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Until the Crusades, the encounters between the Muslim East and the Christian West had been limited to anecdotal trade exchanges as well as rare pilgrimages to the Holy Land. While the Muslims intensely despised dedicated northern tribes, in their opinion, to misguidance and ignorance, the West had made the young Eastern religion and its followers the Antichrist of their apocalyptic eschatology. All were imbued with an uncompromising theocentrism leaving no room to another ignored or abhorred, except that of the Enemy.This necessitated a general war between these two civilizational sets of the antipodes so that finally they meet and come together permanently, to the extent of partly diminishing prejudice and distorted images which were long maintained. Paradoxically, the war and its principal emanations (strategy, tactics, weaponry and military architecture) would be the causes of better mutual understanding. In seeking to best meet the military challenge launched by the enemy, everyone was forced to scrutinize the intentions, attitudes, and especially the art of war of the other, so they did not hesitate to copy the concepts and procedures deemed beneficial, as both sides made shows in this area, a multifaceted exceptional adaptability. In short, far from the common vision with the crusades as purely secular religious conflicts that opposed in a Manichean manner two monolithic and hermetic conceptions of the world and war, it would seem that Syria of the twelfth century began as a crucible exchanges in which the watchword was "pragmatism". ; Jusqu'aux croisades, les rencontres entre l'Orient musulman et l'Occident chrétien avaient été réduites à des échanges commerciaux anecdotiques ainsi qu'à de rares pèlerinages en Terre sainte. Et alors que les musulmans méprisaient souverainement des peuplades septentrionales vouées, selon eux, à l'égarement et à l'ignorance, les Occidentaux avaient fait de la jeune religion orientale et de ses sectateurs l'Antéchrist de leur eschatologie apocalyptique. Tous étaient ...

Until the Crusades, the encounters between the Muslim East and the Christian West had been limited to anecdotal trade exchanges as well as rare pilgrimages to the Holy Land. While the Muslims intensely despised dedicated northern tribes, in their opinion, to misguidance and ignorance, the West had made the young Eastern religion and its followers the Antichrist of their apocalyptic eschatology. All were imbued with an uncompromising theocentrism leaving no room to another ignored or abhorred, except that of the Enemy.This necessitated a general war between these two civilizational sets of the antipodes so that finally they meet and come together permanently, to the extent of partly diminishing prejudice and distorted images which were long maintained. Paradoxically, the war and its principal emanations (strategy, tactics, weaponry and military architecture) would be the causes of better mutual understanding. In seeking to best meet the military challenge launched by the enemy, everyone was forced to scrutinize the intentions, attitudes, and especially the art of war of the other, so they did not hesitate to copy the concepts and procedures deemed beneficial, as both sides made shows in this area, a multifaceted exceptional adaptability. In short, far from the common vision with the crusades as purely secular religious conflicts that opposed in a Manichean manner two monolithic and hermetic conceptions of the world and war, it would seem that Syria of the twelfth century began as a crucible exchanges in which the watchword was "pragmatism". ; Jusqu'aux croisades, les rencontres entre l'Orient musulman et l'Occident chrétien avaient été réduites à des échanges commerciaux anecdotiques ainsi qu'à de rares pèlerinages en Terre sainte. Et alors que les musulmans méprisaient souverainement des peuplades septentrionales vouées, selon eux, à l'égarement et à l'ignorance, les Occidentaux avaient fait de la jeune religion orientale et de ses sectateurs l'Antéchrist de leur eschatologie apocalyptique. Tous étaient ...

Until the Crusades, the encounters between the Muslim East and the Christian West had been limited to anecdotal trade exchanges as well as rare pilgrimages to the Holy Land. While the Muslims intensely despised dedicated northern tribes, in their opinion, to misguidance and ignorance, the West had made the young Eastern religion and its followers the Antichrist of their apocalyptic eschatology. All were imbued with an uncompromising theocentrism leaving no room to another ignored or abhorred, except that of the Enemy.This necessitated a general war between these two civilizational sets of the antipodes so that finally they meet and come together permanently, to the extent of partly diminishing prejudice and distorted images which were long maintained. Paradoxically, the war and its principal emanations (strategy, tactics, weaponry and military architecture) would be the causes of better mutual understanding. In seeking to best meet the military challenge launched by the enemy, everyone was forced to scrutinize the intentions, attitudes, and especially the art of war of the other, so they did not hesitate to copy the concepts and procedures deemed beneficial, as both sides made shows in this area, a multifaceted exceptional adaptability. In short, far from the common vision with the crusades as purely secular religious conflicts that opposed in a Manichean manner two monolithic and hermetic conceptions of the world and war, it would seem that Syria of the twelfth century began as a crucible exchanges in which the watchword was "pragmatism". ; Jusqu'aux croisades, les rencontres entre l'Orient musulman et l'Occident chrétien avaient été réduites à des échanges commerciaux anecdotiques ainsi qu'à de rares pèlerinages en Terre sainte. Et alors que les musulmans méprisaient souverainement des peuplades septentrionales vouées, selon eux, à l'égarement et à l'ignorance, les Occidentaux avaient fait de la jeune religion orientale et de ses sectateurs l'Antéchrist de leur eschatologie apocalyptique. Tous étaient imprégnés d'un théocentrisme intransigeant ne laissant aucune place à un Autre ignoré ou abhorré, si ce n'est celle de l'Ennemi. Il fallut donc une guerre généralisée entre ces deux ensembles civilisationnels aux antipodes pour qu'enfin ils se rencontrent et se côtoient durablement, jusqu'à estomper en partie des préjugés et des images déformées longtemps entretenus. Paradoxalement, la guerre et ses principales émanations (la stratégie, la tactique, l'armement et l'architecture militaire) allaient être les causes d'une meilleure connaissance mutuelle. En cherchant à répondre au mieux au défi militaire lancé par l'adversaire, chacun fut contraint de scruter les intentions, la mentalité, et surtout l'art de la guerre de l'autre ; ainsi, on n'hésita pas à en copier les concepts et les procédés jugés profitables, de même que les deux camps firent montre, dans ce domaine, d'une adaptabilité multiforme exceptionnelle. En somme, loin de la vision répandue présentant les croisades comme des conflits séculaires purement religieux ayant opposé de manière manichéenne deux conceptions monolithiques et hermétiques du monde et de la guerre, il semblerait en réalité que la Syrie du XIIe siècle fut d'abord un creuset d'échanges dans lequel le maître mot était "pragmatisme".

Who was never taken aback by seeing human beings look away from a difficult, rational, boring or mad reality, in order to escape toward more exciting horizons by some readings, practices or encounters able to stimulate an imagination which is populated by more pleasant and heady wild dreams? We have been more than once, all the more through eighteenth cultural century study case, particularly in its last quarter. During that crucial moment, the transition point to the nineteenth century, France and Europe embraced the rise of rational and scientific age, whose political content bring up an historic progression to an overthrow of the Throne and the Church. The main thing is to moderate that picture often presented as the result of the unequivocal speech of the Age of Enlightenment. The need of believe which drive on all the human beings was exacerbated, pursued to an unsuspected stage, by the coolness and the insensibility of a philosophical materialism, devoid of fabulous and irrational. Spontaneous and impassioned reactions, passions for phenomenon like miraculous cures, Illuminism or prophecies, can't be banished of an unsettling period, due to the existence of the unexpected but real cohabitations and imbrications. ; Qui n'a jamais été interpelé par la faculté que peuvent avoir les hommes de se détourner d'une réalité difficile, rationnelle, ennuyeuse ou dénuée de sens, pour s'évader vers des horizons plus exaltants à travers des lectures, des pratiques ou des rencontres capables de stimuler une imagination peuplée de chimères plus agréables et enivrantes ? Nous l'avons été à plus d'une reprise, et a fortiori dans le cadre d'une étude portant sur l'histoire culturelle du XVIIIe siècle, notamment dans son dernier quart. Dans ce moment décisif que fut le tournant des Lumières, la France et l'Europe assistent à l'avènement supposé d'un âge rationnel et scientifique, dont la teneur politique évoque une transition historique vers un renversement revendiqué du trône et de l'autel. Il est absolument essentiel de nuancer un tableau trop souvent présenté comme fruit d'un discours univoque en lien avec l'héritage de la pensée des philosophes. Le besoin de croire des hommes, fut exacerbé, poussé à un point insoupçonné, par la froideur et l'insensibilité d'un matérialisme philosophique qui manquait de merveilleux et d'irrationnel. Réaction spontanée et exaltée, l'engouement pour les guérisons miraculeuses, l'illuminisme ou les prophéties ne peut être banni d'une période si troublante par ces inattendues et pourtant réelles cohabitations et imbrications.

Who was never taken aback by seeing human beings look away from a difficult, rational, boring or mad reality, in order to escape toward more exciting horizons by some readings, practices or encounters able to stimulate an imagination which is populated by more pleasant and heady wild dreams? We have been more than once, all the more through eighteenth cultural century study case, particularly in its last quarter. During that crucial moment, the transition point to the nineteenth century, France and Europe embraced the rise of rational and scientific age, whose political content bring up an historic progression to an overthrow of the Throne and the Church. The main thing is to moderate that picture often presented as the result of the unequivocal speech of the Age of Enlightenment. The need of believe which drive on all the human beings was exacerbated, pursued to an unsuspected stage, by the coolness and the insensibility of a philosophical materialism, devoid of fabulous and irrational. Spontaneous and impassioned reactions, passions for phenomenon like miraculous cures, Illuminism or prophecies, can't be banished of an unsettling period, due to the existence of the unexpected but real cohabitations and imbrications. ; Qui n'a jamais été interpelé par la faculté que peuvent avoir les hommes de se détourner d'une réalité difficile, rationnelle, ennuyeuse ou dénuée de sens, pour s'évader vers des horizons plus exaltants à travers des lectures, des pratiques ou des rencontres capables de stimuler une imagination peuplée de chimères plus agréables et enivrantes ? Nous l'avons été à plus d'une reprise, et a fortiori dans le cadre d'une étude portant sur l'histoire culturelle du XVIIIe siècle, notamment dans son dernier quart. Dans ce moment décisif que fut le tournant des Lumières, la France et l'Europe assistent à l'avènement supposé d'un âge rationnel et scientifique, dont la teneur politique évoque une transition historique vers un renversement revendiqué du trône et de l'autel. Il est absolument essentiel de nuancer un tableau trop souvent présenté comme fruit d'un discours univoque en lien avec l'héritage de la pensée des philosophes. Le besoin de croire des hommes, fut exacerbé, poussé à un point insoupçonné, par la froideur et l'insensibilité d'un matérialisme philosophique qui manquait de merveilleux et d'irrationnel. Réaction spontanée et exaltée, l'engouement pour les guérisons miraculeuses, l'illuminisme ou les prophéties ne peut être banni d'une période si troublante par ces inattendues et pourtant réelles cohabitations et imbrications.

Environmental Protection in French-speaking Africa : the Case of Forests.
The various policies implemented in French-speaking Africa for protecting forests and putting an end to the irrational use being made of them have not produced the expected results. There is a need for reform of existing legislation and for the adoption of more pragmatic forestry practices. The aim should be to promote public participation in the decision-making process and take greater account of peoples' interests without destroying the ecological balance in the bargain.

Confronted with economic crisis, american agricultural policy since 1970 has been dominated by one priority : the solution of problems associated with other sectors, by saving public agricultural expenses as well as by using exports as a « food weapon ». But this policy does no more than shift the contradictions of american society : it doesn't stop the food/wage spiral and it re-activates the internal tensions of agricultural production. A longer term logic dominates this short term policy: to safeguard the functions of agriculture within the accumulation process. The study emphasizes the function of supplier of labor for other sectors of agriculture. It shows how the american food model, by consuming an irrational amount of ressources, ensures that the labor's supply grows more rapidly than its demande.

Over the last six decades, a significant number of Western scholars approached the Legion – Archangel Michael as one of the most popular and yet inconsistent variant of European fascism, and portrayed it as too mystical, religious, fanatic, violent, irrational, rabid anti-Semitic, obsessed with an atavistic cult of death and the idea of sacrifice. The article aims to point out that
the Legion, a variant of European fascism in its epoch, only made politics religious, supplied
(some of) the Romanians with a new political ideology but also with a new religion, political and quasi-secular, that took birth from disillusions and despair as to give men (and women) energy and hope, a religion that encapsulates the European spirit of that time and has less to do with Romania's Christian Orthodox heritage.

In the face of current global events, French strategic thought tends to oscillate between self-serving inertia, fatalistic compliance, & irrational alarmism. Dufourcq here attempts to treat three central strategic topics in order to re-orient French strategic position towards a more stable & realistic attitude. Where terrorism is concerned, Dufourcq argues that it is our society itself that must be defended, not merely borders. In the case of Iran's nuclear ambitions, Dufourcq proposes an understanding of Iran's will as a country surrounded by seemingly hostile coalitions. Finally, where European borders are concerned, Dufourcq argues for the limitation of EU expansion, noting that inclusion of Turkey into the EU would present significant geopolitical complications. Instead, it is more crucially important to advance the EU for the interests of the people of continental Europe. References. Adapted from the source document.

This text aims to think of an issue that is particularly difficult to grasp, but which is at the heart of many present and past wars: the massacre. It defines it as a form of collective action most often aimed at destroying non-combatants, in general civilians. The massacre is perceived as a practice of extreme violence, both rational and irrational, resulting from an imaginary construction of another to be destroyed, perceived by the harbour as a total enemy. The aim of this text is to show the relevance of a comparative reflection on massacre. His bias is to go beyond the case study or rather to put the best of these studies (on the former Yugoslavia, Rwanda, etc.) into perspective in order to gain a better understanding of the processes of the transition to massacrer. To this end, two lines of strength form the basis for the analysis. — Historical depth: it is difficult to try to understand the massacres of the 1990s without taking into account their history in the twentieth century, including those known as 'genocide'. — Transdisciplinary opening: the massacre phenomenon in itself is so complex that it also calls for the attention of the sociologist, anthropologist or psychologist, which these pages would also like to attest. ; This text aims to examine a particularly difficult phenomenon to study -- slaughter --, although it is at the center of many wars today and yesterday. Slaughter is defined as a generally collective form of action that aims to destroy non-combatants, usually civilians. Slaughter is viewed as an extremely violent, both rational and irrational practice growing out of an imaginary construct pertaining to someone to be destroyed, whom the torturer perceives as a complete enemy. The aspiration of this text is to show the relevance of exploring slaughter from a comparative standpoint. It will go beyond the mere case study, or rather it will put the best of these studies (on ex-Yugoslavia, Rwanda, etc.) into perspective. To better understand the process by which the slaughter is put into ...

An account is given of movements of the extreme right in Europe after WWII. These movements tend to be irrational, anti-Semitic & nat'list. Several attempts have been made to unite them within a European framework: the Malmoe Internationals (1950), which became the European Soc Movement led by Sir O. Mosley & M. Bardeche; the racist New European Order led by R. Binet & G. Armandruz (1951); the Nat'l European Party, founded in 1962 to reject the UN; & the World Union of Nat'l Socialists created in 1962 by the English Nazi Colin Jordan. A country-by-country survey covers the following: Germany (org's of war veterans); Austria (the Tyrolean irredentists); Italy (the neo-Fascists); France (Poujadists, Secret Army Org); Belgium (L. Degrelle; F. Thiriart & his Action & Defense Committee for African Belgians); the UK (Mosley & Jordan); Greece (the army coup); Portugal (Salazar); & Spain (the Falange). I. Langnas.