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Protrected Conflicts: a Case of Syria The paper contains analysis of the phenomenon of protracted conflict. Usually, these kinds of conflicts get a lot of international attention, and thus it is necessary to understand what factors affect the duration of the conflict. This work is a case study of the civil war in Syria. The analysis uses databases and the method of qualitative data analysis. Theoretical background comes from Edvar Azar who says that there are four main reasons for the conflict to be protracted: the existence of identity groups, social inequality, government's inability to fulfil basic human needs, and international relations. The assumption is made that despite the first three factors, the involvement of third parties into the conflict has the principal impact on the conflict duration. The analysis of the war in Syria is herein presented by describing the most important events, breaking points, and the course of the conflict. In addition, main domestic and external actors as well as their goals are analyzed. Few assumptions were examined in this work with reference to E. Azar. Though all of the first three factors mentioned before can be found in the conflict, the findings suggest that these factors identify the reasons why the Arab Spring in Syria was followed by the civil war afterwards more than why the conflict itself is protracted. The main hypothesis, that the duration of the conflict is mostly affected by the involvement of third parties is confirmed. The analysis shows that external actors have a big influence on the conflict by providing support to either of the conflicting sides and thus blocking the possibility for one conflicting party to win. The paper analyses the impact of the U.S., Russia, Turkey, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Hezbollah, and ISIS by providing the reasons that have made them to join the conflict, as well as presenting the main goals and the measures they took in the conflict. By comparing the goals of these actors in the conflict, it became clear that it is impossible to find the solution that would be acceptable for all of the conflicting parties and their allies. Different actors support different sides of the conflict though the fact that all these parties has different goals and such goals are incompatible makes it even more chaotic. That is why the actors get involved in 'zero sum' game, when the benefit of one side is seen as the damage for the other. Based on the collected information it becomes clear that external actors influence the duration of the conflict by providing their support for different domestic actors.

The principle of distinction in armed conflicts is the corner stone of international humanitarian law, requiring that the Parties to the conflict would at all times distinguish between the civilian population and combatants and between civilian objects and military objectives. But because of the increased number of civilians and private companies participating in armed conflicts due to the global privatisation and permanent technological improvement of military equipment, the line between civilians and combatants begin to blur. In order to apply the principle of distinction to modern armed conflicts, firstly, we analysed an influence of direct participation in hostilities to the application of the principle of distinction and determined that for person who directly participates in armed conflicts the principle of distinction is no longer applicable and this person becomes a legal military target with no general protection against dangers arising from military operations. An act which is considered to be direct participation in hostilities should meet the requirements of threshold of harm, direct causation and belligerent nexus. Secondly, we studied the application of the principle of distinction to the personnel of private military and security companies in armed conflicts and determined that part of this personnel might be considered combatants and because of that become lawful military targets to whom the principle of distinction in no longer applicable. The other part of personnel should be considered as civilians and as long as they are not directly participating in hostilities the general protection against dangers arising from military operations would be granted for them. Finally, we also analysed the use of cluster munitions in armed conflicts in accordance with the principle of distinction. We determined that this weapon is inaccurate, indiscriminate, cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering and objects to the principle of distinction in armed conflicts.

The principle of distinction in armed conflicts is the corner stone of international humanitarian law, requiring that the Parties to the conflict would at all times distinguish between the civilian population and combatants and between civilian objects and military objectives. But because of the increased number of civilians and private companies participating in armed conflicts due to the global privatisation and permanent technological improvement of military equipment, the line between civilians and combatants begin to blur. In order to apply the principle of distinction to modern armed conflicts, firstly, we analysed an influence of direct participation in hostilities to the application of the principle of distinction and determined that for person who directly participates in armed conflicts the principle of distinction is no longer applicable and this person becomes a legal military target with no general protection against dangers arising from military operations. An act which is considered to be direct participation in hostilities should meet the requirements of threshold of harm, direct causation and belligerent nexus. Secondly, we studied the application of the principle of distinction to the personnel of private military and security companies in armed conflicts and determined that part of this personnel might be considered combatants and because of that become lawful military targets to whom the principle of distinction in no longer applicable. The other part of personnel should be considered as civilians and as long as they are not directly participating in hostilities the general protection against dangers arising from military operations would be granted for them. Finally, we also analysed the use of cluster munitions in armed conflicts in accordance with the principle of distinction. We determined that this weapon is inaccurate, indiscriminate, cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering and objects to the principle of distinction in armed conflicts.

Colombia's internal conflict is one of the longest running and the most challenging and violent conflicts in Western hemisphere. It has killed about 400 000 civilians, and displaced more than 3 million people. All the spheres of the state and society were affected by violence. Conflict also has impact beyond Colombia's borders, spilling into the region with consequences for migration, borders, regional relations as well as international policy and engagement. Moreover, it is closely related to illicit drug industry. This conflict broke out because of many reasons. First of all, there were political causes. Democracy was limited; only two parties could have participated in the politics. Moreover, they always competed with each other. Also institutions were weak and corrupt. Secondly, it is very important to take into account economical and social causes. Almost all arable land belonged to a small group of rich people and the poor ones didn't have any of it. 70 % of people lived below poverty line, there was a big gap between rich and poor, unemployment rates were very high. So for these reasons guerilla groups were formed. The main fighters of the conflict are ELN (Ejército de Liberación Nacional) and FARC (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia). They are the oldest guerilla groups in the world. Since the mid-1980's they have become financially dependant on criminal activities, such as drug trafficking, extortion and kidnapping. In 1996 paramilitary group AUC (Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia) was formed. Now it is demobilized, but still there are a lot of problems related with it. There are different opinions about this conflict. Mostly it is agreed that Colombian conflict is a very serious civil war and that it is necessary to take measures to solve it. However, some scientists believe that this conflict is internal but not civil war. Still they agree that it is very dangerous.[.].

Colombia's internal conflict is one of the longest running and the most challenging and violent conflicts in Western hemisphere. It has killed about 400 000 civilians, and displaced more than 3 million people. All the spheres of the state and society were affected by violence. Conflict also has impact beyond Colombia's borders, spilling into the region with consequences for migration, borders, regional relations as well as international policy and engagement. Moreover, it is closely related to illicit drug industry. This conflict broke out because of many reasons. First of all, there were political causes. Democracy was limited; only two parties could have participated in the politics. Moreover, they always competed with each other. Also institutions were weak and corrupt. Secondly, it is very important to take into account economical and social causes. Almost all arable land belonged to a small group of rich people and the poor ones didn't have any of it. 70 % of people lived below poverty line, there was a big gap between rich and poor, unemployment rates were very high. So for these reasons guerilla groups were formed. The main fighters of the conflict are ELN (Ejército de Liberación Nacional) and FARC (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia). They are the oldest guerilla groups in the world. Since the mid-1980's they have become financially dependant on criminal activities, such as drug trafficking, extortion and kidnapping. In 1996 paramilitary group AUC (Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia) was formed. Now it is demobilized, but still there are a lot of problems related with it. There are different opinions about this conflict. Mostly it is agreed that Colombian conflict is a very serious civil war and that it is necessary to take measures to solve it. However, some scientists believe that this conflict is internal but not civil war. Still they agree that it is very dangerous.[.].

Colombia's internal conflict is one of the longest running and the most challenging and violent conflicts in Western hemisphere. It has killed about 400 000 civilians, and displaced more than 3 million people. All the spheres of the state and society were affected by violence. Conflict also has impact beyond Colombia's borders, spilling into the region with consequences for migration, borders, regional relations as well as international policy and engagement. Moreover, it is closely related to illicit drug industry. This conflict broke out because of many reasons. First of all, there were political causes. Democracy was limited; only two parties could have participated in the politics. Moreover, they always competed with each other. Also institutions were weak and corrupt. Secondly, it is very important to take into account economical and social causes. Almost all arable land belonged to a small group of rich people and the poor ones didn't have any of it. 70 % of people lived below poverty line, there was a big gap between rich and poor, unemployment rates were very high. So for these reasons guerilla groups were formed. The main fighters of the conflict are ELN (Ejército de Liberación Nacional) and FARC (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia). They are the oldest guerilla groups in the world. Since the mid-1980's they have become financially dependant on criminal activities, such as drug trafficking, extortion and kidnapping. In 1996 paramilitary group AUC (Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia) was formed. Now it is demobilized, but still there are a lot of problems related with it. There are different opinions about this conflict. Mostly it is agreed that Colombian conflict is a very serious civil war and that it is necessary to take measures to solve it. However, some scientists believe that this conflict is internal but not civil war. Still they agree that it is very dangerous.[.].

In the last decade the fight against terrorism was carried out not only by measures indicated in national criminal procedure laws or international treaties outlining measures in the fight against terrorism, but also using military forces and carrying out military measures. Thus the dissertation aims to establish when and to what extent is the international humanitarian law (hereinafter – IHL) applied in the fight against terrorism, that is, to analyze in what cases the fight against terrorism amounts to armed conflict, what is the status of terrorists taking part in the armed conflict according to IHL, and to evaluate in the light of IHL principles and rules the specific measures taken against terrorists. Firstly the dissertation analyses the question of the definition of terrorism and proposes a possible definition of this phenomenon. Further on the dissertation analyzes the instances when the IHL rules are applied in the fight against terrorism, that is, when such situation amounts to an armed conflict, and evaluates the main criteria of armed conflict – intensity and organization – and their application in the fight against terrorism. The dissertation also explores the questions of the status of terrorists taking part in an armed conflict, distinguishing those taking part in international and non-international armed conflicts, and exploring the criteria for the direct participation in hostilities for such persons. Finally, the dissertation analyzes the specific measure of fight against terrorists – that is, targeted killings, especially by the means of unmanned airplanes, in the context of the norms and principles of IHL.

In the last decade the fight against terrorism was carried out not only by measures indicated in national criminal procedure laws or international treaties outlining measures in the fight against terrorism, but also using military forces and carrying out military measures. Thus the dissertation aims to establish when and to what extent is the international humanitarian law (hereinafter – IHL) applied in the fight against terrorism, that is, to analyze in what cases the fight against terrorism amounts to armed conflict, what is the status of terrorists taking part in the armed conflict according to IHL, and to evaluate in the light of IHL principles and rules the specific measures taken against terrorists. Firstly the dissertation analyses the question of the definition of terrorism and proposes a possible definition of this phenomenon. Further on the dissertation analyzes the instances when the IHL rules are applied in the fight against terrorism, that is, when such situation amounts to an armed conflict, and evaluates the main criteria of armed conflict – intensity and organization – and their application in the fight against terrorism. The dissertation also explores the questions of the status of terrorists taking part in an armed conflict, distinguishing those taking part in international and non-international armed conflicts, and exploring the criteria for the direct participation in hostilities for such persons. Finally, the dissertation analyzes the specific measure of fight against terrorists – that is, targeted killings, especially by the means of unmanned airplanes, in the context of the norms and principles of IHL.

In the last decade the fight against terrorism was carried out not only by measures indicated in national criminal procedure laws or international treaties outlining measures in the fight against terrorism, but also using military forces and carrying out military measures. Thus the dissertation aims to establish when and to what extent is the international humanitarian law (hereinafter – IHL) applied in the fight against terrorism, that is, to analyze in what cases the fight against terrorism amounts to armed conflict, what is the status of terrorists taking part in the armed conflict according to IHL, and to evaluate in the light of IHL principles and rules the specific measures taken against terrorists. Firstly the dissertation analyses the question of the definition of terrorism and proposes a possible definition of this phenomenon. Further on the dissertation analyzes the instances when the IHL rules are applied in the fight against terrorism, that is, when such situation amounts to an armed conflict, and evaluates the main criteria of armed conflict – intensity and organization – and their application in the fight against terrorism. The dissertation also explores the questions of the status of terrorists taking part in an armed conflict, distinguishing those taking part in international and non-international armed conflicts, and exploring the criteria for the direct participation in hostilities for such persons. Finally, the dissertation analyzes the specific measure of fight against terrorists – that is, targeted killings, especially by the means of unmanned airplanes, in the context of the norms and principles of IHL.

In the last decade the fight against terrorism was carried out not only by measures indicated in national criminal procedure laws or international treaties outlining measures in the fight against terrorism, but also using military forces and carrying out military measures. Thus the dissertation aims to establish when and to what extent is the international humanitarian law (hereinafter – IHL) applied in the fight against terrorism, that is, to analyze in what cases the fight against terrorism amounts to armed conflict, what is the status of terrorists taking part in the armed conflict according to IHL, and to evaluate in the light of IHL principles and rules the specific measures taken against terrorists. Firstly the dissertation analyses the question of the definition of terrorism and proposes a possible definition of this phenomenon. Further on the dissertation analyzes the instances when the IHL rules are applied in the fight against terrorism, that is, when such situation amounts to an armed conflict, and evaluates the main criteria of armed conflict – intensity and organization – and their application in the fight against terrorism. The dissertation also explores the questions of the status of terrorists taking part in an armed conflict, distinguishing those taking part in international and non-international armed conflicts, and exploring the criteria for the direct participation in hostilities for such persons. Finally, the dissertation analyzes the specific measure of fight against terrorists – that is, targeted killings, especially by the means of unmanned airplanes, in the context of the norms and principles of IHL.

The topic of master thesis – Legal Regulation of the Protection of Cultural Heritage during Armed Conflict. The object of research consists of comprehensive analysis of cultural property concept, by focusing on the legal protection given by international humanitarian law. Moreover, the work tackles the main questions related to cultural property protection, such as: what is the scope of the legal protection granted for the cultural property by the main international conventions? What are the most effective legal measures combating destruction of cultural objects? How do the international criminal tribunals shape the concept of criminal responsibility for all kinds of damage made to historic and archaeological monuments? The first chapter of the thesis presents concept of cultural property. This part of the paper is focused on analytical evaluation of definition established by different international conventions. Furthermore, this part provides comparative evaluation of two different attitudes towards cultural property category – cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism. Next chapter displays legal protection system dedicated to cultural property, by critically assessing general, special and enhanced protection, identifying reasons causing application of different level protection. Also, addressing situations when the legal protection may be waived. In the third chapter reference is made to the separate legal measures ensuring protection of cultural property in the event of armed conflict. This chapter analyses cultural property marking, transportation and restitution system, international institutional bodies combating all forms of cultural property destruction and international criminal tribunals as a mean to protect cultural property. All legal measures are assessed by identifying occurring practical obstacles, special attention is given to precedents of criminal tribunals. The last chapter addresses the main challenges that current legal regulation of protection of cultural property is facing. It gives overview whether the legal regime is capable of combating the evolving issue of illicit traffic of cultural property, also tackles application of international criminal responsibility to non-state actors and identifies possible reasons of current legal legislation inefficiency.

The topic of master thesis – Legal Regulation of the Protection of Cultural Heritage during Armed Conflict. The object of research consists of comprehensive analysis of cultural property concept, by focusing on the legal protection given by international humanitarian law. Moreover, the work tackles the main questions related to cultural property protection, such as: what is the scope of the legal protection granted for the cultural property by the main international conventions? What are the most effective legal measures combating destruction of cultural objects? How do the international criminal tribunals shape the concept of criminal responsibility for all kinds of damage made to historic and archaeological monuments? The first chapter of the thesis presents concept of cultural property. This part of the paper is focused on analytical evaluation of definition established by different international conventions. Furthermore, this part provides comparative evaluation of two different attitudes towards cultural property category – cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism. Next chapter displays legal protection system dedicated to cultural property, by critically assessing general, special and enhanced protection, identifying reasons causing application of different level protection. Also, addressing situations when the legal protection may be waived. In the third chapter reference is made to the separate legal measures ensuring protection of cultural property in the event of armed conflict. This chapter analyses cultural property marking, transportation and restitution system, international institutional bodies combating all forms of cultural property destruction and international criminal tribunals as a mean to protect cultural property. All legal measures are assessed by identifying occurring practical obstacles, special attention is given to precedents of criminal tribunals. The last chapter addresses the main challenges that current legal regulation of protection of cultural property is facing. It gives overview whether the legal regime is capable of combating the evolving issue of illicit traffic of cultural property, also tackles application of international criminal responsibility to non-state actors and identifies possible reasons of current legal legislation inefficiency.

The topic of master thesis – Legal Regulation of the Protection of Cultural Heritage during Armed Conflict. The object of research consists of comprehensive analysis of cultural property concept, by focusing on the legal protection given by international humanitarian law. Moreover, the work tackles the main questions related to cultural property protection, such as: what is the scope of the legal protection granted for the cultural property by the main international conventions? What are the most effective legal measures combating destruction of cultural objects? How do the international criminal tribunals shape the concept of criminal responsibility for all kinds of damage made to historic and archaeological monuments? The first chapter of the thesis presents concept of cultural property. This part of the paper is focused on analytical evaluation of definition established by different international conventions. Furthermore, this part provides comparative evaluation of two different attitudes towards cultural property category – cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism. Next chapter displays legal protection system dedicated to cultural property, by critically assessing general, special and enhanced protection, identifying reasons causing application of different level protection. Also, addressing situations when the legal protection may be waived. In the third chapter reference is made to the separate legal measures ensuring protection of cultural property in the event of armed conflict. This chapter analyses cultural property marking, transportation and restitution system, international institutional bodies combating all forms of cultural property destruction and international criminal tribunals as a mean to protect cultural property. All legal measures are assessed by identifying occurring practical obstacles, special attention is given to precedents of criminal tribunals. The last chapter addresses the main challenges that current legal regulation of protection of cultural property is facing. It gives overview whether the legal regime is capable of combating the evolving issue of illicit traffic of cultural property, also tackles application of international criminal responsibility to non-state actors and identifies possible reasons of current legal legislation inefficiency.

The topic of master thesis – Legal Regulation of the Protection of Cultural Heritage during Armed Conflict. The object of research consists of comprehensive analysis of cultural property concept, by focusing on the legal protection given by international humanitarian law. Moreover, the work tackles the main questions related to cultural property protection, such as: what is the scope of the legal protection granted for the cultural property by the main international conventions? What are the most effective legal measures combating destruction of cultural objects? How do the international criminal tribunals shape the concept of criminal responsibility for all kinds of damage made to historic and archaeological monuments? The first chapter of the thesis presents concept of cultural property. This part of the paper is focused on analytical evaluation of definition established by different international conventions. Furthermore, this part provides comparative evaluation of two different attitudes towards cultural property category – cultural nationalism and cultural internationalism. Next chapter displays legal protection system dedicated to cultural property, by critically assessing general, special and enhanced protection, identifying reasons causing application of different level protection. Also, addressing situations when the legal protection may be waived. In the third chapter reference is made to the separate legal measures ensuring protection of cultural property in the event of armed conflict. This chapter analyses cultural property marking, transportation and restitution system, international institutional bodies combating all forms of cultural property destruction and international criminal tribunals as a mean to protect cultural property. All legal measures are assessed by identifying occurring practical obstacles, special attention is given to precedents of criminal tribunals. The last chapter addresses the main challenges that current legal regulation of protection of cultural property is facing. It gives overview whether the legal regime is capable of combating the evolving issue of illicit traffic of cultural property, also tackles application of international criminal responsibility to non-state actors and identifies possible reasons of current legal legislation inefficiency.

The twentieth century is an era of pervasive turmoil. There were two cataclysmic full-scale wars and many wars and conflicts of lesser importance in all parts of the world. The term crisis is among the most widely used verbal symbols of turmoil in politics among nations. Scholars and journalists, too, often write about such things as incidents, disputes, riots, and rebellions etc. as crisis. In short, crisis is a pervasive term to describe dis ruption and disorder in the global arena. Many political scientists have been researching this phenomenon of international system but there is still a need for new researches and analysis of crisis in world politics. New technological tools and data-sets enable further development of analytical aspects of crisis theory: eruption of conflictual situations, context and reasons of crisis escalation and de-escalation, decision making process etc. The main reason impelled to write this article is the lack of integral theory on crisis issues. That is why the main objective of this study is to make a quantitative and comparative research of the crisis in the 20th century in order to highlight the main influential factors of this process in different time and space dimensions. A quantitative and comparative analysis in this article was performed using International Crisis Behavior (ICB) data-set of international crisis (by the SPSS 12.0 package). The results of the research confirm the presumption that the analysis of different "levels" provides different outcomes.[.].