Suchergebnisse

This topic of research was motivated through my extensive interaction in the development field and a key element which was recognized with numerous development assessments within the City of Cape Town, was the fact that our current legislation or standards applied in South Africa do not accurately inform commercial developments within low-income areas. It was observed that the South African standards and policies rely heavily on international standards which focus on private vehicle movement and networks planning which is geared for mobility, whereas South Africa and in particular metropolitan Cape Town has unique characteristic due to the City Planning Structure which was shaped by a flawed political system. The objective of this dissertation is therefore firstly to assess the impact which the built environment (TOD and TND) has on the modal split and trip generation for low income commercial developments, secondary to draw a comparison between the actual operation of low income developments and the accepted trip generation rates used in South Africa, thirdly, to assess the unique characteristics of low income developments within a local context. With this problem statement in mind the aim of this dissertation is therefore to, firstly, to establish a better understanding of the modal split and trip generation for low income commercial developments, secondly, to establish a trip generation rate which is more compatible with developments within low-income communities; and lastly to establish the benefits which can be attained through appropriate development form implementation within the low-income. The literature review section of this dissertation will review academic literature as well as recent policy documents which investigate the relationship between the development form and the impact on traffic patterns, trip generation and modal splits of development. The literature review also establishes common trends and understandings when investigating/reviewing complex data of this nature. It is also the aim of the literature review to set a foundation for the site investigation and analysis process which will be undertaken as part of this dissertation. A critical aspect of this research was the site selection process as this has a direct bearing on the outcomes of the analysis and the accuracy of the results. It is therefore critical to note that the three sites selected for this research were selected based on stringent criteria. With the site selection approach it was a key aspect to keep as many of externalities or external factors constant (Ceteris Paribus) and in this way the results would emphasize the impact of the development form on the trip generation, traffic patterns and the modal split of these developments (if any). The data collection process was done using two distinct survey methods based on the level of technology available at the sites investigated. The first method used was data collection using recorded camera surveillance footage obtained from the centre management. The second method was a manual survey method done by individuals employed at the sites and this was used where electronic data was not available. The survey/data collection process was also broken up into 4 phases, of which the first of these processes was a pilot survey which was undertaken at one of the sites earmarked for the investigation. The aim of this pilot survey was to identify the any shortcoming in the data collection process and it was at this point where all adjustments could be made to eliminate any future errors in the data set. The pilot survey also indicated whether or not the relevant data could be extracted from the camera angles available. The second critical phase of the survey process was that a full week survey was done, this was done to establish the critical peak day which would eventually be used to calculate the critical peak hour for the centres analysed as well as the peak hour factors. The aim of establishing a peak day for the various centres was to eliminate unnecessary data collection and cost, also to focus the study on peak data which will later be compared against prescribed peak rates for these types of developments. Once the peak day was established, phase three was to undertake the final surveys for each individual site and phase four was implemented in order to strengthen the outcomes of the data set, the approach of a repetitive assessment approach (three separate surveys at each site) was used. Based on the weekly peak analysis done, it is evident that the Saturday peak is to be considered the critical/maximum peak for the week. A further conclusion of the weekly peak analysis is that the weekend (Saturday and Sunday) traffic pattern differs from the weekday pattern as it is structured around a single critical morning to midday peak, with the no secondary peaks encountered as with the weekday traffic patterns. The analysis done indicates that TND development principals have a greater impact on the modal split (or preferred mode choice) than TOD as the number of pedestrian trips far exceeds the number of public transport trips generated. This trend was conclusive for all 3 sites used as part of the investigation. A firm conclusion can be drawn from modal split analysis when assessing these developments. When the development form is adequately structured around a pedestrian movement and accessibility (TND type developments), one of the main benefits are increased pedestrian traffic. The outcomes of the modal split analysis also show a positive trend when using the TOD design approach, with the benefits of increased public transport trips. When assessing all the results achieved in the trip generation comparative analysis, it can be concluded that the COTO rate is an accurate prediction for low income shopping centre developments which are built along a transport corridor (TOD design element) and which are pedestrian friendly developments (TND design element). The NDoT calculated rates are not considered appropriate for these developments as they are way in excess of the actual rates recorded.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other major neuro-cognitive disorders (NCDs) pose significant challenges as the number of people living with Alzheimer's disease is rapidly increasing. Alzheimer's disease is incurable and has biopsychosocial implications for those affected. This obviously raises a multitude of issues for persons with AD and their families, but from a societal point of view, these issues require developing collective solutions by transforming communities, developing better organizational practices and adopting renewed public policies. It is in this spirit that since the early 2000s some governments have adopted action plans for these diseases. We conducted a literature review with the objective of understanding the social dynamics that led to the adoption of public policies, identifying their main areas of action, and exploring how these measures are actually implemented. This report presents the results in four main sections: Section 1. The literature review strategy. We used three types of documentary data: 1) 57 scientific articles that focused on the process of recognizing the social problem of AD and NCDs, the political agenda, content, implementation and effects; 2) two reports published by international organizations; and 3) action plans for these diseases which have been adopted by eight of the ten Canadian provinces. We analyzed these documents using a grid based on a public policy analysis model, and the main areas of public policy as identified by the World Health Organization (WHO). Section 2. How ad and NCD's came to appear on the political agenda, their emergence as a social problem and the adoption of dedicated public policies. From 1900 to 1970, AD and NCDs were mainly perceived as a state of madness associated with old age. The boom in medical research in this area in the following decades changed the social representations and contributed to the recognition of the pathological nature. The dissociation of normal aging from cognitive disorders has contributed to the development of associative movements along with increased media attention. Although AD and NCDs emerged as a social problem in the second half of the 20th century, the importance of the psychosocial needs of those living with their impact was diminished in public policy and in the care provided. However, recognition of these needs has grown since the early 2000s, and many governments have adopted action plans. Several scientific articles propose that the participation of people with Alzheimer's disease, their families and the organizations that make their voices heard in the policy making process, is a particularly favourable condition for the recognition of their needs and their expertise. Governments must, however, develop mechanisms that effectively support the ability of these actors to act, rather than simply delegating responsibilities to them. Section 3. Actions plans – comparison and identification of predominant trends. In a report by the WHO, seven main areas were identified : 1)dementia as a public health priority; 2) dementia awareness and friendliness; 3)dementia risk reduction; 4) dementia diagnosis, treatment, care and support; 5) support for dementia carers; 6) information systems for dementia; and 7) dementia research and innovation (World Health Organization, 2017). These areas transcend action plans for AD and other major NCDs, and are thus broadly convergent, although WHO recommends that governments operationalize them in concrete measures adapted to their political, sociosanitary, population and territorial realities. We observed that measures to improve early phases of the care and service trajectory, such as improved diagnosis, are the focus of the action plans. Improved diagnosis is usually put in place too late, constituting a major obstacle to the implementation of follow-up adapted for people living with the repercussions of these diseases. This explains why diagnostic measures are almost universally promoted in public policies, under various conceptual arrangements. However, several action plans have not given the same importance to the development of care and services, following diagnosis, and this can generate feelings of helplessness. A holistic approach to the needs of people living with AD and NCDs, requires public policies to reflect the same intensity in all of the main areas. This can be achieved using the concepts of dementia capable, dementia friendly and dementia positive. These shared concepts are useful in functional components, in transforming the physical and social environment, and in recognizing that people with Alzheimer's disease deserve to live a fulfilling life. This approach is key for people living with these diseases, and their loved ones, to fully exercise their remaining abilities and live with dignity. Section 4. Policy implementation process. The first characteristic of effective implementation of an action plan is the adequate investment of financial resources. The second determinant is the development of a national steering committee, which serves to coordinate numerous departments and partners in various levels of government involved in the implementation of change. The committee helps plan activities implemented, address issues encountered, and monitor and follow up on changes made. The third determinant is the development of a strategy to support change. Several governments have developed projects that experiment with change in practices. Projects that stand out are identified and the conditions of change and implementation are understood, with a view to scaling up. Based on learnings from the literature review, governments need to consider four major aspects when engaging in this type of strategy: 1) mobilizing local actors is crucial to rooting change in local realities; 2) change needs to be flagged and actors must be supported to fully achieve the fundamental objectives of public policy; 3)experimental projects must be rigorously evaluated to draw meaningful learning from them; and 4) large-scale dissemination of innovative practices must mobilize the same type of implementation strategy and maintain the importance of the conceptual foundations on which the experimental projects were based. The policy implementation process must be a priority for governments since the real action to effectively improve the quality of life of people living with the repercussions of AD and NCDs can be realized only by the effective implementation of the measures proposed in the action plans.

Väitöskirjassa tarkastellaan mielenterveyspalvelujen reformien prosessia, joka alkoi Venäjällä 1990-luvun alussa Neuvostoliiton hajoamisen jälkeen. Reformien taustalla oli pyrkimys saattaa potilaiden oikeuksien turvaaminen kansainvälisten suositusten mukaiseksi palvelujärjestelmässä, jota oli aiemmin kritisoitu voimakkaasti tehottomuudesta ja psykiatrisen hoidon väärinkäyttämisestä poliittisiin tarkoituksiin. Tässä tutkimuksessa Venäjän mielenterveyspolitiikan kehitystä tarkastellaan sekä sosiaalisessa ja historiallisessa kontekstissaan että suhteessa Maailman terveysjärjestön (WHO) suosituksiin. Tutkielmassa luodaan katsaus neuvosto-psykiatrian historiaan, minkä pohjalta voidaan arvioida mielenterveyspalvelujen reformien tärkeyttä nyky-Venäjällä. Tutkimus keskittyy potilaiden oikeuksiin, laitoshoidon purkamiseen, palvelujen käyttäjien osallistamiseen sekä stigmatisoitumisen ehkäisyyn politiikan tavoitteina. Nämä kansainvälisesti tunnustetut periaatteet ovat toimineet mielenterveyspolitiikan kehittämisen perustana monissa maissa, ja ovat siten keskeisessä asemassa myös analysoitaessa reformeja Venäjällä. Metodologialtaan tutkimus perustuu tulkinnalliseen politiikka-analyysiin (interpretive policy analysis, jossa keskitytään siihen, millaisia merkityksiä politiikalla on erilaisille ryhmille. Tutkimuksen lähtökohtaisena oletuksena on, että erilaisten politiikkaa tulkitsevien yhteisöjen (interpretive communities) mielenterveyspolitiikkaan liittämillä merkityksillä on tärkeä sijansa politiikan kehittämisessä ja toimeenpanossa. Politiikan suunnittelijat ja päättäjät, media, mielenterveyspalvelujen henkilöstö sekä mielenterveysongelmista kärsivien läheiset nähdään tässä tutkimuksessa tärkeimpinä tulkintoja tuottavina yhteisöinä. Osatöissä (artikkelit) tutkitaan eri toimijoiden tapoja ymmärtää politiikan suuntaviivoja. Käsitteiden osalta tukeudutaan konstruktionistiseen teoriaan, jonka mukaan esimerkiksi mielenterveyspalvelujen reformeja koskevat diskurssit ovat sidoksissa yhteiskunnan kulttuuriseen, sosiaaliseen ja poliittiseen kontekstiin. Polkuriippuvuuden käsitettä käytetään analysoitaessa sitä, miten neuvostoajan perintö on vaikuttanut mielenterveyspalvelujen kehitykseen. Tutkimuksessa käytettiin menetelminä laadullista sisällön analyysiä ja teema-analyysiä. Aineisto koostui mielenterveyspolitiikkaa käsittelevästä asiakirja-aineistosta, sanomalehtiaineistosta sekä mielenterveysalan ammattilaisten ja omaishoitajien haastatteluista. Tutkimuksen mukaan mielenterveyspoliittisessa keskustelussa on edetty merkittävästi potilaiden oikeuksien ja mielenterveyspalveluiden uudelleenorganisoinnissa. Politiikkaa koskevissa asiakirjoissa ei sen sijaan ole kiinnitetty huomiota palveluiden käyttäjien kokemaan stigmaan tai heidän voimaannuttamiseensa. Median tapa käsitellä uutta politiikkaa oli suurelta osin ristiriitainen. Potilaiden oikeuksia puolustavan näkemyksen rinnalla tuotiin esiin pelko psykiatrisen hoidon vapautumisen aiheuttamasta vahingollisesta vaikutuksesta yleiselle turvallisuudelle. Analyysi paljasti, että laitoshoidon purkua koskevan toimenpideohjelman toteuttamista edelsi aiheen saama negatiivinen mediajulkisuus. Tästä seurasi epäsuotuisa mielipideilmapiiri, joka vaikeutti toimenpideohjelman toteuttamista. Tutkimuksessa kävi myös ilmi, että politiikan suunnittelu ja toteuttaminen eivät aina vastanneet toisiaan. Tavat, joilla hallinto esitteli politiikan tavoitteet, ja joilla media aiheesta uutisoi, oli omiaan lisäämään politiikan kohteina olevien ihmisten kokemaa epäluuloa reformeja kohtaan. Laitoshoidon purkaminen sai mielenterveysalan ammattilaisilta ja mielenterveyden häiriöistä kärsiviä omaisiaan hoitavilta ihmisiltä niukasti tukea. Ammattilaiset kritisoivat uusia ohjelmia, suhtautuivat epäluuloisesti reformeihin ja puolustivat olemassa olevan järjestelmän säilyttämistä. Psykiatriset hoitolaitokset edustivat heille keinoa sosiaalisen kontrollin säilyttämiseen sekä potilaiden ja heidän perheidensä suojeluun. Omaisiaan hoitavat olivat hyvin huolissaan mahdollisuudesta menettää nykyisistä palveluista saamansa tuki. Kaiken kaikkiaan tutkimuksen tulokset osoittavat, että mielenterveyspoliittisten ideoiden siirtäminen kansallisten rajojen yli on monimutkainen prosessi. Tämän vuoksi on tärkeää sopeuttaa kansainväliset aloitteet vastaanottavan maan valmiuksiin ja halukkuuteen hyväksyä ehdotetut muutokset. ; This thesis provides insights into the process of mental healthcare reform in post-Soviet Russia. The reforms started in Russia in the early 1990s, following the collapse of the Soviet Union. They were triggered by a desire to conform to international standards for patients' rights within a mental healthcare system that had previously been sharply criticized for ineffectiveness and political abuse. In this study, the development of Russia's mental health policy is considered in its social and historical context and with reference to the World Health Organization's guiding principles. The thesis provides a historical review of Soviet psychiatry in order to gain a greater sense of the significance of mental healthcare reforms in post-Soviet Russia. The thesis focuses on policy issues such as patients' rights, deinstitutionalization, service users' inclusion and participation, and the prevention of stigmatization. These internationally recognized principles have provided the basis for the development of mental health policy in many countries, and could be deemed central to the analysis of the reforms in Russia. Methodologically the study is based on interpretive policy analysis, which focuses on the meanings that policies have for a broad range of policy-relevant publics. This research started from the premise that the meanings that different interpretive communities attach to mental health policy are important for its development and implementation. In this thesis, policymakers, the media, mental healthcare staff, and the relatives of people with mental illness are considered key interpretive communities. Each article provides insights into how policy principles were interpreted by a particular interpretive community. For the conceptual basis, I drew on social constructionist theory, which claims that discourses such as those on mental healthcare reform are tied to the cultural, social and political contexts of the particular society. I also used the concept of path dependency to analyse whether and how the Soviet background has influenced mental healthcare development. The study methods were qualitative, consisting of qualitative content analysis and thematic analysis. The research material included mental health policy documents, mass media texts from selected newspapers, and interviews with mental health professionals and family caregivers of people with mental disabilities. The results of the study revealed that the policy discussion on patients' rights and the reorganization of mental healthcare was a significant advance over the Soviet past. However, the policy documents paid little attention to the issues of stigmatization or users' participation. The media response to the new policies was largely ambivalent. Support for patients' rights was accompanied by fears about the detrimental effects of the liberalization of psychiatry on public safety. The research revealed that negative media responses to the reforms preceded the policy programme for deinstitutionalization, creating an unfavourable climate for its implementation. There were also gaps between policy planning and practice in Russia that contributed to a distrust of the reforms among citizens affected by the policy. Deinstitutionalization met with little support from professionals or family caregivers. The professionals criticized the new policies and were suspicious of reform, arguing for the preservation of the existing system. They perceived psychiatric institutions as a means for the social control and protection of people with mental illness and their families. Simultaneously, caregivers were strongly concerned about the high risk of losing the support they received from existing services. The results of this study demonstrate that transferring mental health policy ideas across national boundaries is a complex process. This underlines the importance of seeking balance between internationally driven initiatives and the readiness and willingness of the receiving country to accept the proposed changes.

The continuous conversion of natural wildlife habitats into agricultural areas, as well as the fragmentation of the last wildlife refuges, is increasing the interface between people and wildlife. When wildlife negatively impacts on people and vice versa, we speak about human-wildlife conflicts (HWCs). This definition includes losses on both sides and takes into consideration the rooting of most of these conflicts between different groups of interest, such as advocates for nature conservation and economic groups. The centres of highest biodiversity are located in developing countries, which are also characterized by poverty. In African and Asian countries, people living in the vicinity of national parks and other conservation areas mostly receive only little support through the government or conservation organisations. Especially for those people who are dependent on agriculture, damage to fields and harvests can have catastrophic consequences. If the species causing damage is protected by national or even international law, the farmer is not allowed to use lethal methods, but has to approach the authority in charge. If this agency, however, cannot offer appropriate support, resentment, anger or even hate develops, and the support for wildlife conservation activities declines. For this reason, HWCs were declared as one of the most important conservation topics today, being particularly relevant for large and threatened species such as the African and Asian elephant, hippopotamus and the greater one-horned rhino, as well as for large predators. Up to today, no general assessment scheme has been recommended for damage caused by protected wildlife species. In my study, HWCs in Asia and Africa are compared, focussing on all herbivorous species identified which damaged crops. For the French NGO Awely, des animaux et des hommes, I developed a detailed assessment scheme suitable for all terrestrial ecosystems, and any type of HWCs and any species (Chapter 2). This HWC assessment scheme was used in four different study areas located in two African countries (South Luangwa/Zambia (SL), Tarangire/Tanzania (TA)) and two Asian countries (Bardia/Nepal (BA) and Manas/India (MA)). This scheme ran for six consecutive years (2009 to 2014) for Zambia, Nepal and India and two years (2010 to 2011) for Tanzania. To carry out the assessments, I trained local HWC officers (Awely Red Caps) to assess HWCs by field observations (measurement of damage, identification of species through signs of presence, landscape attributes etc.) and interviews with aggrieved parties (socio economic data). Results of this assessment are presented in Chapters 2-4. To determine whether elephants prefer or avoid specific crop species, two field experiments were carried out, one in SL and one in BA (Chapter 5 and 6). For this, two test plots were set up and damage by elephants (and other herbivores) were quantified. Within this doctoral thesis, 3306 damage events of 7408 aggrieved parties were analysed. In three out of the four study areas (SL, BA, MA), elephants caused the highest number of damage events compared to all other wildlife species, however, in TA, most fields were damaged by zebra. Furthermore, the greater one-horned rhino, hippopotamus, wild boar, bushpig, deer and antelope, as well as primates, caused damage to fields and harvests. Damage to houses and other property were nearly exclusively caused by elephants. With this doctoral thesis I was able to show that season, crop availability, type and the phenological stage of the crop played an important role for crop damaging behavior of herbivores (Chapter 2). Elephants especially damaged rice, maize and wheat and preferred all crop types in a mature stage of growth. In contrast, rhinos preferred wheat to rice and similar to antelope and deer, they preferred crops at earlier stages of growth, before ripening. Crop damage by wildlife species varied strongly in size; most damages fell below 40% of the total harvest per farmer, but in several cases (3 to 8% depending on the study area), harvests were completely destroyed. Interestingly, during times of low nutritional availability in the natural habitat (dry season), crop damages in all four study areas were significantly less than during other seasons. In all four study areas, crop protection strategies, such as active guarding in the fields, chasing wildlife with noise or fire torches or erecting barriers, were used. In some cases protection strategies were combined. Analysis of data revealed that traditional protection strategies did not reduce the costs of damage (Chapter 3). In some cases, costs of damage, on protected fields were even higher than for unprotected fields. Only in MA did strategic and cohesive guarding significantly reduce crop damage by wildlife species. Besides damage in the fields, elephants also caused damage to properties in the villages. In search for stored staple crops, they damaged houses, grain stores and kitchens. Such damage was analysed in three study areas (SL, BA, MA) (Chapter 4). Although property damage occurred less frequently compared to crop damage in the fields, the mean cost of this damage was found to be double in BA/MA and four times higher in SL, compared to the costs of crop damage in the fields. It is further remarkable that property damage significantly increased towards the dry season, when the harvest was brought into the villages. The findings of this study underpin the assumption that wildlife herbivores, especially elephants, are lured to fields and crops because the highly nutritional food (crop) being readily available. Traditional crop protection is cost and labour intensive and does not reduce the costs of damage. For this reason, crop types, which are thought to be not consumed by elephants were systematically tested on their attractiveness in field experiments in SL and BA (Chapter 5 and 6). In SL, lemon grass, ginger and garlic were proven to be less attractive to African elephants than maize and in BA, basil, turmeric, chamomile, coriander, mint, citronella and lemon grass were found to be less attractive to Asian elephants than rice. The results of this doctoral thesis are relevant for the management of wildlife conservation as they can lead to new approaches to the mitigation of HWCs in African and Asian countries. Finally, specific needs for more scientific research in this field have been identified.

What shapes the prospect for democracy in the aftermath of civil conflicts? Some authors claim a successful transition from violence to elections mainly depends on the ability of political institutions, such as power-sharing arrangements, to mitigate the security dilemma among former battlefield adversaries. Drawing on a broader literature, others point to potential effects of foreign aid on democratic development. This predominant focus on elections and the security dilemma, however, limits our understanding in a number of ways. We do not know how the choice of post-conflict elites to hold elections is strategically intertwined with their willingness to reform other state institutions. We also have only begun to understand how post-conflict power-sharing governments function as revenue source for elites. Knowing how this economic function drives or obstructs post-conflict democratic development is particularly helpful if we shift our attention to a major source of income for post-conflict elites: foreign aid, and the democratic conditions donors attach to it. Addressing these gaps, I argue that both the economic utility from office as well as political conditionalities give rise to a rent-seeking/democracy dilemma for post-conflict elites: they can either hold elections and face uncertainty over their access to power, but secure economic rents from aid. Or they refuse to democratize, secure their hold on power, but risk losing revenues when donors withdraw aid. In this situation, their optimal strategy is to agree to democratic reforms in the area on which donors place most value, elections. But to maximize their chances of electoral victory and continued access to rents from office, elites simultaneously restrain an independent rule of law and narrowly distribute private goods to their supporters. This rent-seeking/democracy dilemma is particularly prevalent in one of the most popular forms of post-conflict institutions: power-sharing governments. Including rebel groups in post-conflict cabinets increases the number of constituencies that need to be sustained from the government budget. In addition, the interim nature of transitional power-sharing cabinets leads elites to steeply discount the future and increase rent-seeking in the short term. My main hypothesis is therefore that large aid flows to extensive power-sharing governments should be associated with improved elections, but limits in the rule of law and more provision of private instead of public goods. To test this prediction quantitatively, I combine data on aid flows and rebel participation in post-conflict cabinets between 1990 and 2010 with indicators for democratic development, election quality, rule of law, and public goods provision. Results from a wide range of regression models provide empirical support for my argument. Individually, extensive power-sharing governments and large aid flows do not seem to have strong effects. Models that introduce an interaction term between aid and power-sharing, however, yield strong evidence of a rent-seeking/democracy dilemma: Power-sharing and foreign aid jointly predict a positive, but small change in democracy scores as well as cleaner elections. At the same time, they are jointly associated with a limited rule of law and stronger distribution of private goods. For each indicator, I document evidence for mechanisms and changes in the effect over time. The theory and empirical results presented in this dissertation have a number of implications for future research. They highlight the importance of moving away from a singular focus on post-conflict elections and looking also at other institutional dimensions of post-conflict politics. My political economy model of power-sharing also demonstrates the utility of explicitly including economic functions of post-conflict institutions into power-sharing and broader peacebuilding research. And I introduce novel evidence into research and practice of aid delivery; this helps not only to clarify academic debates under which conditions aid can be effective, but also informs practitioners who help conflict-affected countries in their transition from war to democracy. ; Welche Faktoren beeinflussen Demokratisierung nach innerstaatlichen Gewaltkonflikten? Manche Autoren argumentieren, dass der Übergang von Gewalt hin zu Wahlen von politischen Institutionen abhängt: nur wenn diese Institutionen das Sicherheitsdilemma zwischen vormals verfeindeten Gegnern abschwächen ist eine demokratische Öffnung möglich. Andere Autoren geben zu bedenken, dass vor allem internationale Unterstützung eine Rolle für erfolgreiche Durchführung von Wahlen von Nachkriegsstaaten spielt. Dieser vorherrschende Fokus auf Wahlen ist jedoch unzureichend. So wissen wir nicht, wie die Entscheidung von Eliten in Nachkriegsstaaten Wahlen durchzuführen von ihrer Bereitschaft abhängt, auch andere Institutionen zu reformieren. Darüber hinaus ist unser Wissen begrenzt, inwiefern Machtteilungsregierungen neben ihrer Funktion als Sicherheitsgarant auch als Einnahmequellen für Nachkriegseliten dienen. Dieser Blick auf die ökonomische Funktion von Nachkriegsinstitutionen ist besonders dann relevant, wenn wir versuchen, die Auswirkungen von Entwicklungshilfe und politischer Konditionalität auf Nachkriegsdemokratie zu verstehen. Diese Lücken versuche ich in meiner Dissertation zu füllen. Ich argumentiere, dass der ökonomische Nutzen von politischen Posten in Machtteilungsregierungen sowie an Entwicklungshilfe geknüpfte politische Konditionalitäten zu einem Dilemma für Nachkriegseliten führen: Eliten können Wahlen abhalten und damit die politischen Bedingungen der Geber erfüllen. Damit sichern sie sich Einkommen aus EZ-Geldern, müssen aber die Unsicherheit akzeptieren, dass sie abgewählt werden—und damit ihr Einkommen aus politischen Posten verlieren. Oder Eliten können sich weigern demokratische Reformen durchzuführen. Damit sichern sie sich ihre Macht, denn sie müssen keine Wahlen abhalten. Andererseits riskieren die Eliten damit, dass die Geber die Entwicklungszusammenarbeit beenden. Um dieses Dilemma zu lösen bedienen sich Eliten einer zweigleisigen Strategie: sie stimmen demokratischen Reformen zu, insbesondere in dem Bereich auf den westliche Geber am meisten Wert legen: Wahlen. Gleichzeitig wollen Eliten jedoch ihren Zugang zu Einnahmen aus politischen Posten sichern und die Wahrscheinlichkeit ihres Überlebens in politischen Ämtern trotz Wahlen erhöhen. Daher schränken Eliten gleichzeitig unabhängige Rechtsstaatlichkeit ein und verteilen öffentliche Ausgaben an einen engen Unterstützerkreis. Dieses Dilemma ist besonders ausgeprägt in Machtteilungsregierungen, eine der häufigsten Formen von Nachkriegsinstitutionen. Wenn Rebellengruppen in Nachkriegsregierungen Ministerposten erhalten, erhöht dies die Anzahl der Unterstützergruppen, die aus dem Regierungsbudget bedient werden wollen. Darüber hinaus sind Machtteilungsregierungen zeitlich begrenzt, was Anreize erhöht auf kurze Sicht Ressourcen zu plündern. Meine Hypothese ist daher, dass große Mengen an Entwicklungsprojekten mit politischen Konditionalitäten im Kontext von Machtteilungsregierungen zu begrenzten demokratischen Reformen führen: "begrenzt" in dem Sinne, dass die saubere Durchführung von Wahlen wahrscheinlicher wird, aber gleichzeitig Einschränkungen in der Rechtstaatlichkeit sowie der unabhängigen Bereitstellung von öffentlichen Gütern zu erwarten sind. Ich teste diese Hypothese in einem quantitativen Forschungsdesign. Dazu kombiniere ich Daten zu Entwicklungshilfe und Beteiligung von Rebellen in Nachkriegskabinetten im Zeitraum zwischen 1990 und 2010. Diese Daten koppele ich mit Informationen zu Demokratieentwicklung, Qualität von Wahlen, Rechtsstaatlichkeit und der Bereitstellung öffentlicher Güter. Statistische Ergebnisse unterstützen meine Hypothese: Modelle mit einer Interaktion zwischen Machtteilungsregierungen und Entwicklungshilfe prognostizieren eine positive (aber substantiell eingeschränkte) Entwicklung hin zu einem demokratischeren System nach Bürgerkriegen. Dieser positive, aber begrenzte Effekt setzt sich zusammen aus saubereren Wahlen, aber Einschränkungen in der Rechtstaatlichkeit sowie der einseitigen Bereitstellung öffentlicher Güter. Die Theorie und die empirischen Ergebnisse dieser Dissertation ergänzen die Forschung in mehrerer Hinsicht: Zum einen zeigt die Dissertation, dass der einseitige Fokus auf Wahlen in Nachkriegssituationen unzureichend ist. Stattdessen müssen wir auch andere Institutionen—wie Rechtstaatlichkeit und Bereitstellung öffentlicher Güter—berücksichtigen, um ein vollständiges Bild der Demokratisierung nach innerstaatlichen Konflikten zu erhalten. Außerdem kann ich zeigen, dass die ökonomischen Funktionen von Nachkriegsinstitutionen eine wichtige Rolle für Friedenskonsolidierung und Demokratie spielen. Darüber hinaus leiste ich einen Beitrag zur Debatte um die Effektivität von Entwicklungszusammenarbeit. Diese Erkenntnisse bringen nicht nur die Forschung zur Entwicklungszusammenarbeit voran, sondern lassen sich auch von Akteuren in der politischen Praxis nutzen.

The eco society, the knowledge society, the digital society are transforming into an intelligent society. It is built on "smart" work, which is done by "intelligent" government and business representatives, based on "intelligent" infrastructure and "intelligent" citizens, playing a key role in creating culture. In addition, the priority is the development of such industries as smart transport, smart health, smart energy, smart food, etc., which will eventually lead to the creation of a smart world. SMARTs will play a special role in the preparation of new-generation specialists, in which e-learning and personalized learning will have priority positions. In an intelligent society, technologies, previously based on information and knowledge, are transformed into technologies based on interaction, cooperation, exchange of experiences – smart technologies. Citizens, new generation specialists, turn their activities into "intelligent" and implement innovative changes in management strategies. This means that society needs more creative and open thinking persons, so that human dignity, based on flexibility and originality, is a priority. The most important issue is the training of staff with creative, creative potential, able to work and think in the new world. (Smyrnova- Trybulska 2018). The monograph "E-learning and Smart Learning Environment for the Preparation of New Generation Specialists" includes articles based on the best papers prepared and presented by authors from nine European countries and from more than twenty universities during the scientific conference entitled "Theoretical and Practical Aspects of Distance Learning", subtitled: "E-learning and Smart Learning Environment for the Preparation of New Generation Specialists", which was held on 15-16 October 2018, organized by the Faculty of Ethnology and Sciences of Education in Cieszyn, University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. The speakers from University of Extremadura (Spain), Linnaeus University in Kalmar (Sweden), the Comenius University in Bratislava (Slovakia), Plovdiv University "Paisii Hilendarski" (Bulgaria), Lisbon Lusiada University (Portugal), Kirchlische Pedagogische Hochschule, Vienna (Austria), Borys Grinchenko Kyiv University (Ukraine), Gdańsk Technical University (Poland), Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia, St. Petersburg (Russia), Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), (Russia), Jagiellonian University (Poland), Warsaw University (Poland), Silesian University in Opava (Czech Republic), Jesuit University of Philosophy and Education "Ignatianum", Cracow, Poland, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra (Slovakia), University of Silesia in Katowice (Poland), University of Defence in Brno (Czech Republic), Kostiantyn Ushynsky South Ukrainian National Pedagogical University (Ukraine), Rzeszów University of Technology (Poland), Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin (Poland), Lublin University of Technology (Poland), Mykhailo Drahomanov National Pedagogical University, Kyiv, (Ukraine), Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz (Poland), Taras Shevchenko National University "Chernihiv Collegium" (Ukraine), University of Ostrava (Czech Republic), Cracow Pedagogical University (Poland), University of Social Sciences and Humanities in Warsaw (Poland), Dniprovsk State Technical University (Ukraine), Poznań University of Medical Sciences (Poland), Warsaw University of Technology, (Poland), Higher School of Education of the Polytechnic Institute of Santarem (Portugal), Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, (Poland), University of Social Sciences and Humanities in Warsaw (Poland), Ternopil University (Ukraine), Federal Research Center "Computer Science and Control" of the Russian Academy of Sciences, (Russia), State Higher Vocational School in Krosno, (Poland) and other educational institutions delivered lectures providing insights into interesting studies, presented their recent research results and discussed about their further scientific work. The authors include experts, well-known scholars, young researchers, highly trained academic lecturers with long experience in the field of e-learning, PhD students, distance course developers, authors of multimedia teaching materials, designers of websites and educational sites. I am convinced that the monograph will be an interesting and valuable publication, describing the theoretical, methodological and practical issues in the field of the use of e-learning for societal needs, offering proposals of solutions to certain important problems and showing the road to further work in this field, allowing for exchange of experiences of scholars from various universities from many European countries and other countries of the world. This book includes a sequence of responses to numerous questions that have not been answered yet. The papers of the authors included in the monograph are an attempt at providing such answers. The aspects and problems discussed in the materials include the following: 1. E-environment and Cyberspace E-environment of the University  SMARTer Education – Preparing a New Generation of E-learning Specialists  Smart-Universities  Smart Technology in education  E-learning in a sustainable society  Internet of things 2. Effective development of teachers' skills in the area of ICT and e-learning  Computer training for prospective and practicing teachers in the area ICT and e-learning  Teachers' and learners' competences in distance learning and computer science Table of Contents 15  Distance Learning and Lifelong Learning  Self-learning based on Internet technology 3. E-learning and Intercultural Competences Development in Different Countries  Legal, social, human, scientific, technical aspects of distance learning and e-learning in different countries  Psychological and ethical aspects of distance learning and e-learning in different countries  Collaborative learning in e-learning 4. E-learning Methodology – Implementation and Evaluation  European and national standards of e-learning quality evaluation  Evaluation of synchronous and asynchronous teaching and learning, methodology and good examples  MOOCs – methodology of design, conducting, implementation and evaluation  Contemporary trends in world education – globalization, internationalization, mobility 5. ICT Tools – Effective Use in Education  Selected Web 2.0 and Web 3.0 technology  LMS, CMS, VSCR, SSA, CSA  Cloud computing environment, social media  Multimedia resources and didactic materials, Video-tutorial design 6. Theoretical, Methodological Aspects of Distance Learning  Successful examples of e-learning  Distance learning in humanities and science  Quality of teaching, training programs and assessment  E-learning for the disabled 7. E-learning in the Development of Key Competences  Key competences in the knowledge society  Use of e-learning in improving the level of students' key competences 8. Alternative Methods, Forms and Techniques in Distance Learning  Simulations, models in distance learning  Networking  Distance learning systems  M-learning Publishing this monograph is a good example of expanding and strengthening international cooperation. ; University of Silesia, MNiSW

International audience ; In every region of the world, one can find numerous instances of the "presence in the soil of a chemical or substance out of place and/or present at a higher than normal concentration that has adverse effects on any non-targeted organism." This soil pollution is increasingly the cause of major societal concern, and policy makers at all levels are more and more recognizing that it urgently needs to be addressed. In this context, in May 2018, the Global Symposium on Soil Pollution (GSOP18) was held in the FAO headquarters in Rome, with over 500 participants from 100 different countries. The leitmotif of the symposium, "It is time to fight soil pollution: Be the solution to soil pollution", stressed the extreme urgency to protect soils. The GSOP18 presentation video (available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wHcY-iFSYZM) emphasized the fact that soil contamination is a hidden danger beneath out feet. The filtering, buffering, and attenuation capacities of soils have been widely documented in many situations, but so is the fact that these capacities are finite; If and when they get exceeded, human health, as well as water- and food quality, may all become threatened.The book by Rodríguez et al. was prepared in advance of the GSOP18 symposium and was "released" during the symposium, in order to stimulate debates. It attempts to summarize the state of the art of soil pollution, and to review the main pollutants, their sources, their effects on human health and the environment, as well as implementations of soil reclamation and management practices. Special attention is devoted to those pollutants that are present in agricultural systems and that reach humans through the food chain.Of the 91 pages of text (supplemented by 50 pages of references), the first section, dealing with the question of "What is soil pollution?", is the longest (40 pages). It describes the basic principles of soil pollution: the differentiation of contaminant/contamination from pollutant/pollution (sometimes misused as synonyms); types of contamination (point-source and diffuse); sources of contamination (natural and anthropogenic); main soil pollutants; and the interaction of pollutants with soil constituents. Much of the chapter reiterates what is typically found in any textbook on soil contamination, but it nevertheless provides a very good (and appealingly typeset and illustrated) compilation of a wide range of contaminants emanating from different sources, including some that are not readily evident or significant, and are therefore sometimes ignored even by soil experts. Examples in this respect are the corrosion of vehicles as a source of urban contamination, military activities and war as a sizeable source of metal contamination, and the release into the environment of other hazardous substances about which relatively little research has been carried out so far. The chapter is illustrated by many examples of contamination episodes especially in Europe (which has an estimated 3 million contaminated sites!) but also worldwide. One of the high points of the first section of the book is that it provides a very good discussion of emerging pollutants (subsection 1.4.7). According to the Web of Science, more than 3500 papers have dealt with the topic since 2010, evincing its significance in the scientific community. Regarding these pollutants, the authors point out the huge risk of reusing urban wastewater, sewage sludge, or livestock residues, such as improperly treated manure, as sources of antimicrobial substances, which are leading to the presence of antimicrobial resistant bacteria in soils (Martínez, 2008, 2009; Rizzo et al., 2013; Kuppusamy et al., 2018). This issue is one of the major problems facing regulatory agencies and decision-makers at the moment, since it is estimated that antimicrobial resistant infections may become the leading cause of death in the world by 2050 (O'Neill, 2014). Emerging contaminants also include manmade or "engineered" nanoparticles, which cause significant concern at the moment.Another positive aspect of the first section of the book is the inclusion of a discussion on the bioavailability, mobility and degradation (subsection 1.5.2) of the main groups of contaminants (heavy metals, radionuclides, pesticides, persistent organic pollutants, N and P). Unfortunately, since the preceding subsection on the interactions of the pollutants with soil constituents is comparatively very succinct, the text cannot analyse in depth the influence that these interactions have on the fate of pollutants in the soil environment or on the physical, chemical, and biological processes that, combined, affect the bioavailability of pollutants.The second section ("The impacts of soil pollution on the food chain and ecosystem services") is the shortest section of the book, and describes the conditions leading to uptake by plants of different types of pollutants, and their impact on human health and soil ecosystem services (mainly related with agricultural and livestock practices). The text also focuses on the toxicological effect of the main groups of contaminants, and describes the main exposure pathways for humans. This section stresses the need for further research on the long-term impact of soil pollution on human health. Also, basic toxicological data and research on exposure pathways or on what constitutes "acceptable" doses are direly needed at this point (Landrigan et al., 2018). The third section ("Management and remediation of polluted sites") describes several approaches to manage polluted sites. The text includes a discussion of the assessment of risks involved, as well as a brief review of available remediation techniques and recommended agronomic practices to reduce soil pollution and degradation. The authors argue in Section 3.1 that it is mandatory to investigate the toxicity of complex mixtures of pollutants for accurate soil risk assessment. Indeed, regulations usually include a chemical-by-chemical approach, or just estimate the risk of a mixture as the cumulative risk of the individual pollutants. At this point, it is not clear at all that this simple, additive method to compute the toxicity of mixtures is ever warranted.

Sugarcane is an importance source of energy and livelihoods worldwide. The production of sugarcane is significantly affected by several insects, weeds and pathogens commonly referred to as pests. In addition, climate scientists predict that climate change or variability will affect sugarcane production and its associated pests. Chemicals called pesticides, beneficial pathogens and insects called natural enemies or biological control agents are used to control these pests. Little is known about the diversity and richness of both pest and natural enemy species nor the properties of the pesticides used against them in Malawi Few studies indicate that insects such as stemborers and aphids, and weeds are the most common pests; and that their control is heavily dependence on pesticides in Malawi. However, most pesticides are harmful to the environment and improper use may lead to human poisoning. Knowing the main pests and using pesticides that are least harmful to the environment and natural enemies coupled with good crop management practices may contribute to solving this problem. To document pest composition and how they were controlled, a review of literature, questionnaire and farm surveys were conducted in the major sugarcane growing areas of Malawi. The questionnaire survey was administered to 55 farmers and 7 representatives of 1474 farmers. We collected 221 insect samples from 48 sugarcane fields and isolated beneficial fungi from 12 soil and 60 plant samples collected from 12 sugarcane fields in southern Malawi, respectively. The best way to inoculate sugarcane was determined) in a potted experiment conducted using a commercially available formulation of beneficial fungi (Beauveria bassiana strain GHA). We identified the fungi and insects samples to genus and/or species level largely using morphological characteristics. Molecular characterization based on partial sequencing of Bloc gene region in 50 fungal samples and cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) gene region in 65 insect samples, respectively, were conducted to support morphological identifications. Separate DNA polymorphism and phylogenetic analyses were performed for the insect and fungal samples. Environmental and human health risks associated with pesticides in use were determined using the environmental impact quotient (EIQ) and World Health Organization (WHO) Classification of Pesticides by hazard. We also explored the likely impact that climate change or variability will have on the type and amount of pesticides used in sugarcane production using Malawi as a case study. The results indicated that weeds and insects infest sugarcane in Malawi. The main insect pests were stemborers (Chilo partellus and Busseola fusca), soil-dwelling insects' pests (Heteronychus licas and H. arator, Anomala spp.), sugarcane thrips (Fulmekiola serrata), red spider mites (Tetranychus urticae), aphids (Sipha flava) and the fall army worm (Spodoptera frugiperda sp. 1). DNA polymorphism analysis revealed low genetic differentiation among C. partellus and B. fusca populations in Malawi. A total of 16 pesticides were used to manage the pests. These are slightly to moderately hazardous to humans, 50 % are highly toxic to bees and 70% can contaminate the environment. Individuals who sprayed these pesticides had minimal protective wear. As a result, at least 65% had experience skin irritation, headache, coughing and running nose as a result of being exposed to these pesticides. The predicted rise in temperature will reduce the efficacy of less toxic pesticides especially cypermethrin. Leaching of sorbed pesticides through high rainfall intensity and increased frequency of floods. Beneficial fungi in three genera namely Beauveria, Metarhizium and Isaria were identified from soil and sugarcane samples collected from southern Malawi. More isolates (81.7%) were collected from soil than from plants (36.7%). The majority of these isolates (72%) were Beauveria species. Molecular identification and phylogenetic analysis identified the Beauveria isolates as B. bassiana were closely related to B. bassiana AFNEO_1 clade isolated from the coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei in coffee fields of South America and in Africa. However, the Malawian B. bassiana clearly clustered in a separate clade. This is the first report of B. bassiana occurring as an endophytes of sugarcane; and B. bassiana, Metarhizium and Isaria species occurrence in agricultural fields in Malawi. Results from the sugarcane inoculation experiment showed that B. bassiana could be effectively inoculated in sugarcane using foliar and soil sprays, and stem injections. Stem injections were highly effective (75%) compared to foliar sprays (43%) and soil sprays (25%) plants inoculated, respectively. The inoculated B. bassiana was recovered in both old and new leaves and stem tissue, even though the recovery rate decreased with time. However, plants that had got stem injections were much shorter that plants that had foliar and soil inoculation, and control plants. The results especially those on natural occurrence of beneficial fungi particularly B. bassiana and Metarhizium spp. will be useful in the control of not only of pests in sugarcane but also in several crops mainly vegetables. ; Sukkerrør er en viktig kilde til energi og som levebrød over hele verden. Produksjonen av sukkerrør er betydelig påvirket av insekter, ugras og plantesykdommer ofte betegnet som skadegjørere. I tillegg forutsetter klimaforskere at klimaendringer eller variasjon i klima vil påvirke sukkerrørsproduksjonen og tilhørende skadegjørere. Kjemiske plantevernmidler og biologiske kontrollmetoder brukes til å kontrollere disse skadegjørerne. I Malawi kjenner vi lite til forekomst og diversitet av skade- og nytteorganismer i sukkerrørproduksjonen eller til egenskapene til plantevernmidlene som brukes. Tidligere studier tyder på at ulike sommerfugllarver, bladlus og ulike ugrasarter er blant de vanligste skadeorganismene og at kontroll er sterkt avhengighet av plantevernmidler. Plantevernmidler kan imidlertid være skadelige for helse og miljø. Å kjenne de viktigste skadegjørerne og bruke plantevernmidler som er minst mulig skadelige for miljøet og nytteorganismer kombinert med god agronomi, kan bidra til å løse dette problemet. ; Capacity Building for Climate Change Adaptation in Malawi (CABMACC) project number 1207026003. CABMACC is a collaborative project supported by the Norwegian Government and the Government of the Republic of Malawi implemented by International Environment and Development Studies (Noragric) of Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU) and Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources, (LUANAR), Malawi.

International audience ; In every region of the world, one can find numerous instances of the "presence in the soil of a chemical or substance out of place and/or present at a higher than normal concentration that has adverse effects on any non-targeted organism." This soil pollution is increasingly the cause of major societal concern, and policy makers at all levels are more and more recognizing that it urgently needs to be addressed. In this context, in May 2018, the Global Symposium on Soil Pollution (GSOP18) was held in the FAO headquarters in Rome, with over 500 participants from 100 different countries. The leitmotif of the symposium, "It is time to fight soil pollution: Be the solution to soil pollution", stressed the extreme urgency to protect soils. The GSOP18 presentation video (available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wHcY-iFSYZM) emphasized the fact that soil contamination is a hidden danger beneath out feet. The filtering, buffering, and attenuation capacities of soils have been widely documented in many situations, but so is the fact that these capacities are finite; If and when they get exceeded, human health, as well as water- and food quality, may all become threatened.The book by Rodríguez et al. was prepared in advance of the GSOP18 symposium and was "released" during the symposium, in order to stimulate debates. It attempts to summarize the state of the art of soil pollution, and to review the main pollutants, their sources, their effects on human health and the environment, as well as implementations of soil reclamation and management practices. Special attention is devoted to those pollutants that are present in agricultural systems and that reach humans through the food chain.Of the 91 pages of text (supplemented by 50 pages of references), the first section, dealing with the question of "What is soil pollution?", is the longest (40 pages). It describes the basic principles of soil pollution: the differentiation of contaminant/contamination from pollutant/pollution (sometimes misused as synonyms); types of contamination (point-source and diffuse); sources of contamination (natural and anthropogenic); main soil pollutants; and the interaction of pollutants with soil constituents. Much of the chapter reiterates what is typically found in any textbook on soil contamination, but it nevertheless provides a very good (and appealingly typeset and illustrated) compilation of a wide range of contaminants emanating from different sources, including some that are not readily evident or significant, and are therefore sometimes ignored even by soil experts. Examples in this respect are the corrosion of vehicles as a source of urban contamination, military activities and war as a sizeable source of metal contamination, and the release into the environment of other hazardous substances about which relatively little research has been carried out so far. The chapter is illustrated by many examples of contamination episodes especially in Europe (which has an estimated 3 million contaminated sites!) but also worldwide. One of the high points of the first section of the book is that it provides a very good discussion of emerging pollutants (subsection 1.4.7). According to the Web of Science, more than 3500 papers have dealt with the topic since 2010, evincing its significance in the scientific community. Regarding these pollutants, the authors point out the huge risk of reusing urban wastewater, sewage sludge, or livestock residues, such as improperly treated manure, as sources of antimicrobial substances, which are leading to the presence of antimicrobial resistant bacteria in soils (Martínez, 2008, 2009; Rizzo et al., 2013; Kuppusamy et al., 2018). This issue is one of the major problems facing regulatory agencies and decision-makers at the moment, since it is estimated that antimicrobial resistant infections may become the leading cause of death in the world by 2050 (O'Neill, 2014). Emerging contaminants also include manmade or "engineered" nanoparticles, which cause significant concern at the moment.Another positive aspect of the first section of the book is the inclusion of a discussion on the bioavailability, mobility and degradation (subsection 1.5.2) of the main groups of contaminants (heavy metals, radionuclides, pesticides, persistent organic pollutants, N and P). Unfortunately, since the preceding subsection on the interactions of the pollutants with soil constituents is comparatively very succinct, the text cannot analyse in depth the influence that these interactions have on the fate of pollutants in the soil environment or on the physical, chemical, and biological processes that, combined, affect the bioavailability of pollutants.The second section ("The impacts of soil pollution on the food chain and ecosystem services") is the shortest section of the book, and describes the conditions leading to uptake by plants of different types of pollutants, and their impact on human health and soil ecosystem services (mainly related with agricultural and livestock practices). The text also focuses on the toxicological effect of the main groups of contaminants, and describes the main exposure pathways for humans. This section stresses the need for further research on the long-term impact of soil pollution on human health. Also, basic toxicological data and research on exposure pathways or on what constitutes "acceptable" doses are direly needed at this point (Landrigan et al., 2018). The third section ("Management and remediation of polluted sites") describes several approaches to manage polluted sites. The text includes a discussion of the assessment of risks involved, as well as a brief review of available remediation techniques and recommended agronomic practices to reduce soil pollution and degradation. The authors argue in Section 3.1 that it is mandatory to investigate the toxicity of complex mixtures of pollutants for accurate soil risk assessment. Indeed, regulations usually include a chemical-by-chemical approach, or just estimate the risk of a mixture as the cumulative risk of the individual pollutants. At this point, it is not clear at all that this simple, additive method to compute the toxicity of mixtures is ever warranted.

Spatial planning should have a key role in creating urban environments that support less energy-intense lifestyles. A wise consideration of energy in urban land use policies should play an important role considering that, in spite of having a land occupation of 2% and accommodating 50% of the world population, cities produce 80% of GHG emissions and consume 80 % of the world's resources.In the building industry, the green economy is already part of the designers' approach. This has already produced several energy efficient buildings that also feature high architectural quality. Now is the turn of cities to take the same direction in developing the capacity of formulating sounded urban policies. This will contribute to develop adequate new tools for achieving the energy efficiency goal.Climate change concern, the dominating environmental paradigm, is permeating the political scenario worldwide, producing a plethora of formal documents. The most recent one is the COP21 agreed in Paris in December 2015, after the failure of the Copenhagen summit in 2009, and formally signed in April 2016 in New York. The challenge for land use planning now is to translate these general commitments into actions that modify planning practices at all levels, from cities to regions.In this field, the current situation is extremely varied. EU has issued several documents focussed mainly at building level but also sustainable transports are considered a key issue. However, a further step is needed in order to increase the level of integration among all land use approaches, including the idea of green infrastructure as a key component of any human settlement. (European Commission, 2013). The relationship between urbanisation and climate change has become key worldwide but looking at it from a Mediterranean perspective arises some specificities, considering also the political strain that this part of the world is facing. Both Southern Europe and Middle East and North Africa (MENA) countries will face stronger heat waves in the near future (Fischer and Schär, 2001). Their cities, often poorly planned for decades, will be considerably affected by these temperature upsurges.A further complexity arises from the fact that the energy approach in land use plans is not direct. Including energy considerations in urban and regional planning is hardly a technological issue. On the contrary, it requires a deep change in the mind-set of urban planners that have to think at the whole city structure wearing the new "energy glasses".It is possible to trace the energy issue in land use planning back to its history. Spatial planning has a long lasting tradition in defining the shape of urban fabric and the layout of buildings, taking into account the role of the sun and the wind. This tradition has evolved from the seminal experiences of modernist planning to the new sustainable districts, recently developed in several countries like Germany, the Netherlands, France and Sweden, including the ones described by Peter Hall (2014) in his last book.But Mediterranean countries have an even longer tradition in building cities and houses that were capable of facing hot temperatures, without any of the electric appliances that are consuming now a considerable share of energy. As part of this long-established tradition, it is worth remembering the inspiring contribution of the Egyptian architect Hassan Fathy. Looking back at the city history is not a mere exercise based on nostalgia. Making greener Mediterranean cities, as they were up to a recent past, is a complex task but it will become unavoidable in order to guarantee forms of sustainable cooling.This is especially true in those cities that have grown considerably in the second half of the 20th century, according to high-density models.Urban planning has been also concerned with defining the proper mix of land uses, taking into account the key role of transports. Compact and walkable cites, rich of activities, are naturally energy efficient. The lesson taught by Jane Jacobs in her seminal book Death and Life of Great American Cities remains relevant also assuming the energy approach. More recently, emerging planning themes are including the containment and retrofitting of urban sprawl by integrating transport and land use planning. Applying Transit Oriented Development (Tod) principles can induce a change in mobility choices of inhabitants of this unsustainable form of urban settlement, by giving them more mobility opportunities.Land use planning will also play a relevant role in accommodating new forms of distributed sustainable energy production in the urban fabric. The recent 2015 Snapshot of Global Photovoltaic Markets, by the International Energy Agency, confirms that economic incentives, like feed-in tariffs, are not enough to guarantee a stable diffusion of this type of energy production. After the phasing out of this incentives there diffusion of PV, reduces considerably. This is case of Italy that installed only 300 MW of PV systems in 2014, compared to 9,3 GW in 2011, 3,6 GW in 2012 and 1,6 GW in 2013. Integrating energy production in the city as part of urban design will increase the opportunity of making sustainable energy production an inherent feature of the city design, including energy production devices in the city realm and using them for retrofitting poor quality buildings.In addition, planning tools have to incorporate incentives aimed at favouring higher energy standards, both for new and existing buildings. The costs of these actions should be covered by planning normative tools. Several techniques, like the Carbon Offset Fund in Great Britain, have been tested but there is a great need of new research in this field, at national and local level, since these tools are not easy to implement without taking into account site-specific norms and approaches. In addition, the exclusive use of the market leverage risks to confine these tools to wealthy communities, excluding the poor ones.These new attitudes require not only new planning tools but also a great capacity of devising urban policies capable of involving communities with different cultural backgrounds and planning traditions. A wise mixture of tradition and innovation is central to innovate the urban planning discipline in the direction of sustainability. A lot of mental energy has to be devoted to the difficult but stimulating objective of improving the energy awareness of our cities.

The purpose of this article is to analyze and highlight the views of the prominent Polish historian, one of the founders of the Krakow historical school, Jozef Szujski, on the history of the Ukrainian Cossacks at the beginning of the seventeenth century, expressed in the second volume of «The History of Poland in Recent Studies», published in 1862, as well the perception of Tsetsora and Khotyn events, published in an article under the same name, printed in 1877. The main task of the author is to determine how Jozef Szujski estimated the importance of the Ukrainian Cossacks for the historical development of the Commonwealth at the beginning of the seventeenth century, and how he assessed and described the events under Tsetsora in 1620 and Khotin in 1621, which place was assigned to the Ukrainian Cossacks and their prominent representative – Hetman P. Konashevich-Sagaidachny. The methodology of the research is based on the general scientific principles of systematicity, reliability, historicism, logic. Biographical, comparative-historical, and comparative-textual methods were used for profound analysis of the scholar's scientific work. The scientific novelty of the research is that for the first time the scientific work of the outstanding representative of the Krakow School of History, Jozef Szujski, was analyzed for the first time through the prism of his views on the history of the Ukrainian Cossacks from 1619 to 1621 and in the general context of the history of the Commonwealth. The specificity of the Cossack perception as well as its reflection in the synthetic and specialized work of the scientist is highlighted. Conclusions. The analysis of «History of Poland .» suggests that Jozef Szujski concentrated, first of all, on the socio-political side of historical events, which is characteristic of the Krakow historical school, but, unlike M. Bobzhinsky, he devoted considerable attention to military aspects of history and the Commonwealth. It was important for the historian to comprehensively describe the history of his own state through the prism of international relations, internal social-political processes and military actions as the agents of these processes. On the one hand, the Cossacks received a negative assessment due to unlawful, unauthorized military actions that damaged diplomatic relations with the Ottoman Empire in a difficult time for the Commonwealth. On the other hand, the historian noted the assistance of the Ukrainian Cossacks in the defense of the Commonwealth, although he emphasized on the negative features and the disastrous consequences of their assistance to the state, which is particularly clearly reflected in the course of the battle at Khotyn. An analysis of the history of the Ukrainian Cossacks in the events of the Tsetsora battle and Khotyn War in the brochure under the same name makes it possible to state that Jozef Szujski paid much less attention to this issue, comparing it with the «History of Poland .», his statements were more carefull, without expressing controversial remarks regarding their role and significance in the battle, he added new small details related to the Cossack subject and made new judgments. However, information on Cossack topics in general, unfortunately, is not enough. One can assume that the interpretation of events by Jozef Szujski changed, first of all, given the patriotic and educational purpose of this work, the new socio-political processes in the Krakow historical environment, and the final departure of the historian from the romantic views of J. Levelel, which took place in the 70-ies of the 19th century. ; Метою даної статті є аналіз й висвітлення поглядів видатного польського історика, одного із фундаторів краківської історичної школи – Ю. Шуйського на історію українського козацтва початку XVII ст., виражених у другому томі «Історії Польщі за останніми дослідженнями», виданої в 1862 р., а також безпосередньо подіям під Цецорою та Хотином в однойменній розвідці, надрукованій у 1877 р. Головне завдання автора – визначити, як Ю. Шуйський розглядав значення українських козаків для історичного розвитку І Речі Посполитої початку XVII ст., як оцінював та описував події під Цецорою 1620 р. та Хотином 1621 р., яке місце в них відводив українському козацтву та його видатному представнику – гетьману П. Конашевичу-Сагайдачному. Методологія дослідження ґрунтуються на загальних наукових принципах: системності, достовірності, історизму, логічності. Для глибокого аналізу наукового доробку вченого застосовувалися біографічні, порівняльно-історичні, та порівняльно-текстологічні методи. Наукова новизна дослідження полягає в тому, що вперше проаналізовано науковий доробок видатного представника краківської історичної школи Ю.Шуйського крізь призму його поглядів на історію української козаччини 1619 – 1621 рр. в контексті історії І Речі Посполитої. Відображено специфіку сприйняття козацтва й висвітлено її відображення у синтетичній та спеціалізованій праці вченого. Висновки. Проведений аналіз «Історії Польщі.» дозволяє стверджувати, що Ю. Шуйський зосередився в ній, в першу чергу, на суспільно-політичній стороні історичних подій, що характерно для краківської історичної школи, але, на відміну від М. Бобжинського, значну увагу присвятив військовим аспектам історії І Речі Посполитої. Для історика було важливим всесторонньо описати історію власної держави крізь призму міжнародних стосунків, внутрішніх суспільно-політичних процесів та військових дій як виразників цих процесів. З одного боку, негативну оцінку козацтво отримало через незаконні, несанкціоновані військові дії, що шкодили дипломатичним стосункам з Османською імперією в складний для Речі Посполитої час. З іншого боку, історик відзначав допомогу українських козаків в обороні Речі Посполитої, хоча й акцентував увагу на негативних рисах та згубних наслідках їх допомоги для держави, що особливо виразно відображено в сюжеті про битву під Хотином. Аналіз висвітлення історії української козаччини в подіях Цецорської і Хотинської битви в однойменній брошурі дозволяє констатувати, що Ю. Шуйський значно менше приділив їй уваги, порівнюючи з «Історією Польщі…», висвітлював більш обережно, не висловлюючи контроверсійних зауважень стосовно їх ролі та значення в битві, додав нових дрібних подробиць, пов'язаних з козацькою тематикою та подав нові судження. Однак інформації з козацької тематики в цілому, на жаль, обмаль. Можна припустити, що трактування подій Ю. Шуйським змінилося, в першу чергу, з огляду на патріотично-виховне призначення даної роботи, нові суспільно-політичні процеси в краківському історичному середовищі та остаточний відхід історика від романтичних поглядів Й. Лелевеля, який відбувся в 70-х роках XIX ст.

There are two policy events that are the focus of the research: the Integrated Resource Plan of 2010 (IRP2010), and its 2013 update report. The research is mainly concerned with the political influence exerted by the identified advocacy coalitions and the political context they acted within, during the period under review: June 2010 to June 2015. The research and the analysis of findings has been guided by the Advocacy Coalitions Framework (ACF) theory. In keeping with ACF methodology, the research is based on an understanding of the preceding 10 to 15 years in order to better interpret current unfolding policy events, identify the coalitions and their activities, and ultimately present key findings that are based on empirical evidence. The narrative seeks to take account of parallel unfolding dimensions which collectively portray a noteworthy tapestry: coalition beliefs and activities, and policy events within the SA electricity supply sector over time. By the final chapter, it should be clear who exerted influence, what their dominant advocacy issues were, whether such influence was evident in policy that was promulgated, and what changed along the way. Empirical findings provide answers to the following research questions: 1. From the IRP2010 to its 2013 Update report, which were the dominant coalitions seeking to influence planning? 2. What were the dominant advocacy issues raised by these coalitions? 3. What evidence could be found for how the issues of dominant advocacy coalitions were realised in electricity policy? 4. What can be concluded and what are the implications for future electricity planning? The dissertation begins with a brief introduction of what the theoretical framework ACF would consider the energy policy system i.e. the international and the national energy and electricity governance context. ACF is then applied to understand the politics of electricity planning in South Africa, two dominant advocacy coalitions active within that sub-system, and their advocated beliefs, in order to answer the first two research questions. Chapter 5 and 6 together answer research question three. In chapter 5, ACF is applied to understand process and outcomes for the IRP2010 as promulgated. Chapter 6 considers the process and outcomes related to the IRP's 2013 update report which is not recognised in policy, and describes some of the shifts that occurred within and between coalitions and within the electricity policy sub-system by June 2015. The picture that emerges is that of an electricity sector within a new democracy that has sought to move beyond its apartheid-era policy legacies and has become characterised by decision-making based on politics rather than evidence. In answering the fourth question it is concluded that recent decision-making and planning processes in South Africa's electricity sector have undergone distinct periods of open and closed consultative process. There has been a steady opening up of process particularly during the policy period up to December 2010. From 2011 onward, a closing down of process has steadily been underway, particularly in relation to the IRP2013 update report. This has occurred at the same time as broad public support for transparent decision-making that is based on evidence had grown. While the analysis focuses on issues of ideological belief, politics and process, rather than on technology and economics, two distinct and contested electricity supply investment options related to power sector reform have dominated the advocacy beliefs and actions of the two coalitions reviewed, as well as the policy choices made by government: nuclear power on the one hand, and renewable energy on the other. These supply options and some of the issues of political economy associated with them are considered in the latter parts of the dissertation. A summary of the main findings Two high-level coalitions have dominated the IRP2010 process and its 2013 update: one favouring orthodox solutions to power supply, and the other favouring transition to a reformed power sector. The coalitions are: a. The Orthodox coalition: enjoying both greater political support for and capacity to influence the achievement of conventional economic growth. Their advocacy tended to focus on past experience and retaining the power supply status quo. b. The Reform coalition: less politically influential, and enjoying less political support. Their advocacy tended toward learning from past experience and changing the status quo. Among the issues which the two coalitions differ on, the five most contested issues were: tariffs and investment, power sector reform, climate change, nuclear power, and renewable energy. The promulgated electricity plan reflects wins and losses to both coalitions. For the IRP2010, more evidence was found of policy 'wins' for the Orthodox coalition. For the 2013 update report, more evidence was found of policy 'wins' for the Reform coalition, Nevertheless, given that the 2013 update report is not recognised in policy, it is concluded that the Orthodox coalition has been more influential in its advocacy. For the IRP 2013 update report, analysis of policy wins and losses became more complex, with alliances shifting within and between the two coalitions under review. Evidence has been found of an initial steady opening up of public consultation process in the decade preceding 2010, which later closed down steadily by June 2015. The closing down of process has been most evident to those involved in electricity planning, since mid-2010.The influential role of the Presidency, on the nuclear investment decision is perceived by electricity planning stakeholders to have begun in June 2010. The clear political support for nuclear procurement has resulted in greater unified advocacy against nuclear power, and lesser advocacy against renewable energy. The continued non-recognition of the IRP2013 update report in policy has benefited both wind power investment and new nuclear power procurement. Ultimately, the delay in the promulgation of a well-regarded, technically robust updated IRP threatens confidence in electricity planning process and is perceived by senior electricity actors to be entrenching a situation where politics is currently playing a more influential role than evidence, in South Africa's electricity planning.

Four Deadlines & a Dinner was a MOTH collaborative practice project working with 20 Stage 2 Graphic Design students at Falmouth University along with external partners from medicine, palliative care, writing, design for the live environment and VR. During this four week period, students worked across a range of death & design projects, they discussed and delivered ideas and potential solutions relating to end of life experiences. With Dr Mark Taubert Clinical Director/Consultant in Palliative Medicine at Velindre NHS Trust, Cardiff, we explored how visual communication designers and medics could benefit from sharing knowledge and skills to impact on policy and practice with regard to end of life matters, in particular with patients with life limiting illness and their choices regarding DNACPR. The work produced from this will exhibited at the Bevan Commission Health and Social Welfare Conference in Wales in September 2017. In collaboration with Ben James, Creative Director at Jotta Design and Anna Kiernan a Senior Lecturer in Writing, we considered our own personal eulogies and innovative ways in which to store our digital selves as either a digital legacy or digital archive beyond our physical life. MOTH hosted a Death Over Dinner party, where our guests were invited to eat and engage in meaningful conversations and questions about the end-of-life, we also held a film night where we screened AfterLife, by Hirokazu Kore-eda: Newly deceased find themselves in a way station somewhere between Heaven and Earth. With the help of caseworkers, each soul is given three days to choose one memory from their life that they will relive for eternity. The project also included a tour of artist's graves at Falmouth Cemetery run by Glyn Winchester from Falmouth Art Gallery. + Bevan Commission Annual Conference 2017.Swansea Wales. The Bevan Commission is an independent and authoritative think tank made up of international experts who help challenge current NHS thinking and practice to ensure it is fit for the future. It provides its advice to Welsh Government on all matters relating to health, the NHS and social care in Wales.Chaired by Professor Sir Mansel Aylward CB. With Dr Mark Taubert MOTH explored how visual communication designers and medics could benefit from sharing knowledge and skills to impact on policy and practice with regard to end of life matters, in particular with patients with life limiting illness and their choices regarding DNACPR. + NHS talkcpr.wales The MOTH Talk CPR Art in Medicine Project. Talk CPR – Discuss DNACPR Talk CPR's goal is to encourage conversation about CardioPulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) for people affected by life-limiting and palliative illnesses. Talking about Do Not Attempt CardioPulmonary Resuscitation (DNACPR) is an important part of advance care planning and can help minimise distress at a later stage. + NICE National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Shared Learning database. The MOTH TalkCPR Art in Medicine Project. The MOTH TalkCPR Art in Medicine Project., January 2018. This submission sets out the journey we took to consider whether graphic design in medical palliative care settings could be a powerful and effective way of addressing practical, psychological, social and spiritual issues that face people at the end of their lives. The 'Talk CPR' project in Wales has multiple facets, including work in 2017 with graphic design lecturers and students from Falmouth University, who have their own End-of-life project called MOTH. This is an 'ethnographical' approach to research, more details of which can be found here. The project lead met art school lecturers and students to describe the issue of resuscitation in palliative settings and tasked them with creating visual and graphic stimuli to encourage frank discussion about future wishes surrounding death, dying and matters such as wishes around cardiopulmonary resuscitation. This resulted in the students creating thought-provoking artwork that looked at dying from a very different angle, compared to the more typical mainstream healthcare approaches of blue background patient information leaflets. Students produced videos, images and photographs. Aims and objectives Do Not Attempt Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (DNACPR) discussions and forms are nearly always initiated by doctors, and they can be a source of distress, harm and complaints from patients and their loved-ones. In 2015, a national campaign in Wales called 'Sharing and Involving- TalkCPR', sought to put patients at the centre of discussions. As part of this endeavour, the TalkCPR project group led by Dr Mark Taubert, met with the Falmouth University Moth group, to discuss graphic design initiatives for patients to trigger patient led discussions on DNACPR. The brief was for the artwork to bring about reflection and encourage individuals to ask the question: "Would I actually want CPR in the last years of my life?" Furthermore, in line with NICE Guidelines for End of Life Care in adults (QS13), NG31 and NG61 for end of life care for children, infants and young people with life limiting conditions, it sought to encourage patients and healthcare professionals to approach the advance care planning topic without too much trepidation, and without fear of upsetting the person they were talking to. Key learning points Further exhibitions in hospitals are planned for 2018 and 2019. The designs and posters have been used in medical students and junior doctor teaching sessions in Velindre Cancer Centre and in Llandough hospital. One of the Moth/TalkCPR videos has been disseminated via Youtube link on Twitter and has received very positive feedback. Graphic design is everywhere around us, casting its influence and shaping our thoughts and views. But those working in healthcare or experiencing illness often do not have the opportunity to change or influence this art. The Moth/TalkCPR project sought to change this shortfall, whilst also acknowledging that it is difficult to 'measure the impact of art', given how each of us perceives and processes such things very differently. The relationship between medicine, death and graphic design helped shape this project and we wanted to explore how art and graphic design can be used to promote and forward NICE guidance on end-of-life care, including the often used advice that we need to talk more about our dying moments.

In reference to IEEE copyrighted material which is used with permission in this thesis, the IEEE does not endorse any of Technische Universität Berlin's products or services. Internal or personal use of this material is permitted. If interested in reprinting/republishing IEEE copyrighted material for advertising or promotional purposes or for creating new collective works for resale or redistribution, please go to http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/rights_link.html to learn how to obtain a License from RightsLink. ; Ecosystem conservation and ecological restoration such as the preservation of species and habitat diversity have become recognized as an important ambition for an intentional anthropogenic exertion of influence worldwide. On that account, internationally acknow­ledged conservation targets are defined and realized over habitat management measures in designated protected area networks. By this means, it is intended to better control the worldwide loss of biodiversity and to create exclusion areas for the observation of natural processes and traits that will develop under minimal human interventions. Remote sensing thereby offers great potentials for an area wide monitoring of arising natural process dynamics, evaluating future development tendencies and mapping legally binding conser­vation status indicators in largely inaccessible protection zones. For this purpose, data intensive methods are required to transfer ecological interrelations from the field plot scale to the level of spatially explicit image projections. This thesis develops a differentiated set of methodological approaches for the determination of complex ecological gradients via responses to the spectral feature space that is utilized for the mapping of plant species and habitats by means of field and imaging spectroscopy. Numerical models are generated on the basis of vegetation characteristics and spectral reflectance signatures that were collected for open heathland areas on a former military training area, the "Döberitzer Heide" west of Berlin, Germany. By applying the Non-metric Multidimensional Scaling (NMDS) ordination technique on the field samples, continuous floristic gradients are projected onto varying ordination space configurations. On that basis, functional relations can be designed for the quantification of Natura 2000 habitat type probabilities. It can be shown that occurrence probabilities are up- or downgraded according unique species turnover in specific NMDS ordination regions that can be utilized for a Natura 2000 habitat type conservation status assessment. Owing to the relationship between floristic gradients in NMDS ordination and spectral signatures from field references that is constructed through a Partial Least Squares Regression (PLSR) framework, continuous species shifts, habitat type occurrence probabilities and their conservation states are transferable to hyperspectral imagery. For the first time, this thesis demonstrated that multidirectional NMDS ordination space rotations provide stable and significant wavelength regions for the prediction of specific plant species gradients. A novel feature selection method is provided that identifies spectrally sensitive gradients and calibrates robust PLSR models for the allocation of transferable spectral feature combinations in a statistical learning procedure. In a final synthesis it is demonstrated that individual cover-abundances are represented in multiple dimensions of a NMDS ordination results. A genetic optimization procedure is introduced in order to evaluate the spectral predictability of individual species abundances from the overall vegetation continuum of the study area's open heathland communities. Optimal species models are selected for distinct sets of NMDS dimensionality and assigned to spectral gradient features in a multiobjective optimization assessment. The final species models thus integrate unique parameterizations of ecological and spectral traits that can be used to predict individual species abundances on hyperspectral imagery. The resulting vegetation patterns are semantically defined over spatially explicit representations of species coexistence, diversity clusters, succession trajectories, ecotone areas and habitat conditions. In particular, continuous measures of species cover or habitat type probabilities are projected onto the image scale. As a consequence, detailed information about nature conservation and habitat management relevant structures and processes are provided in continuous units of the reflected reality. The thesis thus states to provide a contribution for a deeper understanding of ecological processes, related spatiotemporal pattern dynamics and inducible ecosystem development trends. The generated mapping algorithms are further potentially transferable to other areas and to variable aspects of ecological restoration efforts, which is particularly promising in conjunction with upcoming drone and hyperspectral spaceborne missions. ; Der Erhalt und die Entwicklung von Ökosystemen und ökosystemaren Bestandteilen, wie etwa die Vielfalt von Arten und Lebensräumen, ist ein international anerkanntes Ziel intendierter, anthropogener Einflussnahme. Es werden weltweit Zielvorgaben definiert, die über eine Vielzahl von aktiven (Lebensraumgenese) und passiven (Wildnis) Maßnahmen in Netzwerken aus Naturschutzgebieten realisiert werden. Insbesondere soll auf diese Weise dem weltweiten Verlust der Biodiversität entgegengewirkt sowie Refugien natürlicher Prozesskreisläufe, in denen anthropogene Eingriffe minimiert sind, geschaffen werden. Die Überwachung der sich einstellenden natürlichen Prozessdynamiken, die Bewertung von Entwicklungstendenzen und die Inventarisierung naturschutzrechtlich verbindlicher Zustands­indikatoren in den großflächigen, größtenteils unzugänglichen Schutzgebieten kann zu einem großen Teil von der Geofernerkundung geleistet werden. Zu diesem Zweck werden datenintensive Verfahren benötigt, die ökologische Zusammenhänge von der Feldskala auf die Bildebene möglichst verlustfrei übertragen. In der vorliegenden Dissertation wird dargelegt wie komplexe, ökologische Gradienten über spektrale Merkmale beschrieben und in der bildgebenden Spektroskopie abgebildet werden können. Hierfür wurden Vegetationseigenschaften wie Arten und Deckungen sowie dessen spektrale Reflexionssignaturen einer offenen grundmoränengebundenen Heidelandschaft auf einem ehemaligen Truppenübungsplatz, der "Döberitzer Heide" westlich von Berlin, intensiv beprobt und zur numerischen Modellierung floristischer Lebensraumeigenschaften heran­gezogen. Über das Verfahren der nichtmetrischen multidimensionalen Skalierung (NMDS) können dabei kontinuierliche, floristische Gradienten in einen Ordinationsraum projiziert und über funktionale Vorschriften zu Vorkommenswahrscheinlichkeiten von Natura 2000 Lebens­raumtypen aggregiert werden. Es kann gezeigt werden, dass Übergänge zwischen Natura 2000 Lebensraumtypen durch spezifische Artgradienten gekennzeichnet sind, welche wiederum zur Bewertung eines naturschutzrechtlichen Erhaltungszustandes genutzt werden können. Über den Zusammenhang zwischen Ordinationsraumgradienten und spektralen Feld­signaturen, der in einem Partial Least Squares Regressionsansatz (PLSR) kalibriert wird, lassen sich kontinuierliche Artgradienten, Lebensraumwahrscheinlichkeiten und Bewertungs­stufen auf Bildpixel von hyperspektralen Überflugdaten übertragen. Erstmalig wird in der Dissertation gezeigt, dass sich in einer multidirektionalen Rotation von Ordinations­raumgradienten stabile und signifikante Wellenlängenbereiche für spezifische Artübergänge identifizieren lassen. Zu diesem Zweck wird ein neuartiges Selektionsverfahren eingeführt, welches spektral sensitive Gradienten auswählt, diese in einem PLSR Ansatz kalibriert und gleichzeitig über ein statistisches Resampling auf Robustheit in der Übertragung überprüft. In der finalen Zusammenführung wird gezeigt wie Deckungsabundanzen von Einzelarten im NMDS Ordinationsraum beschrieben sind und wie diese über zuordenbare spektrale Gradienten modelliert werden können. Dabei wird ein neuer Ansatz zur Bewertung der Vorhersagbarkeit einzelner Arten aus dem gesamten Vegetationskontinuum aus dem Bereich der genetischen Optimierung adaptiert. Darin wird ein multikriterieller Optimierungsverlauf zur Selektion eines optimalen Artmodells unter Bestimmung der geeigneten Ordinationsraum­dimension und der spektralen Gradientenmerkmale durchgeführt. Die finalen Artmodelle integrieren artspezifische Parametrisierungen zur räumlich expliziten Vorhersage von Einzelartenabundanzen auf Hyperspektralbildern unterschiedlicher phänologischer Phasen. Die abgebildeten Vegetationsmuster eröffnen die Möglichkeit zur expliziten Darstellung von Koexistenzen, Diversitätsclustern, Sukzessionsstadien, Ökotonen und Lebensräumen. Es werden insbesondere kontinuierliche Größen wie Deckungsgrade (Arten) oder Wahrschein­lichkeiten (Lebensräume) räumlich vorhergesagt. Auf diese Weise werden gerade im Hinblick auf Anforderungen im Naturschutz detaillierte Informationen über die stetige Struktur der Realität geliefert, welche Einblicke für ein tieferes Prozessverständnis ermöglichen und somit einen Beitrag zur frühzeitigen Erkennung von ökosystemaren Entwicklungstendenzen leisten. Die generierten Abbildungsalgorithmen können potentiell auf andere Gebiete und auf neue naturschutzfachliche Herausforderungen in Verbindung mit zukünftigen, operationellen Drohnen oder hyperspektralen Satellitenmissionen übertragen werden.

Rapid exploitation of fossil resources has resulted in a massive release of greenhouse gases (GHG) into the atmosphere. This anthropogenic perturbation of the complex climate system could result in a change of global climate patterns unprecedented in the past millennium. As such, further climatic change poses a serious threat to a broad range of natural systems and economic sectors. The land-use sector, with agriculture in particular, is greatly challenged by the new weather conditions. Hence, adequate action is required in order to adapt and also to prevent potential negative impacts on the sector's services. This thesis aims to assess the direct and indirect impact of climate change in the land-use sector, and to evaluate the associated economic distributional effects. Direct economic impacts from climate change in the agricultural sector are manifested through alterations of crop yields and consequent shifts in agricultural markets including changes in consumer and producer rents. Beyond agriculture, changes in carbon stocks in natural vegetation and soils are also directly affected by climate change. At the same time, they offer a great GHG reduction potential in a land-based climate change mitigation policy. Mitigation measures are needed in all sectors, but they could also lead to negative economic effects and manifest as indirect impacts of climate change, since a comprehensive mitigation policy could rebound in agricultural markets by adding more pressure to production activities. Aside from the aim of assessing impacts, this thesis has a second goal, that of identifying those measures that could reduce the magnitude of such economic consequences. The assessment of direct and indirect climate change economic impacts is accomplished in a broad scenario analysis employed in the Model of Agricultural Production and its Impacts on the Environment (MAgPIE). MAgPIE is a partial equilibrium model of the agricultural sector that optimizes land-use patterns such that agricultural demand is fulfilled at the minimal production cost. Biophysical inputs for MAgPIE with climate change impacts (crop yields, water availability and carbon content) come at a high spatial resolution, and as such influence production systems subject to regionally defined economic constraints. For this thesis, the existing framework is extended by an analysis of market shocks and shifts in economic surpluses. The main findings of the thesis suggest that a strong climate change effect on crop yields could cause significant global agricultural welfare loss by the end of the century. Geographic regions will be differently affected by climate change, with more losses in tropical areas. Additionally, the weight of economic impacts will be higher for food consumers than for food producers. However, a land-use based mitigation policy could greatly contribute to the reduction of the direct impacts. Still, achieving the land-based mitigation potential could considerably affect land-use and the dynamics of terrestrial carbon stocks. Under a GHG emission tax policy, land-use change carbon emissions could be almost entirely avoided. However, residual emissions from agricultural production systems (methane and nitrous-oxide gases) would still remain even if emission taxing mechanisms were applied, while the negative mitigation policy effects would reflect strongly in higher production costs and consequently increasing food prices. Particular measures can be implemented to alleviate the negative impacts from climate change and mitigation action. More openness in international agricultural trade could considerably reduce global and regional losses. Food demand management, changing diet patterns and reducing waste, all point to ways not only of reducing GHG emissions, but also of relieving the pressure of agricultural markets. GHG reduction measures can also be diversified in order to prevent impacts of a mitigation policy; for example a lower than optimal GHG tax for the non-CO2 emissions in the agricultural sector would trigger emissions reduction to the full potential without threatening food price stability. In the context of food security, these measures should be an integral part of any policy portfolio aiming at both the mitigation of climate change and the avoidance of direct and indirect climate change impacts on the stable utilization of food. ; Die rapide Ausbeutung fossiler Ressourcen hat große Mengen an Treibhausgasen in die Atmosphäre freigesetzt. Diese anthropogene Störung des komplexen Klimasystems könnte die klimatisch sehr günstigen Bedingungen des Holozäns beenden, sofern weiterhin Treibhausgase emittiert werden. Der Klimawandel stellt damit sowohl eine ernsthafte Bedrohung für natürliche Systeme als auch für die Weltwirtschaft dar. Der Landnutzungssektor, und insbesondere die Landwirtschaft, wird durch den Klimawandel vor die Herausforderung gestellt, Treibhausgase zu vermeiden, sich anzupassen, und hierdurch negative Folgen auf die Produktion und Dienstleistungen des Sektors abzuwenden. Diese Dissertation quantifiziert die direkten und indirekten Klimafolgen im Landnutzungssektor und evaluiert die damit verbundenen ökonomischen Verteilungseffekte. Direkte Klimafolgen entstehen zum einen durch eine Veränderung der landwirtschaftlichen Ertragspotentiale und deren Auswirkungen auf die Agrarmärkte, welche wiederum Folgen für Produzenten- und Konsumentenrenten haben. Weiterhin beinhalten die direkten Klimafolgen auch eine Veränderung der Kohlenstoffspeicherung in Vegetation und Böden, welche als Kohlenstoffsenke ein großes Potential zur Treibhausgasvermeidung besitzen und unter einer Klimaschutzpolitik zu einem bedeutenden Vermögenswert aufgewertet werden. Politikmaßnahmen zur Treibhausgasvermeidung können darüber hinaus erheblichen Druck auf landwirtschaftliche Märkte ausüben. Diese indirekten Klimafolgen können zu Verteilungseffekten führen, insbesondere in Bezug auf die Ernährungssicherung. Neben dem Ziel, die Klimafolgen zu quantifizieren, soll diese Dissertation darüber hinaus auch Maßnahmen identifizieren, welche negative ökonomische Verteilungsfolgen des Klimawandels reduziert. Die direkten und indirekten Klimafolgen werden durch eine Szenarienanalyse beurteilt, welche mit dem Landnutzungsmodell MAgPIE (Model of Agricultural Production and its Impact on the Environment) durchgeführt wurde. MAgPIE ist ein partielles Gleichgewichtsmodell des Agrarsektors, welches Landnutzungsmuster so optimiert, dass eine gegebene Nachfrage kostenminimal durch die Produktion gedeckt wird. Das Modell berücksichtigt die biophysikalische Beeinflussung von Erträgen, Wasserverfügbarkeit und Kohlenstoffspeicherung durch den Klimawandel auf hoher geographischer Auflösung, und simuliert die Folgen auf das Produktionssystem innerhalb der gegebenen ökonomischen Randbedingungen. In dieser Dissertation wurde das bestehende Modell um eine Analyse von Marktschocks und um Verschiebungen der ökonomischen Renten erweitert. Die Ergebnisse der Arbeit deuten darauf hin, dass die klimabedingte Veränderung der Erträge gegen Ende des Jahrhunderts einen erheblichen Wohlfahrtsverlust verursachen könnte. Die verschiedenen Weltregionen werden hierbei unterschiedlich betroffen sein, wobei insbesondere die tropischen Regionen von den Klimafolgen negativ beeinträchtigt werden. Auch werden Nachfrager von Nahrungsmitteln stärker betroffen sein als Nahrungsmittelproduzenten. Landnutzungsbasierte Vermeidung von Treibhausgasen könnte die direkten Folgen des Klimawandels erheblich abmildern. Derartige Mitigationsmaßnahmen würden allerdings die Landnutzung und die terrestrischen Kohlenstoffspeicher stark verändern. Eine Steuer auf Treibhausgase könnte die Kohlendioxid-Emissionen aus Landnutzungsveränderungen fast vollständig verhindern, während Methan- und Lachgasemissionen aus der Landnutzung auch unter einer solchen Besteuerung nicht vollständig vermieden würden. Zusätzlich zu der Erhöhung der Produktionskosten durch Treibhausgasminderung würden so auch die Kosten der Emissionssteuer auf die Nahrungsmittelkonsumenten abgewälzt, was über höhere Nahrungsmittelpreise zu unerwünschten Verteilungseffekten führen könnte. Um unerwünschte Verteilungseffekte zu vermeiden oder abzumildern, könnten verschiedene zusätzliche Maßnahmen ergriffen werden. Durch freieren Handel zwischen den Weltregionen könnten Regionen, die stark vom Klimawandel betroffen sind, ihre Nachfrage kostengünstiger über Importe decken. Darüber hinaus könnte die Förderung von nachhaltigerem Konsum, insbesondere eine Reduktion von Lebensmittelverschwendung und geringerer Konsum tierischer Produkte, nicht nur die Emissionen aus der Landwirtschaft begrenzen, sondern gleichzeitig auch Druck aus den Agrarmärkten nehmen und so den Preisanstieg verringern. Schließlich könnte auch eine Differenzierung des Kohlenstoffpreises zwischen dem Landnutzungssektor und den anderen Wirtschaftssektoren vorteilhaft sein. Bereits eine geringe Besteuerung reicht aus, um das Vermeidungspotential des Landnutzungssektors größtenteils auszuschöpfen, und begrenzt zugleich Verteilungseffekte, die sich aus der Abwälzung der Steuer auf den Konsumenten ergeben. Gerade im Kontext der Ernährungssicherheit sollten diese Maßnahmen daher ein integraler Bestandteil des Politikportfolios sein, welches zugleich Treibhausgase vermeidet und die direkten und indirekten Klimafolgen reduziert.