information über den Umfang der bis dahin erarbeiteten Indikatoren der VGR wird in der vorliegenden Publikation als Anhang 5 eine Übersicht über die damals veröffentlichten Ergebnisse beigefügt. Aufbauend auf den Resultaten dieser bisherigen Untersuchungen erfolgt mit der vorliegenden Ausarbeitung eine retrospektive Weiterführung der Berechnungen zur Entstehung und Verwendung des Bruttoinlandsprodukts der DDR für die Jahre vor 1970, d. h. bis zum Jahre 1950 zurück. Damit können erstmalig statistische Daten für die Entstehung des Bruttoinlandsprodukt der DDR für 1950 bis 1989, untersetzt nach Wirtschaftsbereichen und die inländische Verwendung nach Hauptpositionen und im Wesentlichen vergleichbar mit heutigen Abgrenzungskriterien der VGR zur Verfügung gestellt werden. Im Interesse einer langfristigen Darstellung des Zusammenhangs für den gesamten Referenzzeitraum ab 1950 bis 1989 wurden die Ergebnisse der bereits genannten früheren Untersuchungen für den Zeitraum von 1970 bis 1989 integriert.
Die bisherige Situation des Fehlens einer aussagefähigen Datenbasis einer vergleichbaren volkswirtschaftlichen Gesamtrechnung für die DDR führte nach 1990 zu den verschiedensten Berechnungen einzelner Autoren zur Entwicklung des BIP der DDR. Diese Berechnungen hatten einen unterschiedlichen konzeptionellen Hintergrund und führten zu sich häufig widersprechenden Aussagen. Kennzeichnend für die meisten dieser Versuche war ein quantitatives Herunterrechnen der tatsächlichen wirtschaftlichen Leistungen der DDR; teilweise ergab sich infolgedessen bei Langzeitvergleichen daraus das kuriose Ergebnis, dass sich die DDR-Wirtschaft im Jahre 1989 noch auf dem Produktivitätsniveau der Vorkriegszeit befunden hätte bzw. nur bei ca. 20 bis 30 Prozent des Niveaus der früheren Bundesrepublik. Auf diese Probleme und die entsprechenden Datenquellen wird näher eingegangen. Die bestehenden Lücken an vergleichbaren statistischen Reihen gesamtwirtschaftlichen Indikatoren für die DDR nach den Konzepten der VGR erleichterten insofern Fehleinschätzungen über die gesamtwirtschaftlichen Ergebnisse und verhindern eine allseitige Beurteilung des Verlaufs der ökonomischen Prozesse und der sie beeinflussenden Faktoren in der DDR.
Naturgemäß können derartige volkswirtschaftliche Langzeituntersuchungen nie die Genauigkeit und Verlässlichkeit einer aktuellen jährlichen Nachweisung erreichen. Dies gilt nicht nur für den vorliegenden Arbeitsgegenstand der VGR, sondern für alle längerfristigen wirtschafts- und sozialstatistischen Beobachtungen. Durch die umfassende Nutzung der vorliegenden statistischen Daten und zutreffender statistischer Methoden kann jedoch eine hinreichende Genauigkeit bei der statistischen Widerspiegelung der Entwicklungstendenzen erreicht werden. Außerdem gewährleistet im speziellen Fall der VGR die Nutzung der Bilanzmethode, d. h. die getrennte Ermittlung der Entstehung und der Verwendung des BIP aus unterschiedlichen Datenquellen eine zusätzliche Möglichkeit zur Gewährleistung der Validität. Dies gilt auch für die Rückrechnung von DDR-Daten.
Die für die DDR bei dieser VGR - Neuberechnung für 1950 bis 1989 nach annähernd den gleichen methodischen und wirtschaftssystematischen Grund¬sätzen ermittelten Größen für die Entstehung und Verwendung des BIP ermöglichten es, entsprechende Vergleiche mit der Wirtschaftsentwicklung in der früheren Bundesrepublik durchzuführen. Gleichfalls bestanden dadurch die Möglichkeiten gesamtdeutsche Ergebnisse näherungsweise zu berechnen.
Im Unterschied zu westlichen Autoren, die sich vor 1990 mit partiellen Schätzungen des BIP der DDR für einzelne Zeiträume bzw. der Entstehung des BIP beschäftigt hatten , konnte der Verfasser der vorliegenden Ausarbeitung auf die Gesamtheit der archivierten statistischen Daten, der veröffentlichten und geheimen Informationen, sowie dazugehöriger organisatorischer und methodischer Unterlagen der amtlichen DDR-Statistik zurückgreifen. Als langjähriger Mitarbeiter der Staatlichen Zentralverwaltung für Statistik der DDR war es ihm möglich, noch teilweise vorhandenes Insiderwissen von verantwortlichen Experten der Statistikproduktion und nicht archivierte Dokumente zu erschließen.
Die Arbeit untergliedert sich in die vier Hauptabschnitte A bis D. Im ersten Hauptabschnitt A werden die wichtigsten inhaltlichen und konzeptionellen Ausgangspunkte einer Rückrechnung der Entstehung und Verwendung des Bruttoinlandsprodukts für die DDR sowie die dafür erforderlichen datenbezogenen Voraussetzungen behandelt. Im zweiten Hauptabschnitt B werden die Hauptergebnisse der Rückrechnung für die einzelnen Strukturelemente der Entstehung und Verwendung des BIP der DDR für den Zeitraum von 1950 bis 1989 vorgestellt. Dabei wurde nach Möglichkeit versucht, entsprechende Vergleichsdaten für die BRD heranzuziehen. Durch den Vergleich der Ergebnisse der Entstehung und Verwendung des BIP der DDR mit den entsprechenden Daten der BRD war eine bessere Bewertung der erreichten Wirtschaftsergebnisse der DDR möglich. Im dritten Hauptabschnitt C werden die Methoden und datenbezogenen Grundlagen der VGR-Rückrechnung ausführlich beschrieben. Da das gesamte Projekt der Rückrechnung der VGR der DDR für 1950 bis 1989 in mehreren Etappen realisiert wurde, war es zweckmäßig zum Verständnis des angewendeten Gesamtkonzepts teilweise auf bereits früher publizierte Materialien zurückzugreifen und sie in die einzelnen Abschnitte einzuordnen. Im letzten Hauptabschnitt D werden Versuche anderer Autoren zur Rückrechnung des BIP der DDR vor und nach 1990 beschrieben und in ihre methodischen Konzepte in den Grundzügen sichtbar gemacht. Dadurch soll die Einordnung und Beurteilung der vorliegenden Rückrechnung der Entstehung und Verwendung des BIP der DDR für 1950 bis 1989 unterstützt werden.
Im Anhang 1 werden die Ergebnisse der VGR - Rückrechnung von 1950 bis 1989 in den territorialen Abgrenzungen für die DDR, die BRD und Deutschland als Zeitreihen (in Bezug auf die textlichen Einschätzungen in Hauptabschnitt B) tabellarisch näher untergliedert und für alle Jahre des Untersuchungszeitraums nachgewiesen. In Anlehnung an die aktuelle Praxis bei der Veröffentlichung mehrjähriger Reihen zur Entstehung und Verwendung des BIP durch das Statistische Bundesamt werden die einzelnen Indikatoren vorwiegend als Indexreihen mit fester Basis (1950 = 100) dargestellt. Im Interesse einer eindeutigen numerischen Darstellung wurden die Daten mit einer Kommastelle ausgewiesen, wobei dadurch nicht eine Genauigkeit der sachlichen Ergebnisse in diesem Zahlenbereich vorgetäuscht werden soll.
Die Anhänge 2 bis 4 enthalten ergänzende methodische Materialien und Daten zur VGR, wie einen Überblick zu den Methoden und Begriffen der VGR in der ehemaligen DDR und der BRD (Anhang 2), der Zuordnung der Wirtschaftszweige zu den volkswirtschaftliche Wirtschaftsbereichen im Rahmen der VGR (Anhang 3), Originalergebnisse der SZS der DDR zur Entwicklung des Gesamtprodukts und Nationaleinkommens der DDR von 1949 bis 1989 nach dem MPS - Konzept (Anhang 4) und eine Übersicht der bereits früher veröffentlichten Tabellen zur Entstehung und Verwendung des BIP der DDR von 1970 bis 1989 in HSR-Supplement No. 17 (2005) als Anhang 5. Das Heft wird abgeschlossen (Anhang 6) durch ein detailliertes Verzeichnis aller Tabellen im Text und im Anhang.

Themen

Datentabellen in HISTAT (Thema: Volkswirtschaftliche Gesamtrechnungen):

I. Tabellen im laufenden Text ("T" - Tabellen)
T.01 Entwicklung des BIP in der DDR und der BRD, 1950 = 100 (1950-1989)
T.02 Jährliche Wachstumsrate des BIP in der DDR und der BRD nach Zeitperioden, in % (1951-1989)
T.03 Vergleich des Niveaus des BIP zwischen der DDR und der BRD, DDR = 1 (1950-1989)
T.04 Anteil der Wirtschaftbereiche an der Bruttowertschöpfung in der DDR, in % (1950-1989)
T.05 Entwicklung der Bruttowertschöpfung der DDR nach Wirtschaftsbereichen, 1950 = 100 (1950-1989)
T.06 Jährliche Wachstumsraten der Bruttowertschöpfung nach Wirtschaftsbereichen und Zeitperioden, in % DDR (1950-1989)
T.07 Jährliche Wachstumsraten der Bruttowertschöpfung nach Wirtschaftsbereichen und Zeitperioden, in % BRD (1950-1989)
T.08 Anteil der Wirtschaftsbereiche an der Bruttowertschöpfung in der BRD, in % (1950-1989)
T.09 Anteil der Industriebereiche an der Bruttowertschöpfung des produzierenden Gewerbes in der DDR und der BRD, in % (1950-1989)
T.10 Struktur des Bereichs "Finanzierung, Wohnungsvermietung, öffentliche und private Dienstleister", in % (1970-1989)
T.11 Bevölkerung und Erwerbstätigkeit in der DDR und der BRD, Anzahl, 1950= 100 (1950-1989)
T.12 Beschäftigungsgrad DDR/BRD, in % (1950-1989)
T.13 Arbeitsfähige Bevölkerung in der DDR, Anzahl je 1000 der Bevölkerung (1950-1989)
T.14 Erwerbstätige in der DDR nach Wirtschaftsbereichen, 1950 = 100, Anteil in % (1950-1989)
T.15 Entwicklung des Bruttoinlandsprodukts in der DDR und der BRD je Einwohner und je Erwerbstätigen, 1950 = 100 (1950-1989)
T.16 Niveau des Bruttoinlandsprodukts je Einwohner und je Erwerbstätigen in der DDR im Vergleich zur BRD, DDR = 1 (1950-1989)
T.17 Bruttowertschöpfung je Erwerbstätigen nach Wirtschaftsbereichen im Jahr 1950 in der DDR im Vergleich zur BRD, DDR = 1 (1950-1950)
T.18 Bruttowertschöpfung je Erwerbstätigen in der DDR nach Wirtschaftsbereichen, 1950 = 100 (1950-1989)
T.19 Bruttowertschöpfung je Erwerbstätigen in der BRD nach Wirtschaftsbereichen, 1950 = 100 (1950-1989)
T.20 Jährliche Wachstumsraten der Bruttowertschöpfung je Erwerbstätigen in der DDR nach Zeitperioden, in % (1950-1989)
T.21 Jährliche Wachstumsraten der Bruttowertschöpfung je Erwerbstätigen in der BRD nach Zeitperioden, in % (1950-1989)
T.22 Vergleich der Bruttowertschöpfung je Erwerbstätigen nach Wirtschaftsbereichen zwischen der DDR und der BRD, DDR = 1 (1950-1989)
T.23 Grobstruktur der BIP-Verwendung in der DDR, in % (1950-1989)
T.24 Grobstruktur der BIP-Verwendung in der BRD, in % (1950-1989)
T.25 Konsumausgaben und Bruttoinvestition in der DDR, 1950 = 100, Anteile in % (1950-1989)
T.26 Jährliche Wachstumsraten der Konsumausgaben und Bruttoinvestitionen in der DDR nach Zeitperioden, 1950 = 100, Anteil in % (1950-1989)
T.27 Konsumausgaben und Bruttoinvestitionen in der BRD, 1950 = 100, Anteil in % (1950-1989)
T.28 Jährliche Wachstumsraten der Konsumausgaben und Bruttoinvestitionen in der BRD nach Zeitperioden, in % (1950-1989)
T.29 Konsumausgaben je Einwohner in der DDR und der BRD, 1950 = 100 (1950-1989)
T.30 Jährliche Wachstumsraten der Konsumausgaben je Einwohner in der DDR nach Zeitperioden, in % (1950-1989)
T.31 Relation BRD/DDR und DDR/BRD der Konsumausgaben je Einwohner (1950-1989)
T.32 Bruttoinvestition je Einwohner, 1950 = 100 (1950-1989)
T.33 Jährliche Entwicklungsraten der Bruttoinvestitionen je Einwohner nach Zeitperioden, in % (1950-1989)
T.34 Relation BRD/DDR und DDR/BRD der Bruttoinvestitionen je Einwohner (1950-1989)
T.35 Struktur der Investitionen nach Wirtschaftsbereichten, in % (1955-1988)
T.36 Anteil der Wohnungswirtschaft an den Investitionen der sonstigen Wirtschaftsbereiche der DDR und der BRD, in % (1955-1989)
T.37 Struktur der Investitionen nach Bereichen des produzierenden Gewerbes, in % (1955-1989)
T.38 Entwicklung des Exports und Imports in der DDR und der BRD, 1950 = 100 (1950-1989)
T.39 Relation der Ex- und Importe BRD/DDR - DDR/BRD je Einwohner (1950-1989)
T.40 Bruttoinlandsprodukt der neuen Länder, 19989 = 100 (1989-2000)
T.41 Volkswirtschaftliche Indikatoren für die DDR/Neue Länder, 1950 = 100 (1950-2000)
T.42/43 Bruttoinlandsprodukt und Wertschöpfung nach Wirtschaftsbereichen für die DDR/Neue Länder, 1989 = 100 (1989-2000)
T.44 Bruttowertschöpfung der Gruppen "Materielle Produktion" und "Dienstleistungen", 1989 = 100 (1989-2000)
T.45 Anteil der Wirtschaftbereiche an der Wertschöpfung insgesamt, in % (1989-2000)
T.46 Bruttowertschöpfung im produzierenden Gewerbe, 1989 = 100, Anteile in % (1989-2000)
T.47 Bruttowertschöpfung im Handel, Gastgewerbe und Verkehr, 1989 = 100, Anteile in % (1989-2000)
T.48 Bruttowertschöpfung im Wirtschaftsbereich Finanzierung, Vermietung und Unternehmensdienstleistungen (1989-2000)
T.49 Bruttoinlandsprodukt und Inländische Verwendung, 1989 = 100, Anteile in % (1989-2000)
T.50 Konsumausgaben und Bruttoanlageinvestition (1989-2000)
T.51 Konsumausgaben der privaten Haushalte und des Staates (1989-2000)
T.52 Bevölkerungszahl und Erwerbstätige (1989-2000)
T.53 Erwerbstätige nach Wirtschaftsbereichen, 1989 = 100 (1989-2000)
T.54 Bruttoinlandsprodukt je Einwohner und je Erwerbstätigen, 1989 = 100 (1989-2000)
T.56 Entwicklung des BIP der DDR, BRD und Deutschland, 1950 =100 (1950-1989)
T.57 Anteil der DDR und der BRD am gesamtdeutschen BIP, in % (1950-1989)
T.58 Anteil der DDR an der gesamtdeutschen Wertschöpfung nach Wirtschaftsbereichen, in % (1950-1989)
T.59 Relation des BIP je Einwohner und je Erwerbstätigen, Deutschland = 100 (1950-1989)
T.62 Vergleich der Dynamik von VGR-Indikatoren der DDR nach dem MPS- und SNA-Konzept in Prozent, 1950=100 (1950-1989)
T.63 Gesellschaftliches Gesamtprodukt zu jeweiligen Preisen und Preisen 1985 sowie Preisindex (Deflator) (1970-1989)
T.64 Vergleich der Wachstumsraten, in % zum Vorjahr (1976-1980)
T.65 Jährliche Preiserhöhung durch neue und weiterentwickelte Erzeugnisse, in Prozent (1970-1988)
T.66 Originale und korrigierte Preisindizes, 1985=100 (1970-1989)
T.67 Verbraucherpreisindizes nach Warengruppen, 1985=100 (1970-1985)
T.68 Preisindizes für die Aggregate der Entstehung des BIP, 1970=100 (1970-1989)
T.69 Preisindizes für die Produktionswerte, die Vorleistungen und die Bruttowertschöpfung nach Wirtschaftsbereichen, 1970=100 (1970-1989)
T.70 Preisindizes der Verwendungspositionen des Bruttoinlandsprodukts, 1970=100 (1970-1980)
T.71 Vergleich der Preisänderung, 1970=100 (1970-1989)
T.73 Deflatoren (Preiskoeffizienten) der Bruttowertschöpfung für die neuen Länder (ohne Berlin), 1995 gegenüber 1991, 1991=1,000 (1995)
T.75 Deflatoren der DDR- Nationaleinkommensrechnung der SZS, 1950=100 (1950-1970)
T.76 Entwicklung der DDR - Abgabepreise für ausgewählte Erzeugnisgruppen, 1950=100 (1950-1970)
T.77 Entwicklung der Bruttowertschöpfung der DDR bei unterschiedlicher Bewertung mit vergleichbaren Preisen 1989 gegenüber 1970, 1970=100 (1970-1989)
T.78 Entwicklung der NSW-Exports der DDR zu effektiven und vergleichbaren Bedingungen, 1975=100 (1975-1988)
T.79 Entwicklung der NSW-Exportrentabilität zu effektiven und vergleichbaren Bedingungen (1975-1988)
T.80 Berechnung des Bruttoinlandsprodukts der DDR in DM auf der Grundlage eines durchschnittlichen Umrechnungskoeffizienten (1950-1989)
T.81 Vergleich von Berechnungen zur Entwicklung des BIP der DDR, 1950=100 (1950-1989)


II. Tabellen aus dem Anhang
Statistische Übersichten zur Entwicklung der Entstehung und Verwendung des Bruttoinlandsprodukts 1950 bis 1989 (Rückrechnungsergebnisse):

1. Deutsche Demokratische Republik (Tab. 1.1 bis Tab. 1.9)
Tab. 1.1.A Bruttoinlandsprodukt insgesamt, je Einwohner, je Erwerbstätigen, Bevölkerung, Erwerbstätige, Konsumausgaben, Bruttoinvestitionen, absolute Angaben (1950-1989)
Tab. 1.1.B Bruttoinlandsprodukt insgesamt, je Einwohner, je Erwerbstätigen, Bevölkerung, Erwerbstätige, Inländische Verwendung, 1950=100
Tab. 1.2 Bruttowertschöpfung nach Wirtschaftsbereichen 1950=100, 1970=100 (1950-1989)
Tab. 1.3 Anteil der Wirtschaftsbereiche an der Bruttowertschöpfung, Insgesamt=100 (1950-1989)
Tab. 1.4 Bruttowertschöpfung je Erwerbstätigen nach Wirtschaftsbereichen 1950=100, 1970=100 (1950-1989)
Tab. 1.5 Erwerbstätige nach Wirtschaftsbereichen. 1950=100 (1950-1989)
Tab. 1.6 Anteil der Wirtschaftsbereiche an den Erwerbstätigen, insgesamt=100 (1950-1989)
Tab. 1.7 Inländische Verwendung des Bruttoinlandsprodukts, Ex- und Import, 1950=100 (1950-1989)
Tab. 1.8 Anteil an der inländischen Verwendung, Inländische Verwendung, insgesamt=100 (1950-1989)
Tab. 1.9 Verwendung des Bruttoinlandsprodukts je Einwohner, 1950=100 (1950-1989)

2. Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Tabellen 2.1 bis 2.9)
Tab. 2.1.A Bruttoinlandsprodukt insgesamt, je Einwohner, je Erwerbstätigen, Bevölkerung, Erwerbstätige, Konsumausgaben, Bruttoinvestitionen, Absolute Angaben (1950-1989)
Tab.2.1.B Bruttoinlandsprodukt insgesamt, je Einwohner, je Erwerbstätigen, Bevölkerung, Erwerbstätige, Inländische Verwendung, 1950=100 (1950-1989) Tab. 2.2 Bruttowertschöpfung nach Wirtschaftsbereichen, 1950=100, 1970=100 (1950-1989)
Tab. 2.3 Anteil der Wirtschaftsbereiche an der Bruttowertschöpfung, Insgesamt=100 (1950-1989)
Tab. 2.4 Bruttowertschöpfung je Erwerbstätigen nach Wirtschaftsbereichen, 1950=100, 1970=100 (1950-1989)
Tab. 2.5 Erwerbstätige nach Wirtschaftsbereichen, 1950=100 (1950-1989)
Tab. 2.6 Anteil der Wirtschaftsbereiche an den Erwerbstätigen, Insgesamt=100 (1950-1989)
Tab. 2.7 Inländische Verwendung des Bruttoinlandsprodukts, Ex- und Import, 1950=100 (1950-1989)
Tab. 2.8 Anteil an der inländischen Verwendung, Inländische Verwendung, insgesamt=100 (1950-1989)
Tab. 2.9 Verwendung des Bruttoinlandsprodukts je Einwohner, 1950=100 (1950-1989)

3. Deutschland (Tabellen 3.1 bis 3.9)
Tab. 3.1.A Bruttoinlandsprodukt insgesamt, je Einwohner, je Erwerbstätigen, Bevölkerung, Erwerbstätige, Konsumausgaben, Bruttoinvestitionen, Absolute Angaben (1950-1989)
Tab. 3.1.B Bruttoinlandsprodukt insgesamt, je Einwohner, je Erwerbstätigen, Bevölkerung,
Erwerbstätige, Inländische Verwendung, 1950=100 (1950-1989)
Tab. 3.2 Bruttowertschöpfung nach Wirtschaftsbereichen, 1950=100, 1970=100 (1950-1989)
Tab. 3.3 Anteil der Wirtschaftsbereiche an der Bruttowertschöpfung, Insgesamt=100 (1950-1989)
Tab. 3.4 Bruttowertschöpfung nach Wirtschaftsbereichen, 1950=100, 1970=100 (1950-1989)
Tab. 3.5 Erwerbstätige nach Wirtschaftsbereichen, 1950=100, 1970=100 (1950-1989)
Tab. 3.6 Anteil der Wirtschaftsbereiche an den Erwerbstätigen, Insgesamt=100 (1950-1989)
Tab. 3.7 Inländische Verwendung des Bruttoinlandsprodukts, Ex- und Import, 1950=100 (1950-1989)
Tab. 3.8 Anteil an der inländischen Verwendung, Inländische Verwendung, insgesamt=100
(1950-1989)
Tab. 3.9 Verwendung des Bruttoinlandsprodukts je Einwohner, 1950=100 (1950-1989)

4. Vergleich DDR/ BRD – BRD/ DDR (Tabellen 4.1 bis 4.4)
Tabelle 4.1 Bruttoinlandsprodukt insgesamt, je Einwohner, je Erwerbstätigen (1950-1989)
Tabelle 4.2 Inländische Verwendung, Konsumausgaben, Bruttoinvestitionen insgesamt und je Einwohner, DDR=100 (1950-1989)
Tabelle 4.3 Inländische Verwendung, Konsumausgaben, Bruttoinvestitionen insgesamt und je Einwohner, BRD=100 (1950-1989)
Tabelle 4.4 Export, Import

Tabellen zur Entwicklung des gesellschaftlichen Gesamtprodukts und Nationaleinkommens in der DDR von 1949 bis 1989 (Amtliche Ergebnisse der SZS der DDR nach dem MPS – Konzept).
(Auszug aus dem Statistischen Jahrbuch des gesellschaftlichen Gesamtprodukt und des Nationaleinkommens 1989, Herausgeber: Statistisches Amt der DDR, August 1990. Fundort: Bundesarchiv, DE 2/ 23081):

5. Gesellschaftliches Gesamtprodukt und Nationaleinkommen (Tabellen 4.5 und 4.6)
Alle Angaben in den folgenden Tabellen (Tab. 4.5 und Tab. 4.6) entsprechen der Preis- und Strukturbasis von 1985!

Tab. 4.5 Gesellschaftliches Gesamtprodukt und Nationaleinkommen: In Millionen Mark und Entwicklung, 1950=100 (1949-1989)
Tab. 4.6 Gesellschaftliches Gesamtprodukt und Nationaleinkommen: Struktur in Prozent (1949-1989)

Author's introductionThis article examines the process of social differentiation in the context of sex, gender and sexuality, providing insight into the ways in which all three rely on mutually exclusive and dichotomous categories. Intersexuality, transgender and bisexuality are all exceptions to these boxes and the boundaries around them that can call our categorizations and the decisions we make based upon them into question. Given that social inequality and stratification rely on our ability to make clear distinctions between categories (or boxes, as conceptualized here), the existence of individuals, experiences and identities that cross these boundaries problematizes the persistence of inequality.Author recommendsHere I focus on monographs and edited volumes rather than articles. Many of the chapters in these books began life as journal articles. When examining issues related to intersexuality, transgender and bisexuality, it is important to give voice to individual experiences rather than relying solely on 'expert' accounts by outsiders. These recommendations reflect a mix of scholarly approaches (empirical and theoretical) and narratives.Baumgardner, Jennifer. 2007. Look Both Ways: Bisexual Politics. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.Known for her third‐wave feminist work with co‐author Amy Richards, Baumgardner writes here about her experiences as a bisexual woman. She does a fine job of situating her experiences in a broader social and cultural context, offering a nice mix of the personal and the political. This book is an excellent example of the potential of theoretically informed memoir.Fausto‐Sterling, Anne. 2000. Sexing the Body: Gender Politics and the Construction of Sexuality. New York: Basic Books.As a pioneer among biologists questioning the dichotomy between male and female, Fausto‐Sterling challenges us to question our most basic assumptions about sex, gender and sexuality. In this book, she provides both an historical and a biological/medical perspective on the key issues. Her book is an excellent resource for social scientists who may feel ill‐prepared to answer their students' questions about natural‐science perspectives.Hutchins, Loraine and Lani Kaahumanu, eds. 1991. Bi Any Other Name: Bisexual People Speak Out. Los Angeles, CA: Alyson Books.This book of narratives was one of the first to give voice to the diverse experiences of bisexual people. Students reading this book will hear the stories of bisexual women and men, people of different races and religions, making sense of their experiences living outside the conventional boxes of sexuality.Kessler, Suzanne J. 1998. Lessons from the Intersexed. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.Kessler was doing research (talking to physicians, parents of intersexed children and intersexed adults) on these issues before they even appeared on most people's radar. This book examines key questions related to intersexuality, including the 'medical management' that has become so controversial. Kessler includes a glossary of terms that many readers will find useful.Meyerowitz, Joanne. 2002. How Sex Changed: A History of Transsexuality in the United States. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Historian Meyerowitz provides a detailed overview of the social and cultural development of transsexuality in the United States during the twentieth century. She includes the perspectives of transgendered individuals themselves, as well as the wide‐ranging views of others involved in the debate, from doctors, journalists and lawyers to feminists and gay‐rights advocates.Nestle, Joan, Clare Howell and Ricki Wilchins, eds. 2002. GenderQueer: Voices from Beyond the Sexual Binary. Los Angeles, CA: Alyson Books.This volume of narratives written by people who identify as somehow differently gendered offers students windows into the day‐to‐day lives of people living outside the boxes and on the boundaries. Paired with academic accounts that offer theoretical and conceptual information, this book will show students what it means to live beyond conventional categories – both the pain and the joys of such existences are on display here.Preves, Sharon E. 2003. Intersex and Identity: The Contested Self. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.As one of the first studies to provide first‐person accounts of the experiences of intersexed people, Preves's book offers incredible insights into the consequences of how our society has reacted to intersexuality. Intersex and Identity is also a fine piece of sociology, integrating medical sociology, sociology of gender and the social psychology of Erving Goffman into a compelling theoretical perspective.Rust, Paula C. Rodriguez, ed. 2000. Bisexuality in the United States: A Social Science Reader. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.Rust brings together 30 articles that provide a variety of perspectives on bisexuality, many of them her original contributions to this literature. Anthologies like this one provide an important service, offering overviews of a variety of topics and gathering diverse perspectives in one volume.Serrano, Julia. 2007. Whipping Girl: A Transsexual Woman on Sexism and the Scapegoating of Femininity. Emeryville, CA: Seal Press.Transwoman Serrano provides a compelling account that links our culture's responses to transgender individuals (especially transwomen) to its negative valuation of femininity. Some of what she argues is sure to be controversial; but she examines issues like 'cissexual privilege' (i.e. privileges afforded to those people who do 'normal' genders) as no one else has.Stryker, Susan and Stephen Whittle, eds. 2006. The Transgender Studies Reader. New York, NY: Routledge.While a bit heavy on humanities perspectives, this volume provides an invaluable resource on transgender issues. It gathers important historical documents as well as contemporary perspectives by and about transgender people. Everything from Janice Raymond's infamous diatribe against transwomen to Gayle Rubin's call for feminists to accept and celebrate gender diversity is included here.Online materialsBisexual Resources Center http://www.biresource.org/ This website provides links to 'all things bisexual.' From resources to information about events and conferences to links to bi and bi‐inclusive groups around the world, it can all be found here. Through virtual storefronts, one can purchase books, art and the newest edition of the Bi Resource Guide. Links to 'sibling sites' provide users with access to even more information.Intersex Society of North America website http://www.isna.org/ Intersex Society of North America (ISNA) was one of the first organizations to bring intersexed people together and work to protect their rights. Their site includes a list of frequently asked questions; a section on intersexuality and the law; a library of bibliographies, books and videos; and a section on intersex in the news that also documents mass media portrayals of intersexuality. Note that, in an attempt to get people to rethink the concept of intersexuality, ISNA has started to use the term 'disorders of sexual development.'Trans‐Academics.org website http://www.trans‐academics.org/ This website is a project of the Association for Gender Research, Education, Academia & Action (AGREAA). It provides a reference library, educational materials (including documents on terminology and syllabi), a document for those considering doing research with transgender subjects, links to academic transgender studies programs, and a list of community announcements. Approximately twenty syllabi are posted here.TransBiblio: A Bibliography of Print, AV and Online Resources Pertaining to Transgendered Persons and Transgender Issues http://www.library.uiuc.edu/wst/Transgender%20Bibliography/transbiblio.htm One of the first links on this page is to a list of transgender definitions. Many versions of such a list exist on the Web. Such lists are an important resource for students: most transgender terms are new to them and it helps to have a list to keep referring back to; definitions also provide a good starting point for discussion of relevant issues (e.g., names, pronouns and language). This website indexes: films, autobiography/biography/interviews, cultural and historical studies, other directories and bibliographies, fiction/poetry/drama, literary and cinematic studies, periodicals and journals, photographic and pictorial works, and other websites and online resources. It includes articles on cross‐dressing, gender identity and expression, intersexuality, legal and employment issues, medical and health issues, psychology and counselling, public policy, religion/ethics/spirituality, theory and politics, and transsexualism (general, female‐to‐male and male‐to‐female).FilmsThere are a number of feature films about transgender and bisexual topics, some better than others. Boys Don't Cry (Kimberly Peirce, 1999) and Transamerica (Duncan Tucker, 2005) provide much material for discussion. Note that Boys Don't Cry is very violent at the end (it depicts the rape and murder of Brandon Teena and is based on a true story). Chasing Amy is one of the few feature films that provides a complex portrait of bisexuality. Here are a few documentaries to consider. Hermaphrodites Speak (Cheryl Chase, 1997, 30 minutes)The camera work leaves something to be desired and the voices are sometimes difficult to hear – but this is a film that should not be missed. A small group of intersexed people gathered at the first Intersex Society of North America conference to talk about their experiences. They sit together outside on a blanket, talking matter of factly and compellingly about their lives. (Available for purchase at ISNA website.) No Dumb Questions (Melissa Regan, 2001, 24 minutes)This short film documents the experiences of a family (mother, father and three daughters, ages 6, 9 and 11) who has learned that Uncle Bill is becoming Aunt Barbara. The focus is on the reactions of the various family members; Barbara appears only briefly (but significantly, as this is the first time the family has seen her as a woman) in the film. The different reactions of the daughters provide much material for class discussion. (Available for purchase from various outlets, including nodumbquestions.com.) Southern Comfort (Kate Davis, 2001, 90 minutes)Transman Robert Eads is dying from ovarian cancer. This film documents his life and family, providing a compelling portrait of the failure of the medical profession to provide care to transgender individuals and of the creation of support networks by trans people. Of all the films I have ever shown in a class, none has outraged my students more than this one. It does an excellent job of showing the daily lives of transgender folks and documenting their loves and struggles. (Available for purchase from various outlets.)Sample syllabus Topics for lecture and discussion Week I: Making Sense of Sex, Gender and Sexuality Reading:Connell, Robert William. 2002. 'Difference and Bodies.' Pp. 28–52 in Gender. Malden, MA: Polity Press.Jackson, Stevi. 2005. 'Sexuality, Heterosexuality and Gender Hierarchy: Getting Our Priorities Straight.' Pp. 15–37 in Thinking Straight: The Power, the Promise and the Paradox of Heterosexuality. New York, NY: Routledge.Johnson, Allan. 2005. 'Ideology, Myth, and Magic: Femininity, Masculinity and "Gender Roles".' Pp. 78–98 in The Gender Knot: Unraveling our Patriarchal Legacy (revised and updated edition). Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.Lorber, Judith. 1994. '"Night to His Day": The Social Construction of Gender' and 'Believing Is Seeing: Biology as Ideology.' Pp. 13–54 in Paradoxes of Gender. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Weeks II–III: Beyond Dichotomies The Social Construction of Sex Reading:Fausto‐Sterling, Anne. 2000. 'The Five Sexes, Revisited.'The Sciences 40: pp. 18–23.Preves, Sharon E. 2003. 'Beyond Pink and Blue.' Pp. 1–22 in Intersex and Identity: The Contested Self. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. The Social Construction of Gender Reading:Dozier, Raine. 2005. 'Beards, Breasts and Bodies: Doing Sex in a Gendered World.'Gender & Society 19: 297–316.Lucal, Betsy. 1999. 'What It Means to Be Gendered Me: Life on the Boundaries of a Dichotomous Gender System.'Gender & Society 13: 781–797. The Social Construction of Sexualities Reading:Ault, Amber. 1999. 'Ambiguous Identity in an Unambiguous Sex/Gender System: The Case of Bisexual Women.' Pp. 167–185 in Bisexuality: A Critical Reader. New York, NY: Routledge.Clausen, Jan. 1999. 'Introduction.' Pp. xv–xxix in Apples and Oranges: My Journey through Sexual Identity. Boston. MA: Houghton Mifflin.Putting It All Together ...Reading:Lucal, Betsy. 2008. 'Building Boxes and Policing Boundaries: (De)Constructing Intersexuality, Transgender and Bisexuality.'Sociology Compass 2: 519–536, DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-9020.2008.00099.x.Etc ...Focus questions

What are some ways in which our society supports the idea that sex, gender and sexuality each comprise two mutually exclusive categories? In other words, how do we contribute to building the boxes that Lucal discusses?
Think of an experience from your own life that was a result of people (perhaps yourself) policing the boundaries of the sex, gender or sexuality categories. Describe this experience (its context, your reaction, etc.). How did it feel to be policed in this way? How does 'policing' relate to the concept of norms?
Imagine that you are the parent of an infant born with an intersexed condition. What would you do? What are the pros and cons of medical and surgical intervention? How do these considerations relate to the concept of boxes and boundaries?
Consider a day in the life of a transgendered person, from waking up in the morning to going to bed at night. List all the times throughout the day when this person will be expected to place themselves in one of the gender boxes. Reflect on your list: What would a day in this life be like?
Make a list of stereotypes of and slang terms for bisexuals, gays and lesbians (together and separately) and heterosexuals. How are these lists similar and different? How do these lists relate to the idea of boxes and boundaries?

Seminar/project idea Individual project: considering the wider social context Choose a social institution (e.g. family, education, mass media, religion, health and medicine) related to sex, gender and sexuality. Within that social institution, choose a narrower topic (e.g. access to health care, having and raising children, sitcom images). Do some research on how this specific topic relates to the lives of intersexed, transgender and bisexual individuals. Prepare an oral presentation for your class in which you compare and contrast the issues facing these three groups in the context of this topic. (Keep in mind, of course, that individuals might be members of more than one of these groups.) How are the issues facing each group in this context similar? How are they different?

2006/2007 ; This thesis deals with multimedia communication over unreliable and resource constrained IP-based packet-switched networks. The focus is on estimating, evaluating and enhancing the quality of streaming media services with particular regard to video services. The original contributions of this study involve mainly the development of three video distortion estimation techniques and the successive definition of some application scenarios used to demonstrate the benefits obtained applying such algorithms. The material presented in this dissertation is the result of the studies performed within the Telecommunication Group of the Department of Electronic Engineering at the University of Trieste during the course of Doctorate in Information Engineering. In recent years multimedia communication over wired and wireless packet based networks is exploding. Applications such as BitTorrent, music file sharing, multimedia podcasting are the main source of all traffic on the Internet. Internet radio for example is now evolving into peer to peer television such as CoolStreaming. Moreover, web sites such as YouTube have made publishing videos on demand available to anyone owning a home video camera. Another challenge in the multimedia evolution is inside the house where videos are distributed over local WiFi networks to many end devices around the house. More in general we are assisting an all media over IP revolution, with radio, television, telephony and stored media all being delivered over IP wired and wireless networks. All the presented applications require an extreme high bandwidth and often a low delay especially for interactive applications. Unfortunately the Internet and the wireless networks provide only limited support for multimedia applications. Variations in network conditions can have considerable consequences for real-time multimedia applications and can lead to unsatisfactory user experience. In fact, multimedia applications are usually delay sensitive, bandwidth intense and loss tolerant applications. In order to overcame this limitations, efficient adaptation mechanism must be derived to bridge the application requirements with the transport medium characteristics. Several approaches have been proposed for the robust transmission of multimedia packets; they range from source coding solutions to the addition of redundancy with forward error correction and retransmissions. Additionally, other techniques are based on developing efficient QoS architectures at the network layer or at the data link layer where routers or specialized devices apply different forwarding behaviors to packets depending on the value of some field in the packet header. Using such network architecture, video packets are assigned to classes, in order to obtain a different treatment by the network; in particular, packets assigned to the most privileged class will be lost with a very small probability, while packets belonging to the lowest priority class will experience the traditional best–effort service. But the key problem in this solution is how to assign optimally video packets to the network classes. One way to perform the assignment is to proceed on a packet-by-packet basis, to exploit the highly non-uniform distortion impact of compressed video. Working on the distortion impact of each individual video packet has been shown in recent years to deliver better performance than relying on the average error sensitivity of each bitstream element. The distortion impact of a video packet can be expressed as the distortion that would be introduced at the receiver by its loss, taking into account the effects of both error concealment and error propagation due to temporal prediction. The estimation algorithms proposed in this dissertation are able to reproduce accurately the distortion envelope deriving from multiple losses on the network and the computational complexity required is negligible in respect to those proposed in literature. Several tests are run to validate the distortion estimation algorithms and to measure the influence of the main encoder-decoder settings. Different application scenarios are described and compared to demonstrate the benefits obtained using the developed algorithms. The packet distortion impact is inserted in each video packet and transmitted over the network where specialized agents manage the video packets using the distortion information. In particular, the internal structure of the agents is modified to allow video packets prioritization using primarily the distortion impact estimated by the transmitter. The results obtained will show that, in each scenario, a significant improvement may be obtained with respect to traditional transmission policies. The thesis is organized in two parts. The first provides the background material and represents the basics of the following arguments, while the other is dedicated to the original results obtained during the research activity. Referring to the first part in the first chapter it summarized an introduction to the principles and challenges for the multimedia transmission over packet networks. The most recent advances in video compression technologies are detailed in the second chapter, focusing in particular on aspects that involve the resilience to packet loss impairments. The third chapter deals with the main techniques adopted to protect the multimedia flow for mitigating the packet loss corruption due to channel failures. The fourth chapter introduces the more recent advances in network adaptive media transport detailing the techniques that prioritize the video packet flow. The fifth chapter makes a literature review of the existing distortion estimation techniques focusing mainly on their limitation aspects. The second part of the thesis describes the original results obtained in the modelling of the video distortion deriving from the transmission over an error prone network. In particular, the sixth chapter presents three new distortion estimation algorithms able to estimate the video quality and shows the results of some validation tests performed to measure the accuracy of the employed algorithms. The seventh chapter proposes different application scenarios where the developed algorithms may be used to enhance quickly the video quality at the end user side. Finally, the eight chapter summarizes the thesis contributions and remarks the most important conclusions. It also derives some directions for future improvements. The intent of the entire work presented hereafter is to develop some video distortion estimation algorithms able to predict the user quality deriving from the loss on the network as well as providing the results of some useful applications able to enhance the user experience during a video streaming session. ; Questa tesi di dottorato affronta il problema della trasmissione efficiente di contenuti multimediali su reti a pacchetto inaffidabili e con limitate risorse di banda. L'obiettivo è quello di ideare alcuni algoritmi in grado di predire l'andamento della qualità del video ricevuto da un utente e successivamente ideare alcune tecniche in grado di migliorare l'esperienza dell'utente finale nella fruizione dei servizi video. In particolare i contributi originali del presente lavoro riguardano lo sviluppo di algoritmi per la stima della distorsione e l'ideazione di alcuni scenari applicativi in molto frequenti dove poter valutare i benefici ottenibili applicando gli algoritmi di stima. I contributi presentati in questa tesi di dottorato sono il risultato degli studi compiuti con il gruppo di Telecomunicazioni del Dipartimento di Elettrotecnica Elettronica ed Informatica (DEEI) dell'Università degli Studi di Trieste durante il corso di dottorato in Ingegneria dell'Informazione. Negli ultimi anni la multimedialità, diffusa sulle reti cablate e wireless, sta diventando parte integrante del modo di utilizzare la rete diventando di fatto il fenomeno più imponente. Applicazioni come BitTorrent, la condivisione di file musicali e multimediali e il podcasting ad esempio costituiscono una parte significativa del traffico attuale su Internet. Quelle che negli ultimi anni erano le prime radio che trsmettevano sulla rete oggi si stanno evolvendo nei sistemi peer to peer per più avanzati per la diffusione della TV via web come CoolStreaming. Inoltre siti web come YouTube hanno costruito il loro business sulla memorizzazione/ distribuzione di video creati da chiunque abbia una semplice video camera. Un'altra caratteristica dell'imponente rivoluzione multimediale a cui stiamo assistendo è la diffusione dei video anche all'interno delle case dove i contenuti multimediali vengono distribuiti mediante delle reti wireless locali tra i vari dispositivi finali. Tutt'oggi è in corso una rivoluzione della multimedialità sulle reti IP con le radio, i televisioni, la telefonia e tutti i video che devono essere distribuiti sulle reti cablate e wireless verso utenti eterogenei. In generale la gran parte delle applicazioni multimediali richiedono una banda elevata e dei ritardi molto contenuti specialmente se le applicazioni sono di tipo interattivo. Sfortunatamente le reti wireless e Internet più in generale sono in grado di fornire un supporto limitato alle applicazioni multimediali. La variabilità di banda, di ritardo e nella perdita possono avere conseguenze gravi sulla qualità con cui viene ricevuto il video e questo può portare a una parziale insoddisfazione o addirittura alla rinuncia della fruizione da parte dell'utente finale. Le applicazioni multimediali sono spesso sensibili al ritardo e con requisiti di banda molto stringenti ma di fatto rimango tolleranti nei confronti delle perdite che possono avvenire durante la trasmissione. Al fine di superare le limitazioni è necessario sviluppare dei meccanismi di adattamento in grado di fare da ponte fra i requisiti delle applicazioni multimediali e le caratteristiche offerte dal livello di trasporto. Diversi approcci sono stati proposti in passato in letteratura per migliorare la trasmissione dei pacchetti riducendo le perdite; gli approcci variano dalle soluzioni di compressione efficiente all'aggiunta di ridondanza con tecniche di forward error correction e ritrasmissioni. Altre tecniche si basano sulla creazione di architetture di rete complesse in grado di garantire la QoS a livello rete dove router oppure altri agenti specializzati applicano diverse politiche di gestione del traffico in base ai valori contenuti nei campi dei pacchetti. Mediante queste architetture il traffico video viene marcato con delle classi di priorità al fine di creare una differenziazione nel traffico a livello rete; in particolare i pacchetti con i privilegi maggiori vengono assegnati alle classi di priorità più elevate e verranno persi con probabilità molto bassa mentre i pacchetti appartenenti alle classi di priorità inferiori saranno trattati alla stregua dei servizi di tipo best-effort. Uno dei principali problemi di questa soluzione riguarda come assegnare in maniera ottimale i singoli pacchetti video alle diverse classi di priorità. Un modo per effettuare questa classificazione è quello di procedere assegnando i pacchetti alle varie classi sulla base dell'importanza che ogni pacchetto ha sulla qualità finale. E' stato dimostrato in numerosi lavori recenti che utilizzando come meccanismo per l'adattamento l'impatto sulla distorsione finale, porta significativi miglioramenti rispetto alle tecniche che utilizzano come parametro la sensibilità media del flusso nei confronti delle perdite. L'impatto che ogni pacchetto ha sulla qualità può essere espresso come la distorsione che viene introdotta al ricevitore se il pacchetto viene perso tenendo in considerazione gli effetti del recupero (error concealment) e la propagazione dell'errore (error propagation) caratteristica dei più recenti codificatori video. Gli algoritmi di stima della distorsione proposti in questa tesi sono in grado di riprodurre in maniera accurata l'inviluppo della distorsione derivante sia da perdite isolate che da perdite multiple nella rete con una complessità computazionale minima se confrontata con le più recenti tecniche di stima. Numerose prove sono stati effettuate al fine di validare gli algoritmi di stima e misurare l'influenza dei principali parametri di codifica e di decodifica. Al fine di enfatizzare i benefici ottenuti applicando gli algoritmi di stima della distorsione, durante la tesi verranno presentati alcuni scenari applicativi dove l'applicazione degli algoritmi proposti migliora sensibilmente la qualità finale percepita dagli utenti. Tali scenari verranno descritti, implementati e accuratamente valutati. In particolare, la distorsione stimata dal trasmettitore verrà incapsulata nei pacchetti video e, trasmessa nella rete dove agenti specializzati potranno agevolmente estrarla e utilizzarla come meccanismo rate-distortion per privilegiare alcuni pacchetti a discapito di altri. In particolare la struttura interna di un agente (un router) verrà modificata al fine di consentire la differenziazione del traffico utilizzando l'informazione dell'impatto che ogni pacchetto ha sulla qualità finale. I risultati ottenuti anche in termini di ridotta complessità computazionale in ogni scenario applicativo proposto mettono in luce i benefici derivanti dall'implementazione degli algoritmi di stima. La presenti tesi di dottorato è strutturata in due parti principali; la prima fornisce il background e rappresenta la base per tutti gli argomenti trattati nel seguito mentre la seconda parte è dedicata ai contributi originali e ai risultati ottenuti durante l'intera attività di ricerca. In riferimento alla prima parte in particolare un'introduzione ai principi e alle opportunità offerte dalla diffusione dei servizi multimediali sulle reti a pacchetto viene esposta nel primo capitolo. I progressi più recenti nelle tecniche di compressione video vengono esposti dettagliatamente nel secondo capitolo che si focalizza in particolare solo sugli aspetti che riguardano le tecniche per la mitigazione delle perdite. Il terzo capitolo introduce le principali tecniche per proteggere i flussi multimediali e ridurre le perdite causate dai fenomeni caratteristici del canale. Il quarto capitolo descrive i recenti avanzamenti nelle tecniche di network adaptive media transport illustrando i principali metodi utilizzati per differenziare il traffico video. Il quinto capitolo analizza i principali contributi nella letteratura sulle tecniche di stima della distorsione e si focalizza in particolare sulle limitazioni dei metodi attuali. La seconda parte della tesi descrive i contributi originali ottenuti nella modellizzazione della distorsione video derivante dalla trasmissione sulle reti con perdite. In particolare il sesto capitolo presenta tre nuovi algoritmi in grado di riprodurre fedelmente l'inviluppo della distorsione video. I numerosi test e risultati verranno proposti al fine di validare gli algoritmi e misurare l'accuratezza nella stima. Il settimo capitolo propone diversi scenari applicativi dove gli algoritmi sviluppati possono essere utilizzati per migliorare in maniera significativa la qualità percepita dall'utente finale. Infine l'ottavo capitolo sintetizza l'intero lavoro svolto e i principali risultati ottenuti. Nello stesso capitolo vengono inoltre descritti gli sviluppi futuri dell'attività di ricerca. L'obiettivo dell'intero lavoro presentato è quello di mostrare i benefici derivanti dall'utilizzo di nuovi algoritmi per la stima della distorsione e di fornire alcuni scenari applicativi di utilizzo. ; XIX Ciclo ; 1978

Between 2001 and 2004, the OECD, the European Training Foundation, CEDEFOP and the World Bank carried out extensive reviews of career guidance, looking broadly at related policy and practice in both the labourmarket and the education sectors. In 2002, the European PES Network's Expert Group carried out a study on personalised services with a special focus on guidance and counselling, documenting examples of interesting practice in six Public Employment Services (PES). The present study, commissioned by DG Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities in October 2004 in collaboration with the Heads of PES Network, sets out to build on the accumulated knowledge of the previous reviews by drawing on the responses of 28 countries—the EU25 plus three EEA countries (Iceland, Norway and Switzerland)—to a questionnaire survey that was specifically developed to facilitate the identification and examination of the place of career guidance in the Public Employment Services across Europe. The survey data was complemented by country visits to Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Poland, Slovenia and Sweden, in order to provide a qualitative dimension to the study, and to enable a deeper examination of the issues that were foregrounded in the survey. The key purpose behind the study was to gauge the manner in which—and the extent to which—personalised employment and career guidance services in the European PES have responded to the widely-adopted goal of implementing a personal service approach, identifying the difficulties they have encountered and the innovative responses they have generated. The study is guided by a concern with the practical, i.e. it sets out to describe the day-to-day realities of work in the PES with a view to identifying some of the more promising and successful practices, and to make proposals for improvement. The report provides details of the various models of career guidance in use, the processes that are being implemented across the range of EU and EEA countries, the outcomes of PES interventions, the tools and instruments used to attain such outcomes, the level of staff preparation for delivering career guidance services, and the strategies that are in place in order to ensure quality provision. An understanding of the context in which the PES across Europe provide career guidance services is crucial. The study is therefore careful to locate the survey within the context of the European Employment Strategy (EES), and particularly the European Employment Guideline on prevention and activation. It also draws a link between the latter and the effort to modernise the PES across Europe through the widespread adoption of a personal service model, which gives pride of place to the client, and which strives to guarantee citizens' rights for quality, proximity, personalisation and individualisation of public services. The report further examines the potential of career guidance in contributing to the attainment of the Lisbon targets, particularly in relation to the priorities established by the EES to increase in the adaptability of workers, to attract more people to the labour market, and to increase quality investment in human capital. It is argued that career guidance and personalised employment services have the potential for making such a contribution by advancing lifelong learning goals, by helping to address a whole range of labour market issues, and by supporting efforts to attain social equity and social inclusion goals. While career guidance services are offered in a range of settings, and there is an overlap in the way that these services are understood in such settings, specific attention needs to be given to the way career guidance is defined within the overall mission of the PES. Here we can distinguish three main categories of activities: - The first are those activities that fall within the area of 'personalised employment services', and that have elements of career guidance embedded in them. Employment advisers register and interview clients, and in the process of doing so utilise several guidance-related skills, particularly where efforts are being made to personalise services through client segmentation. While the employment adviser's work at this level—in relation to the initial interview, personal action planning, and assistance in the job-search process through job-broking and other means—cover processes and tasks that are largely administrative, they can also have strong guidance elements embedded in them. The report acknowledges the tensions that arise in the mix and balance between administrative and guidance roles, stressing that both elements are critical in the consolidation of career guidance elements within services that have, as their primary objective, the placing of people in employment. - The second category of activities are specialised career guidance services. These are distinguished from the first category by their more intensive and more focused engagement with the client, on the basis of a deeper knowledge base and extended competence. It is noted that the two categories are increasingly becoming blurred, and that this carries with it both opportunities and challenges for career guidance in a PES context. - A third category of activities considers other career guidance provision that the PES may be involved in, including the production and/or dissemination of labour market information, as well as occupational information, and the provision of career guidance services to students. These three categories of activities need to be considered within the changes in the overall organisational context of the public employment services. One of the key trends that have an impact on the way personalised employment and career guidance services are delivered is responsibility-sharing. The study considers three key aspects in relation to this organisational trend. The first is the sharing of responsibility with regional and local employment offices through decentralisation. The second is the sharing of responsibility with partners through joint service delivery, or through outsourcing and contracting-out. In both cases, the different modalities by means of which the process can be organised are discussed in some detail, particularly with a view to identifying how they can improve—or jeopardise— quality career guidance provision. Indeed, a key challenge that the PES has to confront is to find the right balance between, on the one hand, encouraging innovative, flexible and context-sensitive responses in its decentralised mediation between clients and local labour markets, and on the other, maintaining standards across the whole range of providers, thus ensuring that citizens, irrespective of their geographical or social location, have guaranteed access to the same quality of service that they are equally entitled to. The issue of quality standards in the attempt to manage the decentralisation process is therefore pivotal, and constitutes the third aspect considered. The study highlights different approaches to quality assurance across the 28 European countries, pointing to some of the formative experiences in the use of both quantitative and qualitative strategies in this respect. The change in the organisational context, as well as the paradigmatic shift towards a 'personal service model', has given rise to a number of trends in the delivery of career guidance and career-guidance-related services within Europe's PES. One of the more important is the increase in the range and depth of services that contain career guidance elements. This increase in both supply and demand for services can lead to tensions resulting from the attempt to develop personalised approaches while at the same time catering for increasingly large numbers of unemployed in a differentiated manner. Such tensions are particularly accentuated in those contexts where human and material resources have either remained stable or even been decreased. Europe's PES have developed three key ways to manage these tensions. These include: a resort to partnership and to outsourcing; a shift to self-service modes of delivery; and the introduction of tiering, to provide career guidance in self-access modes and in groups to the majority of clients, reserving to the rest more intensive individual career guidance interviews if and when needed. Employment advisers and career guidance staff are at the crucible of most of the transformations taking place in the PES, and their training, competence levels and motivation have a great bearing on the quality and nature of services provided. The study considers PES staff involved in delivery of personalised employment and career guidance services from a variety of angles. First, attention is given to aspects of their profile, including age, gender and conditions of work. The focus then turns to the distribution of career guidance roles among PES staff, with distinctions being drawn between those systems that have specialised tiers of staff, and those that require their staff to be multi-functional. The implications that such role distributions have for the provision of specialised services on the one hand, and holistic services on the other, are also examined. A third major consideration in regard to staff is the profile required of career guidance and career-guidance-related personnel at the point of recruitment, as well as the opportunities that such staff have for pre-service, induction and continued training. While many systems do not provide initial training, and recruitment is often effected on the basis of proxy qualifications, there is a trend for improved induction and in-service professional development opportunities—linked, for example, to the range of tools and instruments that career-guidance-related staff use in delivering services. Details of the modalities for the provision of training are presented, as are examples of commendable practice from a variety of countries. Training gaps are also identified, many of which were signalled by respondents to the survey who felt that expanded roles required the targeting of specific competence development. In their attempt to modernise their delivery systems, Europe's PES have striven to reach out to a range of clients, giving special attention to those categories that have particularly acute needs for individualised and tailor-made support on the road to employment: these include the long-term unemployed, women returnees, persons with disability, the unqualified and low-skilled, company-closure clients, and customers with a variety of social problems and/or tenuous links to citizenship rights. The study provides details of the different career guidance models and strategies used to deliver services to such clients. It also considers the results of client-satisfaction surveys, which are being used by PES in several countries as an indicator of effectiveness. Despite major improvements in catering for differentiated needs, it is also clear that there are other categories of customers that the PES are finding more challenging to reach. In particular, rising unemployment levels in a tight resource environment are often leading PES to focus narrowly on the unemployed, despite the fact that lifelong career guidance perspectives are adhered to in principle. Swift placement in employment remains a pivotal challenge for the PES, even as they strive to balance this with other career guidance-related goals such as client clarification of occupational strengths and interests, as well as career management and development in a lifelong perspective. In their attempt to maintain the dynamics of transformation into effective and client-oriented organisations, Europe's PES face a number of important challenges. Four are particularly relevant to personalised employment and career guidance services: - The first challenge concerns the need for PES career guidance and careerguidance- related services to be more systematic in the evaluation of their effectiveness. While there is a strong tradition of critical assessment of PES functions overall, the targeted evaluation of career guidance within PES settings needs further attention, even if there are a number of examples of good practice in several countries that could serve to provide models for emulation. A stronger evidence base on the match between career guidance services and policy objectives buttresses claims for improved resourcing. On the other hand, a lack of systematic evidence leads to a situation where the major shifts in the modalities of service delivery—particularly in relation to responsibility-sharing with partners and outsourced agencies—remain unexamined in terms both of efficiency in resource use, and of impact on quality of service. - A second challenge is to get the right balance between integrating career guidance elements in the services and activities provided by the PES, while at the same time maintaining specialist services for deeper engagement with clients when this is required. In many ways this implies the foregrounding of the identity of career guidance within PES settings. In addition, the attempt to deepen career guidance and career-guidance-related services towards a larger range of clients signals the need for more intensive preparation of staff, and for a more careful consideration of the ways in which the administrative and the career guidance roles of providers can be kept in appropriate balance. - A third challenge arises from the necessity to open up guidance services within the PES to embrace a more long-term, life-long perspective: one that is more in tune with the needs of citizens in the emergent knowledge economy. This vision presents enormous resource and training challenges for the PES, but it is likely to be one that it will need to rise to as citizens increasingly move through occupational and training pathways in more complex, non-linear ways. A lifelong perspective on career guidance would entail the PES in stronger collaboration with education institutions and with companies, so that service delivery is experienced by the client in a seamless, holistic way, with community resources being mobilised in support of goals that have, as an outcome, both the private good and the public good. - Finally, the PES has to rise to the challenge of addressing key gaps in service delivery, and to focus on those areas that require further attention and investment in order to facilitate the provision of quality services for all. The way forward lies in addressing these challenges. ; peer-reviewed

Newsletter No. 59 March 1995 Code Number: NL95023 File Sizes: Text: 134K Graphics: Line Drawings (gif) 26K MEETING REPORTS Penetration of Science and Mathematics in the Education of Children in the Primary Schools Sherburne Abbott National Academy of Sciences Advisory Committee on the Environment (ACE) Julia Marton-Lefevre, Executive Director, ICSU ICSU's ACE held its 9th meeting in Paris, in January, and reviewed ICSU's involvement in various programmes dealing with the environment, including the three Global Observing Systems (GCOS, GOOS and GTOS), the IGBP (International Geosphere- Biosphere Programme) and the WCRP (World Climate Research Programme). ACE also continued to advise the Executive Board of ICSLI about rotation of ICSUappointed members of relevant environmental bodies. Special Committee on Science in the former Soviet Union (FSU) and in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) (COMSCEE) Julia Marton-Lefevre Executive Director, ICSU The ICSU Special Committee, COMSCEE, held its annual meeting in Paris in January, and, before continuing to develop its own programme, it reviewed relevant activities carried out by ICSU family members. These were submitted in response to a request from the Chairman of COMSCEE. A review of the activities of partner organisations represented on COMSCEE, such as the European Union, OECD and UNESCO also took place. Electronic Publishing in the Scientific Domain: An international conference of experts to identify issues of concern and to advise on future action for the benefit of science D.F. Shaw Fellow of the Keble College, Oxford ICSU Press and UNESCO have set up a Programme Committee to plan the Conference of Experts in Electronic Publishing, which is to be held in Paris at UNESCO HQ during the week 19-23 February 1996. The first meeting of this Committee was held at ICSU HQ on 15/16 December 1994 and this report summarises the arrangements so far proposed. INASP Board Meeting London, 9 and 10 February 1995 Carol Priestley, Director, INASP The International Network for the Availability of Scientific Publications (INASP) held its meeting on 9 and 10 February in London. It is now in its third year of operation. The Network continues to be run from the small secretariat in London, headed by Carol Priestley as Director, and supported by Pru Watts-Russell as the other member of professional staff. Ard Jongsma returned to the Netherlands in June 1994 to take up work as a freelance journalist. It has, however, been possible to retain his services on a consultancy basis for preparation of some of the INASP publications. The SC-IGBP reports on the 9th meeting Neil Swanberg Deputy Executive Director, IGBP The ninth meeting of the Scientific Committee of the IGBP (SC-IGBP) was held in early December in the small skiresort of Thredbo, Australia. For one day prior to the meeting, the members of the SC participated in a Global Change Seminar at the Australian Academy of Sciences in Canberra, Australia. A series of talks by leading Australian scientists and IGBP Core Project Chairmen provided an excellent counterpoint between national and regional focus and global interests. After this, the SC members proceeded to Thredbo for their meeting. Situated in the Smoky mountains, about a 3-hour drive from Canberra, this off-season locale (late Austral spring) offered a pleasant, inspiring and costeffective environment for the meeting. The all-too-brief glimpse of the Australian countryside and wildlife en route was welcomed by all. Establishment of the new Scientific Committee on Water Research: From COWAR to SCOWAR lanusz Kindler* Chairman The Committee on Water Research (COWAR) was established by ICSU in 1964, as a forum for information exchange among the international nongovernmental scientific associations working in the field of water. In 1976, COWAR became a joint ICSUUITA (Union of International Technical Associations) Committee. By the end of 1992, the General Committee of ICSU reviewed COWAR and recommended that it should become more research oriented in order to meet the challenges of the post-UNCED period. In fact, in recent years COWAR had already been involved in the UNCED process, among others, summarizing research needs of the water sciences arising from the concept of sustainability ({{Water in our common future}}, UNESCO/IHP, 1994). SPOTLIGHTS ON SCIENCE + 1 C? It happened before ! N. Petit-Maire Vice-President, lUGS The world socio-economic and political structures rest, for a large part, upon the presentday climatic conditions, widely dictating the regional availability of fresh water, food and shelter. The study of the realistic archives of the Past (ice and deep-sea cores, continental sediments) provided by long term geological records has shown that the present-day scenario is only transitory within the huge variability of the Earth's climate. Changes in the solar energy received by the planet have induced, at least in the last 2 millions years, alternate cold and warm phases: over the last 20,000 years only, average global temperature has shifted from a glacial maximum (-3 C relative to nowadays) to a warm pattern (+1 C) which peaked between 9,000 and 6,000 years ago, then slowly degradated, due to the slow astronomical trend presently leading the globe toward a new cold phase, at the slow pace of - 0.01 C / century. 6th Meeting of the OECD Megascience Forum Paris, 24-25 January 1995 Francoise Praderie. Coordinator, Megascience Forum During its sixth meeting held in Paris on 24-25 January, government representatives attending the Megascience Forum discussed what the Forum had achieved since the meeting of the OECD Committee for Science and Technology Policy (CSTP) at Ministerial level recommended its creation in March 1992. GETTING TO KNOW World Data Centre C-Glaciology Ailsa Macqueen Manager of World Data Centre - Glaciology and William Mills Scott Polar Research Institute This article provides a brief introduction to World Data Centre C for Glaciology (WDCC), one of the less well-known members of the ICSU family. WDC-C has much to offer all those whose research interests relate in any way to snow and ice. European Network for Research in Global Change (ENRICH) Anver Ghazi ,Head, ENRICH Office With less than 250 weeks left to go until the beginning of the twenty first century, formidable tasks remain for the scientific community to monitor and detect, understand and predict changes in the Earth System and its interactions with human beings. A crucial challenge is to make scientific research results accessible and usable for those involved in the decision making process related to the concept of Sustainable Development. Major international scientific programmes under the umbrella of ICSU, such as the IGBP and WCRP, are dealing with these issues. SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY FOR DEVELOPMENT Science Publishing in Latin America Kai Inge Hillerud, Chairman, ICSU Press ICSU Press and COSTED/IBN organized jointly on 27-30 November 1994 a Workshop on {{Scientific Publications in Latin America}} in Guadalajara, Mexico. Cosponsors of the workshop were UNESCO, the University of Guadalajara, the Third World Academy of Sciences (TWAS), and the Academia de la Investigacion Cientifica (Mexico). Guadalajara and the Scientific Magazines of Latin America Ennio Candotti Editor, Ciencia Hoje There is a clear message coming forth from Guadalajara: there is Science in Latin America. Here, we find a rich biological, environmental and cultural diversity. Historical documents of great value for the history of civilization and for natural paleo-history developed here. In Latin America, complex societies were formed and have survived against the most cruel economic and political pressures. E. Candotti, Editor, Ciencia Hoje, Rio de Janeiro, at the Workshop on Scientific Publications in Latin America in Guadalajara Developing a New Science Agenda for Africa A. RANDFORUM's Mandate Prompted by the fact that Africa had so far failed to put into place mechanisms for the economic and social development of Africa, The Research and Development Forum for ScienceLed Development in Africa (RANDFORUM) was established two years ago with the following guidelines: NEWS IN BRIEF New President of the Third World Academy of Sciences Jose Israel Vargas from Brazil was elected President of the Third World Academy of ciences (TWAS) at its recent Council meeting held in Trieste, Italy on 27 January 1995. NEWS IN BRIEF First International Course in Biotechnology of Plants and Microorganisms 25 October to 13 December 1995 Rehovot, Israel The COBIOTECH's Training Centre of Biotechnology in Agriculture, in cooperation with the Otto Warburg Centre for Agricultural Biotechnology, established at the Faculty of Agriculture, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, is organizing the {{First International Course in Biotechnology of Plants and Microorganisms}} to be held at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel, from 25 October to 13 December 1995. LOOKING AHEAD Future Meetings METEOHYTEC 21 UPDATE WMO International Conference on Meteorological and Hydrological Technology and its Management - METEOHYTEC 21 Geneva, 22-26 May 1995. International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics General Assembly Boulder, Colorado, U.S.A. July 3-14, 1995 Data Challenges of the 21st Century An Inter-Association Workshop, sponsored by the International Association of Seismology and Physics of the Earth's Interior (IASPEI), and co-sponsored by the International Association of Geodesy (lAG), the International Association of Geomagnetism and Aeronomy (lAGA), the ICSU Committee on Data for Science and Technology (CODATA), and the ICSU Panel on World Data Centers (WDC). ICSU Forum 22 October 1995 and SAC IV, 23-27 October 1995 Beijing International Convention Center, Beijing, China The International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) The records of ancient China give detailed descriptions of weather and landscape, providing invaluable documentation of climate and landuse change. We search these records for indicators of global change, and whether changes in China did, or did not, correspond to dramatic changes in warm or cold, wet or dry, periods in other parts of the globe. ICSU Forum on Earth System Research The ICSU Forum taking place on 22 October in Beijing is the third one to accompany a Scientific Advisory Council meeting for the IGBP. The first in Paris (France) in September 1990 addressed global change studies in the different ICSU Unions, the second in Ensenada (Baja California, Mexico) covered different aspects of the follow-up to Agenda 21 and the Rio Conference, and the third Forum addresses scientific issues with regard to Earth system research. The Forum, with an approach to the global change work of the ICSU bodies, provides an introduction to the more specific scientific research and results of the IGBP. Conference and Business Forum Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico 26-29 November 1995 This Conference is jointly organized by the Scientific Committee for Biotechnology (COBIOTECH) of the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) andthe Instituto de Biotecnologia (IBT) de la Universidad Nacional Aut6norna de Mexico (UNAM). This is a first interdisciplinary brainstorming event to discuss the needs, opportunities, and tools for promoting biotechnology through methods of cooperation between all Third Scientific Symposium {{Global Change, Local Challenge}} Geneva, 20-22 September 1995 Background The Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme (HDP) addresses processes that transcend political and cultural boundaries. Understanding and responding to these global scale phenomena requires international coordination and cooperation. HDP contributes to global change research by providing mechanisms to foster collaboration among natural and social scientists, develop compatible and comparable data sets, elaborate common methodologies, and exchange research results. Preparations for 25th meeting of ICSU General Assembly The 25th General Assembly of ICSU will take place in Washington, D.C., in September 1996, hosted by the U.S- National Member of ICSU, the National Academy of Sciences. The General Assembly will open on the evening of 24 September 1996 and will conclude its business by the afternoon of 27 September. A day will be set aside during the Assembly for a Scientific Symposium the programme of which is presently being finalized. OBITUARIES Tribute to Cyril Ponnamperuma by Professor Julian Chela-Flores from Venezuela, TWAS Fellow (Written for TWAS Nezvsletter) PUBLICATIONS ICSU 1995 Year Book The 1995 ICSU Year Book was published in March This valuable reference tool contains 475 pages of information on the Council, its Members, Committees, Associates and partners with details of their activities and chief scientific officers. In addition to an alphabetical address list of over 2,000 leading scientists throughout the world, the Year Book contains a comprehensive calendar of international scientific meetings from the present to the year 2000. It is an essential publication for scientific and university libraries, institutions and individuals with serious interests in scientific research. Guidelines for Scientific Publishing Second edition ICSU Press Publishing Services has concentrated its efforts on being a source of advice and counsel to ICSU bodies in matters relating to scientific publishing, including financial, legal and technical aspects, and as an agent for any family member wishing to engage in the publication of books or journals. It is within this context of this advisory role that these revised Guidelines for Scientific Publishing have been issued. This book may be obtained from the ICSU Secretariat. Universality of Science The eighth edition of Universality of Science}} (1995/1996) is now ready for distribution. This handbook of ICSU's Standing Committee on Freedom in the Conduct of Science (SCFCS) gives advice to organizers of international scientific meetings. The 51-page booklet has kept the same blue cover ever since the first edition and is widely known as {{The Blue Book}}. CALENDAR OF MEETINGS 27 March - 7 April 10-11 April: 12 - 28 April 20 - 21 April 24 - 26 April 02 - 03 May 04 - 05 May 6 May 29 May - 4 June 15 -16 June 21 June 22 - 23 June Copyright 1995 ICSU

Adequate energy supply has become one of the vital components of human development and economic growth of nations. In fact, major components of the global economy such as transportation services, communications, industrial processes, and construction activities are dependent on adequate energy resources. Even mining and extraction of energy resources, including harnessing the forces of nature to produce energy, are dependent on accessibility of sufficient energy in the appropriate form at the desired location. Therefore, energy resource planning and management to provide appropriate energy in terms of both quantity and quality has become a priority at the global level. The increasing demand for energy due to growing population, higher living standards, and economic development magnifies the importance of reliable energy plans. In addition, the uneven distribution of traditional fossil fuel energy sources on the Earth and the resulting political and economic interactions are other sources of complexity within energy planning. The competition over fossil fuels that exists due to gradual depletion of such sources and the tremendous thirst of current global economic operations for these sources, as well as the sensitivity of fossil fuel supplies and prices to global conditions, all add to the complexity of effective energy planning. In addition to diversification of fossil fuel supply sources as a means of increasing national energy security, many governments are investing in non-fossil fuels, especially renewable energy sources, to combat the risks associated with adequate energy supply. Moreover, increasing the number of energy sources also adds further complication to energy planning. Global warming, resulting from concentration of greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere, influences energy infrastructure investments and operations management as a result of international treaty obligations and other regulations requiring that emissions be cut to sustainable levels. Burning fossil fuel, as one of the substantial driving factors of global warming and energy insecurity, is mostly impacted by such policies, pushing forward the implementation of renewable energy polices. Thus, modern energy portfolios comprise a mix of renewable energy sources and fossil fuels, with an increasing share of renewables over time. Many governments have been setting renewable energy targets that mandate increasing energy production from such sources over time. Reliance on renewable energy sources certainly helps with reduction of greenhouse gas emissions while improving national energy security. However, the growing implementation of renewable energy has some limitations. Such energy technologies are not always as cheap as fossil fuel sources, mostly due to immaturity of these energy sources in most locations as well as high prices of the materials and equipment to harness the forces of nature and transform them to usable energy. In addition, despite the fact that renewable energy sources are traditionally considered to be environmentally friendly, compared to fossil fuels, they sometimes require more natural resources such as water and land to operate and produce energy. Hence, the massive production of energy from these sources may lead to water shortage, land use change, increasing food prices, and insecurity of water supplies. In other words, the energy production from renewables might be a solution to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, but it might become a source of other problems such as scarcity of natural resources.The fact that future energy mix will rely more on renewable sources is undeniable, mostly due to depletion of fossil fuel sources over time. However, the aforementioned limitations pose a challenge to general policies that encourage immediate substitution of fossil fuels with renewables to battle climate change. In fact, such limitations should be taken into account in developing reliable energy policies that seek adequate energy supply with minimal secondary effects. Traditional energy policies have been suggesting the expansion of least cost energy options, which were mostly fossil fuels. Such sources used to be considered riskless energy options with low volatility in the absence of competitive energy markets in which various energy technologies are competing over larger market shares. Evolution of renewable energy technologies, however, complicated energy planning due to emerging risks that emanated mostly from high price volatility. Hence, energy planning began to be seen as investment problems in which the costs of energy portfolio were minimized while attempting to manage associated price risks. So, energy policies continued to rely on risky fossil fuel options and small shares of renewables with the primary goal to reduce generation costs. With emerging symptoms of climate change and the resulting consequences, the new policies accounted for the costs of carbon emissions control in addition to other costs. Such policies also encouraged the increased use of renewable energy sources. Emissions control cost is not an appropriate measure of damages because these costs are substantially less than the economic damages resulting from emissions. In addition, the effects of such policies on natural resources such as water and land is not directly taken into account. However, sustainable energy policies should be able to capture such complexities, risks, and tradeoffs within energy planning. Therefore, there is a need for adequate supply of energy while addressing issues such as global warming, energy security, economy, and environmental impacts of energy production processes. The effort in this study is to develop an energy portfolio assessment model to address the aforementioned concerns.This research utilized energy performance data, gathered from extensive review of articles and governmental institution reports. The energy performance values, namely carbon footprint, water footprint, land footprint, and cost of energy production were carefully selected in order to have the same basis for comparison purposes. If needed, adjustment factors were applied. In addition, the Energy Information Administration (EIA) energy projection scenarios were selected as the basis for estimating the share of the energy sources over the years until 2035. Furthermore, the resource availability in different states within the U.S. was obtained from publicly available governmental institutions that provide such statistics. Specifically, the carbon emissions magnitudes (metric tons per capita) for different states were extracted from EIA databases, states' freshwater withdrawals (cubic meters per capita) were found from USGS databases, states' land availability values (square kilometers) were obtained from the U.S. Census Bureau, and economic resource availability (GDP per capita) for different states were acquired from the Bureau of Economic Analysis.In this study, first, the impacts of energy production processes on global freshwater resources are investigated based on different energy projection scenarios. Considering the need for investing on energy sources with minimum environmental impacts while securing maximum efficiency, a systems approach is adopted to quantify the resource use efficiency of energy sources under sustainability indicators. The sensitivity and robustness of the resource use efficiency scores are then investigated versus existing energy performance uncertainties and varying resource availability conditions. The resource use efficiency of the energy sources is then regionalized for different resource limitation conditions in states within the U.S. Finally, a sustainable energy planning framework is developed based on Modern Portfolio Theory (MPT) and Post-Modern Portfolio Theory (PMPT) with consideration of the resource use efficiency measures and associated efficiency risks.In the energy-water nexus investigation, the energy sources are categorized into 10 major groups with distinct water footprint magnitudes and associated uncertainties. The global water footprint of energy production processes are then estimated for different EIA energy mix scenarios over the 2012-2035 period. The outcomes indicate that the water footprint of energy production increases by almost 50% depending on the scenario. In fact, growing energy production is not the only reason for increasing the energy related water footprint. Increasing the share of water intensive energy sources in the future energy mix is another driver of increasing global water footprint of energy in the future. The results of the energies' water footprint analysis demonstrate the need for a policy to reduce the water use of energy generation. Furthermore, the outcomes highlight the importance of considering the secondary impacts of energy production processes besides their carbon footprint and costs. The results also have policy implications for future energy investments in order to increase the water use efficiency of energy sources per unit of energy production, especially those with significant water footprint such as hydropower and biofuels.In the next step, substantial efforts have been dedicated to evaluating the efficiency of different energy sources from resource use perspective. For this purpose, a system of systems approach is adopted to measure the resource use efficiency of energy sources in the presence of trade-offs between independent yet interacting systems (climate, water, land, economy). Hence, a stochastic multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) framework is developed to compute the resource use efficiency scores for four sustainability assessment criteria, namely carbon footprint, water footprint, land footprint, and cost of energy production considering existing performance uncertainties. The energy sources' performances under aforementioned sustainability criteria are represented in ranges due to uncertainties that exist because of technological and regional variations. Such uncertainties are captured by the model based on Monte-Carlo selection of random values and are translated into stochastic resource use efficiency scores. As the notion of optimality is not unique, five MCDM methods are exploited in the model to counterbalance the bias toward definition of optimality. This analysis is performed under (")no resource limitation(") conditions to highlight the quality of different energy sources from a resource use perspective. The resource use efficiency is defined as a dimensionless number in scale of 0-100, with greater numbers representing a higher efficiency. The outcomes of this analysis indicate that despite increasing popularity, not all renewable energy sources are more resource use efficient than non-renewable sources. This is especially true for biofuels and different types of ethanol that demonstrate lower resource use efficiency scores compared to natural gas and nuclear energy. It is found that geothermal energy and biomass energy from miscanthus are the most and least resource use efficient energy alternatives based on the performance data available in the literature. The analysis also shows that none of the energy sources are strictly dominant or strictly dominated by other energy sources. Following the resource use efficiency analysis, sensitivity and robustness analyses are performed to determine the impacts of resource limitations and existing performance uncertainties on resource use efficiency, respectively. Sensitivity analysis indicates that geothermal energy and ethanol from sugarcane have the lowest and highest resource use efficiency sensitivity, respectively. Also, it is found that from a resource use perspective, concentrated solar power (CSP) and hydropower are respectively the most and least robust energy options with respect to the existing performance uncertainties in the literature.In addition to resource use efficiency analysis, sensitivity analysis and robustness analysis, of energy sources, this study also investigates the scheme of the energy production mix within a specific region with certain characteristics, resource limitations, and availabilities. In fact, different energy sources, especially renewables, vary in demand for natural resources (such as water and land), environmental impacts, geographic requirements, and type of infrastructure required for energy production. In fact, the efficiency of energy sources from a resource use perspective is dependent upon regional specifications, so the energy portfolio varies for different regions due to varying resource availability conditions. Hence, the resource use efficiency scores of different energy technologies are calculated based on the aforementioned sustainability criteria and regional resource availability and limitation conditions (emissions, water resources, land, and GDP) within different U.S. states, regardless of the feasibility of energy alternatives in each state. Sustainability measures are given varying weights based on the emissions cap, available economic resources, land, and water resources in each state, upon which the resource use efficiency of energy sources is calculated by utilizing the system of systems framework developed in the previous step. Efficiency scores are graphically illustrated on GIS-based maps for different states and different energy sources. The results indicate that for some states, fossil fuels such as coal and natural gas are as efficient as renewables like wind and solar energy technologies from resource use perspective. In other words, energy sources' resource use efficiency is significantly sensitive to available resources and limitations in a certain location.Moreover, energy portfolio development models have been created in order to determine the share of different energy sources of total energy production, in order to meet energy demand, maintain energy security, and address climate change with the least possible adverse impacts on the environment. In fact, the traditional (")least cost(") energy portfolios are outdated and should be replaced with (")most efficient(") ones that are not only cost-effective, but also environmentally friendly. Hence, the calculated resource use efficiency scores and associated statistical analysis outcomes for a range of renewable and nonrenewable energy sources are fed into a portfolio selection framework to choose the appropriate energy mixes associated with the risk attitudes of decision makers. For this purpose, Modern Portfolio Theory (MPT) and Post-Modern Portfolio Theory (PMPT) are both employed to illustrate how different interpretations of (")risk of return(") yield different energy portfolios. The results indicate that 2012 energy mix and projected world's 2035 energy portfolio are not sustainable in terms of resource use efficiency and could be substituted with more reliable, more effective portfolios that address energy security and global warming with minimal environmental and economic impacts. ; 2013-12-01 ; Ph.D. ; Engineering and Computer Science, Civil, Environmental and Construction Engineering ; Doctoral ; This record was generated from author submitted information.

Correspondence between Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles, who is living in exile in San Diego, CA and Gen. José María Tapia. The latter was arrested few days after the exile of Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles. He was exiled for being close to Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles. Gen. Tapia informs Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles that he settled in Los Angeles, CA and established an importation business of products from Mexico. Reply of acknowledgment. Gen. Tapia informs Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles that he sent his greetings to Mr. Louis G. Brittingham and that he contacted Mr. Hugh D. Cook. The latter is the manager of a farm cooperative that breeds pigs and produces food for livestock. The cooperative is called Fontana Farms and is located in the San Fernando Valley. Mr. Cook is interested in meeting with Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles and for that, he invites him to visit the farm. Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles apologizes for not being able to visit the farm due to his health issues. Gen. Tapia informs Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles of a note published in the Times and other newspapers regarding the issues in the oil industry in Mexico caused by the workers' claims. He informs that catholic churches have been reopened, even those that were close for years, which is contradictory to the "radical measures" and "socialist education" of President Cárdenas. The strike by stevedores in Ensenada was stopped by military tropes. The strike by mining workers and the terrible situation in Spain. He informs about a shift of Cárdenas' policies for employers and workers. Reply by Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles commenting on the news that Tapia gave him. Gen. Tapia sends to Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles a copy of the letter he sent to José J. Farrel in which the latter proposed him to return to Mexico by means of his friends' connections. Gen. Tapia replied that he would not accept to return to Mexico before Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles is able to do so. He tells him the story of his apprehension and the interrogation he was subjected to. He asks him to thank his friends for their good intentions. Gen. Tapia informs Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles of the negotiations with the Clemente Jacques Co. to have exclusive rights for the distribution of its products in Southern United States. He adds four letters explaining the conditions of the agreement, market studies and Mexican production in the region. Gen. Tapia informs of his visit to Mr. Louis Brittingham so he can help him get a loan from the Citizens National Trust & Savings Bank for his importation business. Gen. Plutarco Elías writes a letter to the bank as a guarantee for the loan. Mr. Louis Brittingham informs Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles that the loan was approved and its conditions. Memorandum from Gen. José María Tapia to Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles giving information about the citrus industry so he can help him with his knowledge on that industry to start a business in Mexico. Gen. Tapia sends to Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles information and photos (they do not appear) of the place he rented for his business. Reply commenting on an article published by La Opinión and thanking for the photos and description of the business. Gen. Tapia requests Plutarco Elías Calles an extension to make the payment of the credit since the company Clemente Jacques has had some difficulties. He tells him about the profitability of business related to poultry, citrus and milk in California. Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles informs Gen. Tapia of the message he received from Washington in relation to Vasconcelos. Gen. Tapia informs Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles he will be sending a letter from B.A. Vasconcelos and tells him that Vasconcelos will be in Tucson, AZ for a conference. Gen. Tapia informs Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles of his financial situation, the progress of his business and accepts Gen. PEC's offer to cover the loan of the bank. He promises he will not disappoint him and states he will pay him back. Paperwork for payment to the bank and a receipt signed by Gen. Tapia for $3,900 dollars that Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles lent him. Letters from Gen. Tapia to Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles informing about his business and news published by the American press, as well as news about relatives and friends. Invoices and receipts for medical services at the Mercy Hospital in Los Angeles, CA in the name of Gen. Tapia. Gen. Tapia sends two letters to Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles. The first letter is in relation to Melchor Ortega. The second letters refers to Gen. Andrew Almazán and the uprising against the government for the electoral fraud. Gen. Tapia is not confident that Almazán is willing to fight and he is concerned to be arrested by the authorities. He asks Melchor Ortega to keep him informed about the movements of the organization. Correspondence between Gen. Tapia and Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles regarding the letter that the former sent on behalf of the latter to B.A. Vasconcelos, who is in Mexico. In the letter, Gen. Tapia states that Manuel Avila Camacho (elected president) is a man of good intentions and that the people will like him once his actions and policies show he will not follow his predecessor's steps. Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles states that he values the suggestions of B.A. Vasconcelos to achieve unity and peace in the nation. Telegram from Gen. Tapia to Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles informing that he is trying to save supporters who were betrayed by Almazán. Gen. Tapia asks Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles to receive him and some friends who live in San Fernando, CA. Christmas greetings for the year 1941. / Correspondencia entre el general PEC, quien se encuentra en el exilio, en San Diego, Cal., E.U.A. y el general José María Tapia, quien pocos días después de la salida al destierro del general PEC fue aprehendido, interrogado y enviado también al exilio por su cercanía con el general PEC. El general Tapia informa al general PEC haberse establecido en Los Ángeles, Cal. y tener un negocio de importaciones de artículos y mercancías procedentes de México. Respuesta de enterado. El general Tapia escribe al general PEC informando haber saludado de su parte al señor Louis G. Brittingham, haber establecido contacto con el señor Hugh D. Cook, gerente de una organización cooperativa de granjas de cría de puercos y plantas para beneficiar alimentos para los animales, llamada Fontana Farms, que se encuentra en el Valle de San Fernando, quien está muy interesado en conocer y entrevistarse con el general PEC y lo invita a conocer esas industrias agrícolas cuando él quiera. El general PEC se disculpa por no poder atender la invitación porque su salud no se lo permite pero que ya recibió información de las granjas. El general Tapia informa al general PEC de una nota publicada en el Times y otros periódicos relativa a problemas en la industria petrolera de México por las demandas de los obreros que se quieren ir a huelga; de noticias procedentes de Tepic, Nay. que informan que todos los templos católicos han sido abiertos al culto incluso los cerrados durante años, lo que contradice los postulados de "medidas radicales" y "educación socialista" del presidente Cárdenas; de que la huelga de estibadores de Ensenada fue rota por las tropas federales; de la nueva huelga de mineros y de la terrible situación en España; del cambio de política del general Cárdenas, que tiene un nuevo discurso respecto a las relaciones obrero patronales. Respuesta del general PEC comentando las noticias que le comunica el general Tapia. Respecto a un posible cambio del gobierno de México frente a los factores de la producción dice que es falso que "una pasión ciega y una obcecación sectaria son las fuentes inspiradoras de los actos del gobierno. El general Tapia envía el general PEC copia de la carta con la que él contesta la que le escribió el señor José J. Farell, en la que le propone ejercer influencias y promover con los amigos su regreso a México, a lo que Tapia contesta que no puede aceptar esa posibilidad hasta que no se haga justicia al general PEC. Le relata cómo fue su aprehensión, el interrogatorio al que fue sometido en la Inspección General de Policía, las órdenes que recibió del general Vicente González de abandonar el país de inmediato, las vejaciones a que fue sometido en Mexicali, cuando el avión en el que viajaba hizo una parada técnica y le pide agradezca a sus amigos sus buenas intenciones. El general Tapia informa al general PEC de los tratos que ha tenido con la casa Clemente Jacques para obtener la exclusividad en el manejo de sus productos en el sur de Estados Unidos. Anexa cuatro cartas que escribió estableciendo los términos del trato, el local, estudios de mercado, de producción mexicana por zonas. El general Tapia informa al general PEC de su visita al señor Louis Brittingham, del Citizens National Trust & Savings Bank para que le facilite un crédito para el negocio de importaciones, del cual será aval el general, quien escribe una carta haciéndose responsable. El señor Louis G. Brittingham contesta al general PEC informando que el crédito ha sido otorgado y de las condiciones del mismo. Memorándum para el general PEC del general José María Tapia anexando, a solicitud del señor Brittingham, información preparada por el ingeniero B. E. Taylor acerca de la industria para conservar jugos de cítricos, en lo cual es experto y piensa que sus conocimientos pudieran aplicarse para iniciar este negocio en la República Mexicana. El general Tapia envía al general PEC información y fotos (que no aparecen) del local que rentó para el negocio de importaciones. Respuesta comentando un artículo difamatorio publicado por La Opinión y agradeciendo fotos y descripción del negocio. El general Tapia solicita al general PEC avale una prórroga para el pago del crédito que le otorgó el banco, ya que no ha podido cubrirlo por dificultades laborales de la casa Clemente Jacques; le comenta lo productivo de los negocios relacionados con la producción avícola, de cítricos y lechera en California. El general PEC informa al general Tapia del mensaje que recibió de Washington relativo a Vasconcelos y a las dificultades para comunicarse con él. El general Tapia informa al general PEC estar enviándole una carta del licenciado Vasconcelos que le hizo llegar el señor Ahumada y le comenta las gestiones hechas por el general PEC para prolongar el permiso de estancia en Estados Unidos del licenciado Vasconcelos, quien finalmente lo que quería era regresar a México y por eso se consideró deportado, aunque en unos días estará en Tucson, Arizona, dictando una conferencia. Se pregunta Tapia si no es una contradicción. El general Tapia informa al general PEC de su situación financiera, de la marcha de su negocio y acepta su generoso ofrecimiento de cubrir la deuda en el Banco; le asegura que no lo defraudará y que le irá pagando en parcialidades. Trámites para el pago al banco y recibo que extiende el general Tapia por la cantidad de 3,900.00 dólares que le prestó el general PEC. Cartas que el general Tapia escribe regularmente al general PEC, informando de su negocio, comentando las noticias que sobre México publica la prensa norteamericana, así como asuntos relativos a amigos y familiares. Facturas y recibos por servicios de ambulancia, atención médica y hospitalización en el Mercy Hospital, de Los Ángeles, Cal., del general José Ma. Tapia. El general Tapia envía al general PEC copia de dos cartas, una dirigida a Melchor Ortega y otra al general Andrew Almazán, relativos al levantamiento contra el gobierno federal por el fraude electoral cometido contra Almazán. Tapia no está seguro de que Almazán esté dispuesto a dar la batalla; teme que sean detenidos por las autoridades y pide a Melchor Ortega le tenga confianza e informe de cómo va la organización del movimiento. Correspondencia entre el general Tapia y el general PEC relativa a la carta que el primero escribió en nombre del segundo al licenciado Vasconcelos, quien está en México, en la que valora la figura del general Manuel Ávila Camacho, presidente electo, quien es un hombre bien intencionado y que seguramente se ganará la voluntad popular cuando con sus acciones y políticas demuestre que no seguirá los pasos de su antecesor. Afirma el general PEC que valora las sugestiones e ideas del licenciado Vasconcelos para lograr la unidad revolucionaria y la tranquilidad de la nación. Telegrama del general Tapia al general PEC informando estar tratando de salvar a muchos compañeros que fueron traicionados por Almazán. El general Tapia solicita al general PEC lo reciba en compañía de varios amigos que viven en San Fernando, Cal. Felicitaciones con motivo de las fiestas navideñas del año 1941.

1. Power and Discourse in La Fontaine's Beast Fables 2. Lockdown: Real-life Paradoxical Experience to Sustain Human Relationships, Healthy Lives, and Well Being 3. Effect of Parenting Stress on Parenting Sense of Competence AmongMothers of Children with ADHD 4. Sustainable Development Goals and Juvenile Justice System: A Comparative Analysis5. Influence of Karma at Workplace: With Special Reference to Higher Education Institutions in South Gujarat Region6. Cross-Walk of Professional Competencies for Social and Emotional Wellbeing to Cater Mental Health Problems in Schools 7. Emotional Intelligence Manages Sustainable Development for an Organization -the Contribution of Psychological Well-Being 8. The Enactment of Social Sustainable Goals in IT Organizations 9. Role of Higher Education in Achieving the Sustainble Development Goals (SDGs) 10. "Happiness Engineering": Acceptance and Commitment Therapy for University Students' Classroom Engagement, Mental Health, and Psychological Flexibility 11. Work-Life Balance and Its Challenges for Medical Professionals in the Health Care Sector 12. Political Representation of Aesop's Beast Fables in Augustan Age 13. Miro Application of Web Whiteboard for Sustainable Development in Teaching and Learning Research 14. A Study of Female Identity and Marital Discord in the Selected Works of Anita Desai 15. Role of Digital Competency in Sustainable Quality Education 16. Digital Infrastructure for SHGs of Tribal Women in Odisha: Means for MSMEs to Achieve SDGs 17. Fetishism: Paradoxing the Narratives of Sustainable Development Goals 18. A Systematic Review Study on the Quality of Life Associated withDepression Among the Elderly in India 19. Influence of Personality and Sector of Employment on PerceivedSocial Support and Work Family Conflict 20. Prophesying the Future Retailing Model of Emerging Markets withSpecial Focus on India 21. Family Conflict and Rivalry in The Shipwrecked Prince and King Lear: A Comparative Study22. The Subtle Warnings Signs of Suicidal Thought and Behaviour Exhibited by Hannah Baker in "Thirteen Reasons Why" by Jay Asher 23. Demographic Variables and Job Satisfaction Among College Lecturers 24. Sustainable Crisis: Psychoanalytical Reading of Populism and Trauma in Select War Narrative 25. Impact of Problematic Internet Use on Psychological Well-Being, Hyperventilation and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Among Youth 26. Psychological Distress Among IT Sector Employees During COVID-19 Pandemic in India 27. Triangulation Study on LGBTQ Inclusion with Sustainable Development Goal 10 using Twitter Data and Topic Modelling 28. Community Participation in Public Space Planning and Management: Cases of Indian Cities 29. Surveying Interest and Engagement in Political Discourse 30. Opinion Mining of National Education Policy 2020 to Improve Its Implementation for Women Empowerment 31. Factors Affecting Entrepreneurship Intention: An Empirical Study with Reference to Indian University Students 32. Criminogenic Cognition of Juveniles in Conflict with the Law and Use of theInternet with the Victim-Offender Overlap 33. Testifying Legal Admissibility: Germline and Embryo Editing Focusing on SDG 15-Life on Earth 34. Exploring Psychological Wellbeing of College Students in Relation to Their Demographic Identity: Predictors and Prevalence 35. India and Nepal Bridging the Gap with Hydropower Project EnhancingScience and Technological Partnership 36. Systematic Literature Review of Interlinkages between SustainableDevelopment & Human Development 37. Impact of COVID-19 on Domestic Workers with Special Reference to Pune Region38. Entrepreneurial Education and Entrepreneurial Intentions: Mediation of Entrepreneurial Mindset and Moderated Mediation of Creativity 39. Role of Corporate Social Responsibility in Achieving Sustainable Development Goals40. Feasibility of DREAMS Afterschool Intervention to Implement SDG - 4, 5 and 11 in Rural India 41. Crowdsourcing: A Technique to Sustain the Educational Industry 42. Identity of Scheduled Tribes in India - A Systematic Review 43.Strategies Employed to Acquire and Reflect Political Knowledge 44. Impact of Select Vocabulary Learning Strategies (VLS) on Vocabulary Acquisition of Tertiary Level Learners 45. Socialization of Culture: Sociopolitical and Sociocultural Contexts Ensuing Cultural Transition and Hybridity 46. Parables of the Lost and Found: A Semiotic Dissection of Religious Discourse 47. Incorporating Research-based Pedagogical Implications in Grammar Through the Android Application: An Experimental Study 48. Legacy and Evolution of Panchayati Raj Institutions and TribalSelf-Governance in India 49. Prospects of PESA Act and Inhibitions in its Implementation in ScheduledAreas of Jharkhand, India 50. Exploring Health Information Seeking Behaviour Among Young Oraon Women in Jharkhand51. Evolution and Implementation of Land Acquisition Legislations in India 52. Change in Gender Relations: Re-Visiting Gender-Based Violence in Tribal Communities of India 53. "Sarna Adivasi" Religion Code: Contextualizing Religious Identity of Tribals in India 54. Sustainable Fashion: "Form Leisure"- Deconstructing Men's Formal ShirtsInto a Women's Wear Collection 55. Kondapalli Toys: White Woodcraft of Andhra Pradesh 56. Role of Consumer Perception on Genderless Fashion in Deconstructing Gender Stereotypes in Indian Society 57. Denial of Human Right to Water During Pandemic: Experience of Indian Slum 58. Dynamics of the Demographic Transition on Economic Development: Evidence From SRS Data in India 59. From Function to Fashion, Face Masks as a Flourishing New Product60. Cartoons and their Visual Aspects Affecting Children 61. Ergonomic issues faced by transporters of LPG gas cylinders 62. Proposed Concept for Mysore Pak Packaging 63. Livelihood Experiences of Working Women with Disability during COVID-19: Predicament and Prospect. 64. Developing Storytelling as a Method of the Design process in Bachelors of Interior Design Education 65. Review on Incorporating Visual Storytelling as a Method of theDesign Process in Design Education 66. Does Musically Responsive School Curriculum enhance Reasoning Abilities and Helps in Cognitive Development of School Students? 67. Music and Its Effect on Mathematical and Reading Abilities of Students: Pedagogy for Twenty-First Century Schools 68. An Exploration of the Complexities Involved in the Regulation of Green Buildings 69. The Makers and Users of Fashion, a Study of Contrast 70. Beyond Classroom: Impact of Covid-19 on Education System 71. Implementation of Rawls Theory of Justice in the Present Indian Reservation System 72. Financial Inclusion: Conceptual Understanding to Indian Report Card 73. Contemplating the Problems and Issues Related to Corporate Social Responsibility in India 74. Untapped Power of Music-Integrated Pedagogy: Its Role in Enhancement of "Behaviour and Self-Confidence" among School Students 75. Casualty of Dignity and Other Rights of Children Born Out of Casual Relationship: A Legal Conundrum 76. Women in Civil Engineering Profession: Career Profile of Indian Women 77. Factors That Make Public-Private Partnerships Appealing for Highway Projects in Gujarat 78. Risk Management in Public-Private Partnership-Based Infrastructure Projects: A Critical Analysis79. Construction Safety Practices: An Analysis 80. The Relevance of Kitchen Vastu Guidelines in Relation to Architecture 81. Drone Rules 2021: Analysis and Implications for India's UAV Programme 82. Toy Companies Using Unconventional Methods to Stay Relevant and Reach Evolving Minds of the Parents and Children 83. Behavior of Speed Breaker in Urban Context 84. Aesthetics of Distortion and the Absurd: Fusing Redemptive Existentialism andBerkeley's Metaphysics in Beckett's Plays 85. Explicit and Implicit Self-Esteem of Narcissists and Non-Narcissists.

Frontmatter -- CONTENTS -- THE CONTRIBUTORS -- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- TABLES AND FIGURES -- PREFACE -- 1 INTRODUCTION -- PART 1 ENERGY POLICY DELIVERY IN GENERAL -- 2 SIX MAXIMS FOR INFORMED ENERGY ANALYSIS AND POLICY -- 3 ENDING SUBSIDIES FOR FOSSIL FUEL EXPLORATION IN A WORLD OF UNBURNABLE CARBON -- 4 WERE NORTH SEA OIL AND GAS 'FIELD ALLOWANCES' SUBSIDIES - AND DOES IT MATTER? -- 5 RENEWABLE ENERGY DISPUTES -- 6 USING A LEGACY FRAME TO DELIVER ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT POLICIES -- 7 THE EMERGENCE OF EU ENERGY LAW -- 8 HOW TO IMPROVE REGULATION -- 9 DELIVERING ENERGY NETWORKS SECURITY: ECONOMICS, REGULATION AND POLICY -- 10 THE ROLE OF MARKETING IN DELIVERING ENERGY LAW AND POLICY -- PART 2 ENERGY POLICY DELIVERY IN THE UNITED STATES -- 11 A BRIEF HISTORY OF US ENERGY POLICY -- 12 APPLYING INNOVATION POLICY TO THE US ENERGY/CLIMATE CHALLENGE -- 13 NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC LABORATORIES AS AN ENERGY POLICY VEHICLE: THE UNITED STATES' EXPERIENCE -- 14 DELIVERING ENERGY POLICY IN THE US: THE ROLE OF TAXES -- 15 DELIVERING THE WIND: DECONSTRUCTING RENEWABLE ENERGY SUCCESS IN TEXAS -- 16 SOLAR RIGHTS IN THE UNITED STATES -- 17 THE US-CHINA CLIMATE AGREEMENT: A NEW DIRECTION -- 18 GOING GREEN: THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE AND ENERGY SECURITY -- 19 US CONJUNCTIVE WATER MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE ENERGY DEVELOPMENT -- PART 3 ENERGY POLICY DELIVERY IN THE EUROPEAN UNION -- 20 DELIVERING NEW POLITY: PAVING THE WAY FOR THE EUROPEAN ENERGY UNION -- 21 ANTITRUST ENFORCEMENT IN THE EU ENERGY SECTOR -- 22 DELIVERING ENERGY POLICY IN THE EU: SOME THOUGHTS ON THE ROLE OF CONSUMERS -- 23 THE GROWING IMPACT OF FREE MOVEMENT PROVISIONS IN THE EU ENERGY MARKET -- 24 ENERGY, EXTERNALITIES AND THE NEED TO REVISIT DEUTSCHE BAHN: A PROPOSAL TO REVERSE THE EUROPEAN STANCE ON EU STATE AID LAW AND INTERNATIONAL AVIATION -- 25 RES: TOWARDS A NEW EUROPEAN POLICY -- 26 ENERGIEWENDE IN GERMANY: THE DAWN OF A NEW ENERGY ERA -- 27 WHAT IS A SUSTAINABLE POLICY? A CASE FOR THE ENERGIEWENDE -- 28 THE FINNISH ENERGY POLICY: FULFILLING THE EU ENERGY AND CLIMATE TARGETS WITH NUCLEAR AND RENEWABLES -- 29 THE EU-RUSSIA RELATIONSHIP AND THE EU ENERGY UNION: FROM DEPENDENCE AND VULNERABILITY TOWARDS COMPETITION AND A FREE FLOW -- PART 4 ELECTRICITY POLICY DELIVERY -- 30 THE ROLE OF UNCERTAINTY IN ENERGY INVESTMENTS AND REGULATION -- 31 ENERGY SECURITY IN AN UNPREDICTABLE WORLD: MAKING THE CASE AGAINST STATE AID LIMITATIONS IN ELECTRICITY GENERATION -- 32 DELIVERING A LOW-CARBON ELECTRICITY SYSTEM IN A LIBERALISED MARKET -- 33 A PROPOSAL FOR REFORMING AN ELECTRICITY MARKET FOR A LOW-CARBON ECONOMY -- 34 THE ROLE OF THE DEMAND SIDE IN ELECTRICITY -- 35 REPLACING FOSSIL FUEL GENERATION WITH RENEWABLE ELECTRICITY: IS MARKET INTEGRATION OR MARKET CIRCUMVENTION THE WAY FORWARD? -- 36 SUSCEPTIBILITY OF ELECTRICITY GENERATION TO CLIMATE VARIABILITY AND CHANGE IN EUROPE: A REVIEW OF LITERATURE -- 37 THE EXTERNAL DIMENSION OF CROSSBORDER ELECTRICITY TRANSMISSION PLANNING IN THE EU -- 38 INTEGRATING VEHICLES AND THE ELECTRICITY GRID TO STORE AND USE RENEWABLE ENERGY -- 39 A STITCH IN TIME: COULD IRELAND'S FORTHCOMING WHITE PAPER BREATHE NEW LIFE INTO ITS BRAVE BUT FALTERING RENEWABLE ELECTRICITY POLICY? -- 40 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE HUNGARIAN ELECTRICITY REGULATORY FRAMEWORK -- PART 5 NUCLEAR ENERGY -- 41 DELIVERING THE REVIVAL OF NUCLEAR POWER -- 42 ENERGY POLICY: THE ROLE OF NUCLEAR POWER -- 43 FINANCING NEW NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS -- 44 UK NUCLEAR NEW-BUILD PLANS IN THE LIGHT OF INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE -- 45 DELIVERING UK NUCLEAR POWER IN THE CONTEXT OF EUROPEAN ENERGY POLICY: THE CHALLENGES AHEAD -- 46 NUCLEAR LIABILITY: CURRENT ISSUES AND WORK IN PROGRESS FOR THE FUTURE -- 47 THE PRESENT STATUS OF NUCLEAR THIRD-PARTY LIABILITY AND NUCLEAR INSURANCE -- 48 SMALL MODULAR REACTORS: THE FUTURE OR THE SWANSONG OF THE NUCLEAR INDUSTRY? -- PART 6 RENEWABLE ENERGY -- 49 COHERENT PROMOTION OF RENEWABLES UNDER A CARBON EMISSIONS CAP -- 50 RENEWABLE ENERGY POLICIES CHANGE CARBON EMISSIONS EVEN UNDER EMISSIONS TRADING -- 51 THE RENEWABLE TRAJECTORY: AVOIDING THE TEMPTATION OF CHEAP OIL -- 52 IMPACT OF RENEWABLE PORTFOLIO STANDARDS ON IN-STATE RENEWABLE DEPLOYMENT IN THE US -- 53 RENEWABLE SUPPORT POLICIES IN EUROPE: EVALUATION OF THE PUSH-PULL FRAMEWORK FOR WIND AND PV IN THE EU -- 54 A VIEW FROM THE GLOBAL WIND INDUSTRY -- 55 THE NEW CONCEPT OF COMPETITIVE BIDDING ON PHOTOVOLTAIC IN THE GERMAN RENEWABLE ENERGY ACT 2014 -- 56 LEGAL CERTAINTY FOR GREEN ENERGY PROJECTS: SURE, BUT AT WHAT PRICE? -- 57 THE FUTURE OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER IN THE UNITED STATES: THINKING SMALL -- 58 HYDROPOWER: FROM PAST TO FUTURE UNCERTAINTIES -- 59 RENEWABLE ENERGY PRODUCTION IN MARINE AREAS AND COASTAL ZONE: THE NORWEGIAN MODEL -- 60 THE GEOPOLITICS OF CLEAN ENERGY: RE-ENGAGING WITH RUSSIA THROUGH RENEWABLE ENERGY COOPERATION -- PART 7 FOSSIL FUELS -- 61 TALKING ABOUT SHALE IN ANY LANGUAGE -- 62 THE SHALE REVOLUTION, FRACKING AND REGULATORY ACTIVITY IN THE US: A POLICY DIVIDED -- 63 FRACTURED SYSTEMS: A MULTIPLE POLICY PROPOSAL FOR PROMOTING SAFE SHALE GAS DELIVERY IN THE UNITED STATES -- 64 PREPARING PENNSYLVANIA FOR A POST-SHALE FUTURE -- 65 THE DECLINE OF COAL AND THE ECONOMIC TOLL ON THE APPALACHIAN REGION -- 66 THE EU NETWORK CODES AND PROSPECTS OF CROSS-BORDER NATURAL GAS PIPELINE PROJECTS -- 67 BUILDING THE ENERGY UNION: THE PROBLEM OF CROSS-BORDER GAS PIPELINE INTERCONNECTIONS IN BALTIC, CENTRAL AND SOUTHEASTERN EUROPE -- 68 EMINENT DOMAIN AUTHORITY FOR UPSTREAM GAS INFRASTRUCTURE: AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH -- 69 PETROLEUM LICENSING ON THE UKCS FIFTY YEARS ON: PROBLEMS, SOLUTIONS AND MORE PROBLEMS? -- 70 GREENLAND OFFSHORE PETROLEUM REGULATION TOWARDS 'THE BLUE ARCTIC' -- PART 8 ENERGY JUSTICE -- 71 ENERGY JUSTICE: THE YIN AND YANG APPROACH -- 72 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND ENERGY JUSTICE: TWO AGENDAS COMBINED -- 73 ASSESSING THE JUSTICE IMPLICATIONS OF ENERGY INFRASTRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE ARCTIC -- PART 9 ENERGY POVERTY AND HEALTH -- 74 ENERGY POVERTY AND AFFORDABLE SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES (ASETS) -- 75 CHALLENGING ENERGY POVERTY POLICIES: INSIGHTS FROM SOUTH-EASTERN EUROPE -- 76 POLICY CHANGES FOR FUTUREPROOFING HOUSING STOCK -- 77 CHALLENGES FOR HEALTH SERVICES IN IDENTIFYING WHICH GROUPS ARE MOST VULNERABLE TO HEALTH IMPACTS OF COLD HOMES -- 78 ENERGY, LIFE, METABOLISM AND THE FOOD CHAIN -- PART 10 ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND DEMAND -- 79 ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND ENERGY DEMAND -- 80 ENERGY DEMAND REDUCTION POLICY -- 81 DEMAND RESPONSE IN WHOLESALE MARKETS -- 82 PERCEIVED EFFECTIVENESS OF DIFFERENT METHODS OF DELIVERING INFORMATION ON ENERGY EFFICIENCY -- 83 DEVELOPING BEHAVIOURAL INTERVENTIONS: THREE LESSONS LEARNED FOR DELIVERING ENERGY POLICY -- 84 POLICY MIXES IN STIMULATING ENERGY TRANSITIONS: THE CASE OF UK ENERGY EFFICIENCY POLICY -- 85 THE JOURNEY OF SMART METERING IN GREAT BRITAIN: A REVISIT -- 86 RETHINKING HOUSEHOLD ENERGY CONSUMPTION STRATEGIES: THE IMPORTANCE OF DEMAND AND EXPECTATIONS -- 87 FINANCIAL INCENTIVES FOR ENERGYEFFICIENT APPLIANCES -- PART 11 ENERGY SECURITY -- 88 ENERGY SECURITY AND ENERGY POLICY INCOHERENCE -- 89 DESIGNING INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN ENERGY GOVERNANCE FOR EU ENERGY SECURITY -- 90 NATO AND EUROPEAN ENERGY SECURITY -- 91 GENEALOGY OF THE CURRENT GAS SECURITY SITUATION IN THE EU-UKRAINE-RUSSIA ENERGY TRIANGLE AND THE ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW -- PART 12 COUNTRY-SPECIFIC AND INTERNATIONAL ENERGY POLICY DELIVERY -- 92 GERMAN ENERGY LAW -- 93 DELIVERING ENERGY LAW AND POLICY IN MALTA -- 94 DELIVERING ENERGY EFFICIENCY POLICIES IN ROMANIA -- 95 ENERGY LAW IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC: 'UNBUNDLING' ČEZ -- 96 DELIVERING ENERGY POLICY REFORM IN UKRAINE: LEGAL ISSUES IN THE LIGHT OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATION -- 97 A SYSTEMIC APPROACH TO RENEWABLE ELECTRICITY TECHNOLOGY DEPLOYMENT: THE 'MISSING LINK' IN OPTIMISING POLICY DELIVERY IN THE UK? -- 98 DELIVERING ENERGY POLICY: IS THERE NEED FOR KEY CHANGES IN THE NEXT UK PARLIAMENTARY PERIOD? -- 99 ENERGY AND THE STATE IN THE MIDDLE EAST -- 100 DELIVERING ENERGY POLICY IN ARGENTINA -- 101 THE ARCTIC: SOURCE OF ENERGY? SOURCE OF CONFLICT? SOURCE OF POLICY INNOVATION -- PART 13 CITIES, COMMUNITY ENERGY AND PUBLIC ENGAGEMENT -- 102 DELIVERING ENERGY (OFTEN) REQUIRES PUBLIC

Preface Table of ContentsKeynote and Featured SpeakersMixed Media Art in Thailand: The Case Study of Vichoke Mukdamanee; V. MUKDAMANEEArt Framework for The Industrial Revolution 4.0; M. MOKHTARDigital Knowledge Improvement for Indonesian Small and Medium Enterprises: Cultural Change in Digital Mental; I. WIRASARIA. Creative Technology, Data, and Creative IndustryBoard Game as a Tool for Developing Character of Independence in Malang Regency; C.U.C. NURSYIFANI, L.T. ATMAJI, G. FEBRIANIBranding of Muslim Scuba Dress: Rizka Haristi in Bandung; S.M.B. HASWATI & S.M. RIDJANADigital Comic Design of Food Waste for Teen; S. HIDAYAT & D.E. HERYADIDesigning Verbal Message and Visual Media of Tourism Destination Curug Putri;S. NURBANI, J. HAIBA, Y.A. BARLIAN, A.R. RAMADHANMeasurement Method to Test Strength of Peg and Tie Joints Against Tensile Strength and Press on Simple Bamboo Structure; A.N.S. GUNAWAN & S. MOHAMADPeriodization of Development Local Fashion Brand in Bandung in 1994-2018; W.N.U. BASTAMAN, A.S.H. SHAFII, R. FEBRIANIB. Digital Transformation of EnvironmentPlanning Private Spaces of Design Students in Supporting Optimization of Online Learning; A. FARIDA, M.S. HANAFI, W. LIRITANTRIDigital Data Storage in Office Space Optimization for BULOG Head Office Jakarta; W. LIRITANTRI, A.D. HANDOYO, G.I. MAHODIMRedesign of Interior HVAC System in Order to Limit the Spread of COVID Virus; A.D. HANDOYO & E. WICAKSONOFinding Lighting Balance within Ecosystem of Taman Teras Cikapundung; R.H.W. ABDULHADI, M.T.M. RAJA, M. AKKAYAEffects of Early Adolescent Characteristics in Circulation Design for Junior High School Building; K. AMELIA, I. HANOM, W. LUKITO, S.N. SIREGARTemporary Spatial Transformations in Residential Area Corridors Due to the Impact of Tourism. Case Study: Jalan Jaksa, Jakarta; V. HARISTIANTI & W.D. PRATIWIData Digging for Heritage Evaluation in Indonesia Built Heritage; R. WULANDARI & W.A. RAHMYStudy of Controlling the Layout and Construction on Pedestrian Bridge Based on Regulation; N.A. HAPSORO, H.F.S. RUSYDA, C.N. BRAMIANAC. Digital Technology Transformation and Cultural Evolution in Time of PandemicDigital Technology cultural evolution: COVID-19 and digital culture -- Featured Animation Design for Cultural Respect and Understanding in Tjap Go Meh's Narration; I. WIRASARI, D.K. ADITYA, N.D. NUGRAHA, A. ERDINA, S. FATHIANIVirtual Experiences in Tourism during Covid-19 Pandemic; A. FADILLA & P. ADITIABreaking Logo's Rule: Promoting Social Distancing to Prevent COVID-19 from Spreading by Changing Brand's Logo; R.A. SISWANTO, J. DOLAH, I. RESMADIHome Interior Wall Treatment to Support Sensory Games of Toddler in Indonesia during Pandemic Situation; R. RACHMAWATI, I. HANOM, A. SIDARTALiterature Study on Ventilation and Air Conditioning (AC) Systems Associated with SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic; I. SUDARISMAN, M.B. MUSTAFA, M.H.B.M. ISA, F.A. BIRWAZWorking Virtually, Exhausting in Reality: Virtual Cause Burnout in the Age of Pandemic; W.T.G. PUTRA, A.L. HAKIM, T. KARTASUDJANAOnline Engagement Instagram Account Warung Kopi Imah Babaturan During the Pandemic Period COVID-19; R.Y. ARUMSARI & D. SETIAWAND. Innovation of Products, Creative Industries Management and MarketingOpportunities for Utilization of Natural Fibre Fabrics in Home Living Textile Products with Lifestyle Trends "Back to Nature"; R. FEBRIANI, W.N.U. BASTAMAN, M. SUTANTIOKansei Analysis: Motorcycle of Choice Based on User Preferences in the Main Commercial Market Area of Gedebage, Bandung; D. YUNIDAR, A.Z.A. MAJID, T.Z. MUTTAQIENApplication of Natural Soga Tingi Coloring (Ceriops Tagal) as an Alternative Eco-Friendly Textile Color; A. HENDRAWAN, S. MOHAMAD, W. LISTIANINGRUMSocial Media Branding on Instagram Account @recharge.id; M. HIDAYATTULOH & F. MAHARANIThe Innovation Application on Batik Crafts Product in the New Normal Era in Indonesia, Does It Have an Impact?; F. CIPTANDI & M.S. RAMADHANPackage Design Colour Preference Using Eye-Tracking Technology: Does Gender Make Any Differences?; W. SWASTY, E. RAHMAWATI, A. MUSTIKAWAN, M.I.P. KOESOEMADINATATheory of Consumption Value in Identifying the Role of Colour in Product Labelling; W. SWASTY & M. MUSTAFADigital Board Game Design for English Vocabulary's Learning Tool During Studying from Home; D.K. ADITYA, I.N. KUSMAYANTI, R. HENDRYANTI, P.F. ALAMEngineered Print for Zero Waste Fashion Design; F. NURSARI & A. NABILAFabric Effectiveness on a Batik Shirt Through Design Motifs; S. YUNINGSIH, E.P. HOKIANTI, C. PUSPITASARIReplacement of Public Area with Service Area as a COVID19 Safety House Design; S. RAHARDJO, M.K.A. RAHMAN, A. SAFINATUJANNAHElectric Kick Bike Design for Recreational Vehicle; T.S. PAMBUDI, A.W. HERU, A. DEEFINPRAMASYA, V.R. RAMDHANMahogany Fruit Material Exploration for Essential Oil Nebulizer in the New Normal Adaptation; H. AZHAR, A.S.M. ATAMTAJANI, A. ANDRIANTOErgonomy Of User Comfort In Portable Hand Wash Multifunction As A Facility To Prevent Covid-19 Spreading In The Public Service Office (Case Study Of Lengkong Bandung); S. SALAYANTI, W. PRIHANTORO, L.H. PENTAThe Potential to Revitalize Sasirangan Fabric Uses Natural Dyes; A. SALSABILLAH & A. ARUMSARIWood Waste's Role on Increasing the Product Selling Value Calligraphy Craft Small Industry in the Online Business; M.N. HADIANSYAH, P.S.T. DEWI, P. ADINATA, F. SYABANThe Packaging Structure Exploration of Ready-To-Eat Kebab Products for Street Vendors; S.A. PUTRI, A.S. PAWESTRI, A.N. HUTAMIMusculoskeletal Analysis of Stand Screen Printing Table Design Using Nordic Body Map Questionnaire; Y. HERLAMBANGProtector Pants Design for Skaters be Analyzed by Divergent and Convergent Thinking Concept; D. YUDIARTI & I. KHOFIANIDesigning Advertising Strategies for Armenti Coffee House; I. SUMARGONO & A.P. AYUDecorative Elements in Muslim Fashion Product: A Case Study Using Macrame Technique; C. PUSPITASARI, A.S. PAKPAHAN, J. DOLAH, S. YUNINGSIHE. Aesthetic Evolution in Digital EraIndonesian Gestures on The Cover of Fashion Magazines; D.W. SOEWARDIKOEN & M. TOHIRThe Value of Heterotopia Space Constructed by Hybridity of Physical and Digital Interior Design; J. HIDAYAT & C. DHARMAWANThe Metaphor of Micin Generation in MSG Product Commercial; R. BELASUNDA, M. TOHIR, T. HENDIAWANGarudayana Comic Adaptation of the Mahabharata Story Series in the Millennial Era; ID. A.D. PUTRADefamiliarization of Video Clip and Aesthetic Value in 'Lathi' Song from Weird Genius; T. HENDIAWAN & Y.A. BARLIANExpression and Message Style in Indonesian Television Advertising During Ramadhan Month in the Covid-19 Pandemic Period ; M. TOHIR, T. HENDIAWAN, R. BELASUNDAMotion Graphic as First Aid Information for Early Childhood Diseases; Z. RAHMALLAH & Y. RAHMANExploring Sumba Woven Textile Motifs Trough Digital Technique with Escher Method; M. ROSANDINI & J. SAMUELThe Issue of Wayfinding Concept in the Museum Interior; T. SARIHATI, R. FIRMANSYAH, S. SALAYANTI, N.H.A. ROSYADThe Influence of Digital Technology to Cultural Evolution on City's Monumental Icons; G.A. PRAHARA & Y. SUHAIRIPrincess Characters Visualization in the Wayang Comics of Teguh Santosa for Digital Graphics Development; M.I.P. KOESOEMADINATA & A.Z. MANSOORF. Digital Education for Creative IndustriesDisrupted but Interactive: How Online Learning Works in the Age of Pandemic; A. ANGGRAENI, S. PUTRA, A. NURHUDATIANAPop Up Book Design of the West Sumatra Endemic Primates; S. SOEDEWI & K.K. ADHADigital Learning Innovation on Concept Development Course. A study in Visual Communication Program at Universitas Ciputra; L. INDRIATIOnline Learning of Design Lectures During Covid-19 Pandemic: A Student's Experience; A.R. ADRIYANTO, I. SANTOSA, A. SYARIEFMeeting the Needs of Children in Islamic Boarding School with Monitoring Child Growth; F.E. NAUFALINA & M. HISYAMG. Digital Technology and Cultural EvolutionEffect of speciality Japanese Restaurant: Investigating the Zen Concept through interior design with Customer satisfaction (Case study of Shabu Kojo Restaurant); D.

Absentee Landlords and Agriculture -- Access to Land and the Right to Food -- Aesthetic Value, Art, and Food -- Africa, Food, and Agriculture -- African Food Security Urban Network (AFSUN) -- Agrarianism and the Ethics of Eating -- Agricultural and Food Products in Preferential Trade Agreements -- Agricultural Cooperatives -- Agricultural Ethics -- Agricultural Science and Ethics -- Agricultural Sciences and Ethical Controversies of Biofuels -- Agriculture and Ethical Change -- Agriculture and Finance -- Agriculture of the Middle -- Alcohol Abstinence and Sobriety -- Alcohol as Food and the Good Life -- Alimentary Delinquency -- American Cuisine, Existence Of -- American Food Rhetoric -- Ancestral Cuisine and Cooking Rituals -- Animal Agriculture and Welfare Footprints -- Animal Welfare in the Context of Animal Production -- Animal Welfare: A Critical Examination of the Concept -- Aroid Production and Postharvest Practices -- Artisanal Food Production and Craft -- Asian Cuisine: Ethical Considerations -- Authenticity in Food -- Beef Production: Ethical Issues -- Biodiversity -- Biodiversity and Global Development -- Biodynamic Agriculture -- Bioethics at Purdue University -- Biofuels: Ethical Aspects -- Biopharming -- Biosecurity and Food Systems -- Biotechnology and Food Policy, Governance -- Body Image, Gender, and Food -- Brazilian Agriculture -- Brillat-Savarin and Food -- Buddhism, Cooking, and Eating -- Buddhist Perspectives on Food and Agricultural Ethics -- Canada, US-EU Beef Hormone Dispute -- Cannibalism -- Carbon Farming -- Carnism -- Centre for Animal Welfare and Ethics -- Child Nutrition Guidelines and Gender -- Chinese Agriculture -- Chocolate: Ethical Dimensions -- Christian Ethics and Vegetarianism -- Christian Mysticism and Food -- Christian Perspectives on Food and Agricultural Ethics -- Christian Stewardship in Agriculture -- Christianity and Food -- Civic Agriculture -- Climate Change, Ethics, and Food Production -- Community-Supported Agriculture -- Company Identity in the Food Industry -- Conservation Agriculture: Farmer Adoption and Policy Issues -- Conventionalization Hypothesis -- Cooking Tools and Techniques: Ethical Issues -- Cooking, Food Consumption, and Globalization: Ethical Considerations -- Corporate Farms -- Corporate Social Responsibility and Food -- Cosmopolitanism, Localism and Food -- Cross-Contamination of Crops in Horticulture -- Cuban Agriculture -- Culinary Cosmopolitanism -- Culinary Tourism -- Derrida and Eating -- East European Agriculture -- Eating Disorders -- Eating Disorders and Disturbed Eating -- Eating Etiquette -- Eating and Nutrition -- Eating Invasive Species -- Eating, Feeding and the Human Life Cycle -- Eating, Feeding, and Disability -- Ecofeminist Food Ethics -- Economy of Agriculture and Food -- Ecosystems, Food, Agriculture, and Ethics -- Ecotopia -- Egg Production: Ethical Issues -- Emergency Food System: Soup Kitchens and Food Pantries -- Environmental and Animal Pragmatism -- Environmental Ethics -- Environmental Justice and Food -- Epicureanism and Food -- Equipment Sharing in Agriculture -- Escoffier -- Ethical Activism with Consideration of the Routine of Food Culture -- Ethical Assessment of Dieting, Weight Loss, and Weight Cycling -- Ethical Matrix and Agriculture -- Ethics and Food Taste -- Ethics of Agricultural Development and Food Rights in International Organizations -- Ethics of Dietitians -- Ethics of Nutrigenomics -- Ethics in Food and Agricultural Sciences -- Ethnicity, Ethnic Identity, and Food -- EU Regulatory Conflicts over GM Food -- European Cuisine: Ethical Considerations -- Expertise in Agriculture: Scientific and Ethical Issues -- Extraterritorial Obligations of States and the Right to Food -- Fair Trade in Food and Agricultural Products -- Farm Management -- Farmer Types and Motivation -- Farmers' Markets -- Farmer-Scientist Knowledge Exchange -- Farms: Small Versus Large -- Fasting -- Feeding Children -- Food "Porn" in Media -- Food Addiction -- Food Additives and International Trade -- Food Advertising to Children: Policy, Health, and Gender -- Food Allergies: Ethical Issues -- Food and Agricultural Trade and National Sovereignty -- Food and Agriculture in Bangladesh -- Food and Choice -- Food and Class -- Food and Health Policy -- Food and Life Chances -- Food and Place -- Food and Poverty in High Income Countries -- Food Rituals -- Food and the Avant-Garde -- Food Animal Production, Ethics, and Quality Assurance -- Food Assistance and International Trade -- Food Boycotts -- Food Culture and Chefs -- Food Deserts -- Food Ethics and Policies -- Food in Ancient Indian Philosophy -- Food Labeling -- Food Legislation and Regulation: EU, UN, WTO and Private Regulation -- Food Miles -- Food Not Bombs -- Food Preparation, Cooking, and Ritual in Judaism -- Food Riots, Historical Perspectives -- Food Risk Communication -- Food Risks -- Food Safety -- Food Security -- Food Security and International Trade -- Food Security and Rural Education -- Food Security in Systemic Context -- Food Standards -- Food Waste -- Food Waste and Consumer Ethics -- Food Worlds, Film, and Gender -- Food, Agriculture, and Trade Organizations -- Food, Class Identity, and Gender -- Food's Purposes -- Food-Body Relationship -- Foucault and Food -- Free Trade and Protectionism in Food and Agriculture -- Functional Foods -- Functional Foods as Commodities -- Functional Foods, Marketing of -- Gender and Dieting -- Gender Inequality and Food Security -- Gender Norms and Food Behavior -- Gender, Obesity, and Stigmatization -- Geographic Indications -- Geographical Indications, Food, and Culture -- Gluttony -- GM Food, Nutrition, Safety, and Health -- GMO Food Labeling -- Grocery Store Design -- Gustatory Pleasure and Food -- Hazon -- Herbicide-Resistant Crops -- Hinduism and Food -- Home Gardening -- Homesteading -- Horticultural Therapy -- Hospitality and Food -- Human Ecology and Food -- Human Rights and Food -- Humane Slaughter Association -- Hunting -- Hybridity in Agriculture -- In Vitro Meat -- Industrial Food Animal Production Ethics -- Industrialized Slaughter and Animal Welfare -- Infant Feeding -- Informed Food Choice -- Institute Technology-Theology-Natural Sciences (TTN), Munich -- Institutional Food Service -- Intellectual Property and Food -- Intellectual Property Rights and Trade in the Food and Agricultural Sectors -- International Food Quality Standards -- Islam and Food -- Islam and Food and Agricultural Ethics -- Jainism and Food -- Jefferson's Moral Agrarianism -- Judaism and Food -- Kristeva and Food -- Land Acquisitions for Food and Fuel -- Law and Regulatory Mechanisms for Food and Agriculture Research -- Literature, Food, and Gender -- Local and Regional Food Systems -- Local Food Procurement -- Marketing, Food Policy, Diet, and Health -- Meat: Ethical Considerations -- Medicalization of Eating and Feeding -- Metaphysics of Natural Food -- Molecular Gastronomy -- Montaigne and Food -- Multifunctional Agriculture -- Multifunctionality of Agriculture and International Trade -- Multilateral Trade Organizations, Food, and Agriculture -- NAFTA and the Food and Agricultural Industries -- Nanotechnology in Agriculture -- National Courts and the Right to Food -- Natural Food -- Nietzsche and Food -- Obesity and Consumer Choice -- Obesity and Responsibility -- Occupational Risks in Agriculture -- Oxford Centre for Animal Ethics -- Permaculture -- Pest Control -- Peter Singer and Food -- Plant-Based Diets and Scientific Value Judgments -- Plato and Food -- Political Agronomy -- Political Consumerism: Consumer Choice, Information, and Labeling -- Population Growth -- Pork Production: Ethical Issues -- Poverty and Basic Needs -- Pregnancy and Food -- Private Food Governance -- Provision of Agricultural Ecosystem Services -- Public Institutional Foodservice -- Punishment and Food -- Race, Racial Identity, and Eating -- Recipes -- Resource Conflict, Food, and Agriculture -- Responsible Innovation in the Food Sector -- Restaurant Reviewing -- Restaurant Workers -- Right to Food in International Law -- Rousseau and Food -- Saving Seeds -- School Lunch and Gender -- Seed Banking, Seed Saving, and Cultivating Local Varieties -- Slash-and-Burn Agriculture -- Slow Food -- Sub-Saharan African Agriculture -- Substantial Equivalence -- Sustainability and Animal Agriculture -- Sustainability of Food Production and Consumption -- Sustainable Consumption and Gender -- Synthetic Biology and Biofuels -- Synthetic Meat -- Systemic Ethics to Support Well being -- Taste, Distaste, and Food -- Technologies used for Animal Breeding, Ethical Issues -- Telos and Farm Animal Welfare -- The 2003–2006 WTO GMO Dispute: Implications for the SPS Agreement -- Trade and Development in the Food and Agricultural Sectors -- Trade Policies and Animal Welfare -- Trade Policies and Organic Food -- Transgenic Crops -- Urban Agriculture -- Vegetarianism -- Vertical Farms in Horticulture -- Vertical Integration and Concentration in US Agriculture -- Virtue Theory, Food, and Agriculture -- War and Food -- Waste and Food -- Water, Food, and Agriculture -- WTO Dispute Settlement and Food and Agricultural Trade -- You Are What You Eat -- Youth Food Activism

Machine generated contents note:1.Basic Biochemical Roots --1.1.Chemistry and Physics of Life /Dietrich H. Nies --1.2.Energy and Transport /Dietrich H. Nies --1.3.Basic Biochemistry /Dietrich H. Nies --2.Specialized Plant Metabolites: Diversity and Biosynthesis /Dietrich H. Nies --2.1.Metabolite Diversity /Alain Tissier /Thomas Vogt /Jörg Ziegler --2.2.Major Classes of Plant Specialized Compounds /Alain Tissier /Thomas Vogt /Jörg Ziegler --2.2.1.Terpenoids /Alain Tissier /Thomas Vogt /Jörg Ziegler --2.2.2.Alkaloid Biosynthesis /Alain Tissier /Thomas Vogt /Jörg Ziegler --2.2.2.1.Generation of Metabolic Diversity across Alkaloid Classes /Alain Tissier /Thomas Vogt /Jörg Ziegler --2.2.2.2.Generation of Metabolic Diversity within Alkaloid Classes /Alain Tissier /Thomas Vogt /Jörg Ziegler --2.2.3.Phenylpropanoid Metabolism /Alain Tissier /Thomas Vogt /Jörg Ziegler --2.2.3.1.Hydroxycinnamic Acids and Lignin /Alain Tissier /Thomas Vogt /Jörg Ziegler --2.2.3.2.Flavonoids, (Pro)anthocyanins, and other Chromogenic Structures /Alain Tissier /Thomas Vogt /Jörg Ziegler --2.2.3.3.Simple C6-C1 Phenolics /Alain Tissier /Thomas Vogt /Jörg Ziegler --2.2.4.Glucosinolates and Cyanogenic Glucosides /Alain Tissier /Thomas Vogt /Jörg Ziegler --2.3.Sites of Biosynthesis and Accumulation /Alain Tissier /Thomas Vogt /Jörg Ziegler --2.3.1.Specialized Structures and Storage /Alain Tissier /Thomas Vogt /Jörg Ziegler --2.3.1.1.Glandular Trichomes /Alain Tissier /Thomas Vogt /Jörg Ziegler --2.3.1.2.Internal Organs /Alain Tissier /Thomas Vogt /Jörg Ziegler --2.3.1.3.Vacuoles as Sites of Storage of Specialized Metabolites /Alain Tissier /Thomas Vogt /Jörg Ziegler --2.3.2.Alkaloid Biosynthesis: Pathway Trafficking /Alain Tissier /Thomas Vogt /Jörg Ziegler --2.4.Evolution of Specialized Pathway Genes /Thomas Vogt /Jörg Ziegler /Alain Tissier --2.4.1.Gene Duplication /Alain Tissier /Thomas Vogt /Jörg Ziegler --2.4.2.Chromosomal Clusters of Specialized Metabolite Pathway Genes /Alain Tissier /Thomas Vogt /Jörg Ziegler --2.4.3.Convergent Evolution /Alain Tissier /Jörg Ziegler /Thomas Vogt --References /Alain Tissier /Thomas Vogt /Jörg Ziegler --Further Reading /Alain Tissier /Thomas Vogt /Jörg Ziegler --3.Evolution of Secondary Metabolism in Plants /Alain Tissier /Thomas Vogt /Jörg Ziegler --3.1.Origins of Plant Secondary Metabolism /Michael Wink --3.2.Evolutionary Alternatives /Michael Wink --3.3.Endophytes, Symbiotic, and Ectomycorrhizal Fungi /Michael Wink --References /Michael Wink --4.Systematics of Life, Its Early Evolution, and Ecological Diversity /Michael Wink --4.1.Cellular Life Forms and Subcellular Parasites /Dietrich H. Nies --4.2.Superkingdom Archaea /Dietrich H. Nies --4.2.1.General Features /Dietrich H. Nies --4.2.2.Phylum Euryarchaeota (I.B) /Dietrich H. Nies --4.2.3.Phylum Crenarchaeota (I.A) /Dietrich H. Nies --4.2.4.Phylum Thaumarchaeota (I.E) /Dietrich H. Nies --4.2.5.Other Phylae (I.C, I.D) /Dietrich H. Nies --4.3.Superkingdom Bacteria /Dietrich H. Nies --4.3.1.General Features /Dietrich H. Nies --4.3.2.Phylum Aquificae (II. B) /Dietrich H. Nies --4.3.3.Phylae Thermotogae (II. Z) and Thermodesulfobacteria (II. Y) /Dietrich H. Nies --4.3.4.Chloroflexi (II. G) /Dietrich H. Nies --4.3.5.Crown groups of the Bacteria /Dietrich H. Nies --4.3.6.Phylum Proteobacteria (II. U) /Dietrich H. Nies --4.3.7.Superphylum Bacteroidetes/Chlorobi Group (II. D) /Dietrich H. Nies --4.3.8.Phylum Planctomycetes (II. T) /Dietrich H. Nies --4.3.9.Gram-Positive Bacteria (ILA, II. O, II. X) /Dietrich H. Nies --4.3.10.Phylum Cyanobacteria (ILI) /Dietrich H. Nies --4.4.Superkingdom Eukaryota /Dietrich H. Nies --4.4.1.General Features /Dietrich H. Nies --4.4.2.Excavata: Excavates (III. O, III. P, III. Q) and Discicristates (III. R, III. S, III. T) /Dietrich H. Nies --4.4.3.Chromalveolata: Kingdoms Alveolata (III. K), Stramenopiles (III. N), Cryptophyta (III. L), and Haptophyceae (III. M) /Dietrich H. Nies --4.4.4.Kingdom Rhizaria (III. G) /Dietrich H. Nies --4.4.5.Archaeplastida (III. H, III. I, III. J) /Dietrich H. Nies --4.4.6.Kingdom Amoebozoa (III. A) /Dietrich H. Nies --4.4.7.Kingdom Opisthokonta (III. E) /Dietrich H. Nies --Acknowledgment /Dietrich H. Nies --References /Dietrich H. Nies --Further Reading /Dietrich H. Nies --5.Communities and Ecosystem Functioning /Dietrich H. Nies --5.1.Competition for, and Distribution of, Limiting Resources as a Means of Ecosystem Functioning /Heinz Rennenberg --5.1.1.Light-Capturing Strategies /Heinz Rennenberg --5.1.2.Competition for Nutrients /Heinz Rennenberg --5.2.Joint Exploitation of Limiting Resources by Symbioses /Heinz Rennenberg --5.2.1.Mycorrhiza /Heinz Rennenberg --5.2.1.1.Arbuscular Mycorrhizas (AMs) /Heinz Rennenberg --5.2.1.2.Ectomycorrhizas (ECMs) /Heinz Rennenberg --5.2.2.Symbiotic N2 Fixation /Heinz Rennenberg --5.2.2.1.Establishment of Symbiosis and Nodule Formation /Heinz Rennenberg --5.2.2.2.Mechanism of N2 Fixation and Plant-Microbial Interactions in N Nutrition /Heinz Rennenberg --5.3.Avoidance of Competition /Heinz Rennenberg --5.4.Facilitation Mechanisms in Communities and Ecosystem Functioning /Heinz Rennenberg --References /Heinz Rennenberg --Further Reading /Heinz Rennenberg --6.Food Chains and Nutrient Cycles /Heinz Rennenberg --6.1.Basic Concepts /Heinz Rennenberg /Felix Bärlocher --6.1.1.Food Chains and Food Webs /Heinz Rennenberg /Felix Bärlocher --6.1.2.Grazing vs. Detritus Food Chains and the Microbial Loop /Heinz Rennenberg /Felix Bärlocher --6.1.3.Role of Parasites /Heinz Rennenberg /Felix Bärlocher --6.1.4.Metabolic Theory and Ecological Stoichiometry /Heinz Rennenberg /Felix Bärlocher --6.1.5.Terrestrial Versus Aquatic Habitats /Heinz Rennenberg /Felix Bärlocher --6.1.6.General Principles of Nutrient Cycles /Heinz Rennenberg /Felix Bärlocher --6.2.Aquatic Systems /Heinz Rennenberg /Felix Bärlocher --6.2.1.Important Physicochemical Properties of Water /Heinz Rennenberg /Felix Bärlocher --6.2.2.Marine Systems /Heinz Rennenberg /Felix Bärlocher --6.2.2.1.Density Gradients and Pycnoclines /Heinz Rennenberg /Felix Bärlocher --6.2.2.2.Euphotic Zone /Heinz Rennenberg /Felix Bärlocher --6.2.2.3.Pelagial Zone /Heinz Rennenberg /Felix Bärlocher --6.2.2.4.Hydrothermal Vents and Methane Seeps /Heinz Rennenberg /Felix Bärlocher --6.2.2.5.Benthic Habitat /Felix Bärlocher /Heinz Rennenberg --6.2.2.6.Mangroves /Felix Bärlocher /Heinz Rennenberg --6.2.2.7.Salt Marshes /Felix Bärlocher /Heinz Rennenberg --6.2.2.8.Coral Reefs /Felix Bärlocher /Heinz Rennenberg --6.2.3.Freshwater Systems /Felix Bärlocher /Heinz Rennenberg --6.2.3.1.Temperature Gradients and Circulation in Lakes /Felix Bärlocher /Heinz Rennenberg --6.2.3.2.Oxygenic and Anoxygenic Photosynthesis /Felix Bärlocher /Heinz Rennenberg --6.2.3.3.Freshwater Pelagial Zone /Felix Bärlocher /Heinz Rennenberg --6.2.3.4.Freshwater Benthic Zone and Freshwater Marshes /Felix Bärlocher /Heinz Rennenberg --6.2.3.5.Running Waters /Felix Bärlocher /Heinz Rennenberg --6.2.4.Nutrient Cycles /Felix Bärlocher /Heinz Rennenberg --6.2.4.1.Nitrogen Cycle /Felix Bärlocher /Heinz Rennenberg --6.2.4.2.Sulfur Cycle /Felix Bärlocher /Heinz Rennenberg --6.2.4.3.Phosphorus Cycle /Felix Bärlocher /Heinz Rennenberg --6.2.4.4.Carbon Cycle /Felix Bärlocher /Heinz Rennenberg --6.3.Terrestrial Systems /Felix Bärlocher /Heinz Rennenberg --6.3.1.Trophic Cascades /Felix Bärlocher /Heinz Rennenberg --6.3.2.Community Dynamics and Its Regulation /Felix Bärlocher /Heinz Rennenberg --6.3.3.Nutrient Cycles /Felix Bärlocher /Heinz Rennenberg --6.3.3.1.Nitrogen Cycle /Felix Bärlocher /Heinz Rennenberg --6.3.3.2.Sulfur Cycle /Felix Bärlocher /Heinz Rennenberg --6.3.3.3.Phosphorus Cycle /Felix Bärlocher /Heinz Rennenberg --6.3.3.4.Carbon Cycle /Felix Bärlocher /Heinz Rennenberg --References /Felix Bärlocher /Heinz Rennenberg --Further Reading /Felix Bärlocher /Heinz Rennenberg --7.Information Processing and Survival Strategies /Felix Bärlocher /Heinz Rennenberg --7.1.Stress Concept-Plants and Their Environment /Ingo Heilmann --7.2.Plant Signal Transduction and the Induction of Stress Responses /Ingo Heilmann --7.3.Phytohormones /Ingo Heilmann --7.3.1.Functionality of Phytohormones /Ingo Heilmann --7.3.2.Signal Transduction through Nuclear Derepression of Gene Expression /Ingo Heilmann --7.3.2.1.Auxins /Ingo Heilmann --7.3.2.2.Jasmonic Acid /Ingo Heilmann --7.3.2.3.Gibberellins /Ingo Heilmann --7.3.3.Signal Transduction through Other, Nonmembrane-Associated Receptors /Ingo Heilmann --7.3.3.1.Abscisic Acid /Ingo Heilmann --7.3.3.2.Salicylic Acid /Ingo Heilmann --7.3.4.Signal Transduction through Transmembrane-Receptors /Ingo Heilmann --7.3.4.1.Cytokinins /Ingo Heilmann --7.3.4.2.Ethylene /Ingo Heilmann --7.3.4.3.Brassinosteroids /Ingo Heilmann --7.4.Other Signaling Molecules /Ingo Heilmann --7.4.1.Phytochromes and Cryptochromes /Ingo Heilmann.

On March 17 Niger's National Council for the Safeguard of the Homeland (CNSP) suspended its military agreement with the United States after a visit by senior U.S. officials to the capital, Niamey. A CNSP spokesman said the decision was made after the U.S. delegation warned the military regime against partnering with Russia and Iran. Niger, which hosts around 1,000 U.S. troops and a drone base, has been an important partner in Washington's counterterrorism operations in the region. But relations have deteriorated considerably since July 2023, when Niger's presidential guard removed democratically elected Mohamed Bozoum and installed General Abdourahamane Tchiani.Russian influence looms large in Western discourse on the Sahel, and now informs U.S. policy and decision-making in places like Niger. This is a mistake. Outsized focus on Russia misunderstands the scale and scope of Moscow's presence. More importantly, it ignores longstanding patterns of governance and denies the role of Africans in emerging pro-sovereignty movements and political blocs. Neither the U.S. nor Russia are in a position to force Africans to choose sides, efforts to do so will only result in rebuke.African governments seek to balance outside powers while retaining the ability to work with each. Historically, local elites leverage these often unequal relations with powerful states to enhance their own domestic position. In francophone Africa, the cozy relationship between French officials, companies, and African autocrats came to be known as Françafrique. Niger had become somewhat of an exception among its peers, however, when it pursued close military ties with the United States.Recent years have seen a wave of anti-French sentiment hit the Sahel. Military regimes seeking political legitimacy have helped foment anti-French sentiment, but they do not control it. The backing of Paris is politically poisonous; kicking the French military out of Niger was necessary to the CNSP's survival.Neither the U.S. nor Russia have a policy to address the humanitarian, economic, and security implications of France's departure from the Sahel, which explains, in part, the focus on ideological narratives.Without a clear strategy, Russia responds opportunistically to events on the ground. And while Moscow has enjoyed more success than America in exporting security to Africa recently, it lacks comparable experience and capabilities in the humanitarian field. "We understand everything through Africa Corps," a Russian security expert in the region says. "We can strengthen it, expand it, redirect it. There are now some aspects of soft power, your matryoshkas and balalaikas. But now we need to do serious things, and that requires a lot of time, money, and people."Even though Washington historically ceded policy priorities in francophone Africa to France, anti-French sentiment did not carry over to anti-American sentiment in Niger. Close military relations, and leadership in the humanitarian field still carried weight.It appears that the U.S. delegation's visit to Niamey in March — led by Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs Molly Phee and AFRICOM Commander General Michael Langley — did significant damage. Sahel expert Alex Thurston noted the reportedly uniliteral announcement of the U.S. delegation's visit, and the relatively low rank of visiting officials, may have played a part.The subject of the talks — Niger's turn towards Russia and Iran — appears to have been equally insulting. Ironically, the U.S. delegation's attempt to counter Russian influence in Niger has further pushed the CNSP to seek ties with Russia.U.S. focus on Russia misses the reality that Africans, not Russians or Americans, are driving major political shifts in the Sahel. The formation of the Alliance of Sahelian States (AES), for example, was a project initiated by Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger first and foremost to counteract the military threat from a regional bloc, ECOWAS. That Russia welcomed the development does not mean Moscow inspired it.Indeed, the overthrow of Bozoum was as unexpected in Moscow as it was in Washington. "The coup was a surprise with no obvious advantage," a Russian diplomat in the region admitted. Western media were still quick to divine a Russian hand. Implicit was the belief that Russian influence thrives in instability and can "spill" across borders.Such tropes, however, fail to account for a basic building block of politics: personal relationships. Russia's arrival in Mali was not a product of information warfare — it was the result of collaboration between Russian advisers in Mali and Malian military officers who trained in Russia, the history of which goes back to the Soviet era. Malians, not Russians, cleared the way politically, working to secure the buy-in of trade unions and other powerbrokers in Bamako.There is no equivalent history in neighboring Niger. The U.S. has the monopoly on relations with Niger's officer corps. Moscow doesn't have an embassy in Niamey. Lacking strong, proven connections, Russian diplomats and security officials feel they don't have a good read on the junta. Moreover, Russian officials have little gauge over the mood within the broader Nigerien military. "Pressure to break with the U.S.," a high-ranking Nigerien military officer adds, "comes from within, not Russia."Sensing wariness on both sides, the CNSP has tried to attract, rather unsuccessfully thus far, the Kremlin's attention. When a CNSP delegation visited Moscow in January, they couldn't land a meeting with Vladimir Putin or even Minister of Foreign Affairs Sergey Lavrov. Still, Niamey was among the first countries to congratulate Putin on his election victory.The saga of Niger reflects a strange, transitory phase between Washington's "War on Terror" and "Great Power Competition," the strategic rivalry between the U.S., China, and Russia, in which geopolitical foes find themselves on the same side against al-Qaida and ISIS-affiliated armed groups.The Kremlin views and frames its intervention in the Sahel in counterterrorism terms — a fact likely to continue following the recent terror attacks in Moscow. This resonates far better with Sahelian leaders than geopolitical rivalry. "If the United States does not participate in the fight against terrorists, then why are they here?" the Nigerien officer asked. "To track and contain the Russians? This is not their business. We respect America, we need their help. But this does not mean that we are ready listen to reproaches and accusations from incompetent people."Some time has passed now since the U.S. delegation's visit and the denunciation of Niger's military agreement with the U.S., and it appears that the initial tension from the Nigerien authorities' categorical statement has subsided. There is still a chance that the denunciation was a strong-arm tactic to coerce Washington into dialogue.At the same time, the AES continues to gather steam, with Chad now expressing interest in joining. Niger is an integral part of this new alliance and is closer to the U.S. and further from Russia compared to Mali and Burkina Faso.If the U.S. loses a foot in the alliance, which is very possible, it will be the result of efforts to force Africans to choose sides. In the long run, if the U.S. and Russia wish to continue fighting Islamist militancy in the Sahel, they will need to find a way to, if not cooperate, at least deconflict and accommodate for each other's presence. If not, they'll both find themselves on the outside looking in.

Elon Musk's space company SpaceX recently secured a classified contract to build an extensive network of "spy satellites" for an undisclosed U.S. intelligence agency, with one source telling Reuters that "no one can hide" under the prospective network's reach.While the deal suggests the space company, which currently operates over half the active satellites orbiting Earth, has warmed to U.S. national security agencies, it's not the first Washington investment in conflict-forward space machinery. Rather, the U.S. is funding or otherwise supporting a range of defense contractors and startups working to create a new generation of space-bound weapons, surveillance systems, and adjacent technologies.In other words, America is hell-bent on a new arms race — in space.Space arms, then and nowAttempts to regulate weapons' presence and use in space span decades. Responding to an intense, Cold War-era arms race between the U.S. and Soviet Union, the 1967 Outer Space Treaty established that space, while free for all countries to explore and use, was limited to peaceful endeavors. Almost 60 years later, the Outer Space Treaty's vague language regarding military limitations in space, as space policy experts Michelle L.D. Hanlon and Greg Autry highlight, "leave more than enough room for interpretation to result in conflict."Stonewalling subsequent international efforts to limit the militarization of space (though the U.S. is participating in a new U.N. working group on the subject), Washington's interest in space exploration and adjacent weapons technologies also goes back decades. Many may recall President Ronald Reagan's 1983 Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), which was established to develop land-, air-, and space-based missile defense systems to deter missile or nuclear weapons attacks against the U.S. Cynically referred to by critics as the "Star Wars" program, many SDI initiatives were ultimately canned due to prohibitive costs and technological limitations.And while the Pentagon established Space Command in 1985, the Space Force, an entirely new branch of the military "focused solely on pursuing superiority in the space domain," was launched in 2019, signaling renewed emphasis on space militarization as U.S. policy.Weapons contractors cash in Long-term American interest in space war tech now manifests in ambitious projects, where defense companies and startups are lining up for military contracts to create a new generation of space weaponry and adjacent tech, including space vehicles, hypersonic rockets, and extensive surveillance and communications projects.For starters, Space Force's Space Development Agency recently granted defense contractors L3Harris and Lockheed Martin and space company Sierra Space contracts worth $2.5 billion to build satellites for the U.S. military's Proliferated Warfighter Space Architecture (PWSA), a constellation of hundreds of satellites, built out on tranches, that provide various warfighting capabilities, including the collection and transmission of critical wartime communications, into low-Earth orbit. The PWSA will serve as the backbone of the Pentagon's Joint All-Domain Command and Control project, an effort to bolster warfighting capacities and decision-making processes by facilitating "information advantage at the speed of relevance."Other efforts are just as sci-fi-esque. Zoning in on hypersonic weapons systems and parts, for example, RTX (formerly Raytheon) and Northrop Grumman have collaborated to secure a DARPA contract for a Hypersonic Air-breathing Weapons Concept, where scramjet-powered missiles can travel at hypersonic speeds (Mach 5 or faster) for offensive purposes.And Aerospace startup True Anomaly, which was founded by military officers and has received funding from the U.S. Space Force to the tune of over $17 million, is developing space weapons and adjacent conflict-forward tools. An example is True Anomaly's Jackal Autonomous Orbital Vehicle, an imaging satellite able to take on, according to True Anomaly CEO Even Rogers, "rendezvous and proximity operations missions" with "uncooperative" targets.As True Anomaly finds fiscal success, accruing over $100 million in a December 2023 series B fundraising round from venture capitalists including Eclipse Ventures and ACME Capital, other aerospace start-ups are flooding the market with the assistance of the U.S. government, both in funding and other critical partnerships.Take how Firehawk Aerospace — which wants to "create the rocket system of the future" to "enab[le] the next generation of aerospace and defense systems" — partnered with NASA in 2021 to test rocket engines at NASA's Stennis Space Center in Mississippi. It recently secured Army Applications Laboratory and U.S. Air Force Small Business Innovation Research Awards to advance developments in its rocket motors and engines.And data and satellite-focused American space tech company Capella Space, a contractor for federal agencies including the Air and Space Forces, specializes in reconnaissance and powerful surveillance tools, including geospatial intelligence and Synthetic Aperture Radar monitoring that help national security officials identify myriad security risks. In early 2023, Capella Space even formed a subsidiary, Capella Federal, to provide federal clients with additional access to Synthetic Aperture Radar imagery services.We need diplomacy, not space superiorityThe funding of expensive, futuristic space surveillance and weapons projects indicates the U.S.'s eagerness to maintain superiority, where military personnel posit such advancements are critical within the context of both a "space race" and an increasingly tumultuous geopolitical climate, if not the possibility of war in space outright.As Space Force General Chance Saltzman declared at the recent Mitchell Institute Spacepower Security Forum: "if we do not have space, we lose." Testifying before the Senate Armed Services Committee in late February, U.S. Space Force General Stephen N. Whiting explained that the U.S. Space Command must bolster its military capacities through increased personnel training and investments in relevant technologies so that the U.S. is "ready if deterrence fails."While upping its own military capacities, however, Washington is simultaneously pushing against other countries' anti-satellite weapons testing, a capability the U.S. already has.What's more, the U.S. recently accused Russia of developing possibly nuclear anti-satellite weaponry in violation of the Outer Space Treaty. But the accusations, which Russia denies, are vague. And, as Todd Harrison of the Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments and Clayton Swope of the Center for Strategic and International Studies posit, Russia's use of such a weapon seems unlikely as it is "effectively [a] kamikaze attack," and would likely take out many of Russia's own satellites while prompting major retaliation from adversaries.In any case, such pointing fingers, when coupled with ongoing space deterrence and weapons proliferation efforts, does little to advance genuine diplomacy, where states could instead discuss, on equal terms, how space should be used and shared amongst nations. Ultimately, weapons and aerospace companies' efforts have launched a new generation of weaponry and adjacent tech — buoyed by consistent support from a "deterrence"-focused U.S. As a result, the military industrial complex has further expanded into the domain of space, where defense companies have new opportunities to score lucrative weapons contracts and theoretically even push for more conflict.