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In his book author explains social and political phenomena that are connected with political change in local conditions in Poland in 1989. As yet there has been no empirical study that would consider first partly free election to the last parliament of People's Republic of Poland in local conditions. In 1989 there were 108 electoral constituencies in Poland to the Sejm elections, and free election to the Senate were conducted in 49 provinces of Poland. Chojnice was a capital city of election constituency no. 14 to the Sejm and a part of election to the Senate conducted in Bydgoszcz Province. As over the time social issues are perceived through stereotypes and tend to be mythologized, it seems important to author to show such events and phenomena on firm basis. It is worth emphasizing that results from 1989 elections in local conditions are generally unknown. Poles do not know results in their local constituencies because nearly thirty years after the elections official results from local constituencies still have not been not published anywhere. Thus, this study is based on primary sources, newspapers from that time, literature of this particular issue. The analysis and synthesis is based on a number of theoretical perspectives: behaviorism to describe interaction between political actors – electoral system – party systems; political process and political change; Joseph Schumpeter's assumption that political competition is of fundamental importance for the democracy; Samuel Huntington's theory of third wave of democratization. All the data is analyzed in quantitative perspective. There is no hypothesis as the study is a descriptive and explanatory one. Its main goal is to highlight earlier unknown phenomena. This study is about local politics in a one-party state during the time of political change, so author refers to the politics on state level from that time. The most important questions refer to: continuity of activity of new social movement members from the time of the carnival of Chojnice "Solidarity" in the years 1980-1981 and their involvement in 1989; political negotiations and emergence of political leaders during that time; political will of citizens to take part in political change and their will to change the political system; attitudes of political actors from PUWP and "Solidarity"; individual nature of facts from that time taken under consideration from the perspective of local reality; attitudes of local regime members towards political change; results of elections in Chojnice constituency on 4th and 18th June 1989; differentiation of political behavior in Chojnice constituency; picture of society of that time; influence of cultural and ethnical identity as well as people's ties (mainly with Catholic Church) and roots on their political choices. Political behavior is one of the main category of this study. Author highlights not only electoral system but also describes process of political leaders' emergence on local scale. In this perspective election campaign is portrayed as a political fight between candidates of Citizen Committee of "Solidarity" and candidates of Polish United Worker's Party (PUWP) and its political satellites. As a matter of fact, author stresses the importance of category of the legitimization and shows that members of PUWP (in Poland known as PZPR) were not totally delegitimized by citizens in 1989 election in Chojnice constituency. In fact, PUWP was mostly legitimized by Poles in the northern part of Bydgoszcz Province during that election. The study consists of the following parts: introduction, 8 chapters, summary, bibliography, index and appendix. The first chapter describes electoral system and law that was enforced in 1989. The second one analyzes political climate and political situation around elections to the Sejm and the Senate. The third chapter is also mostly analytical one. Author describes local communists apparatchiks' attitude towards political change. The fourth chapter shows the process of political leaders emergence from both sides of the political conflict. The fifth chapter describes personal features of candidates to the Sejm and the Senate. The sixth chapter shows election campaign. The seventh one shows election results. The eighth chapter describes political attitudes and behavior of citizens in Chojnice constituency. In the appendix readers may find results from constituency districts of Chojnice town, and Chojnice country. As a result of this study some unexpected conclusions emerged after empirical study, for example: one of the most prominent one is that citizens of People's Republic of Poland do not reject totally PUWP and its monopoly for power and authority; paradoxically candidates from "Solidarity" movement were not selected as democratically as candidates from PUWP ; deep differences in political attitudes in Chojnice constituency depended on the scale of people's religiousness and the tradition of political opposition in town, as well as on ethnic groups; the highest support for political change was among Kashubians, whereas the lowest in the groups called Krajniacy and Borowiacy. ; Monografia powstała ona w wyniku analizy procesu wyborczego tzw. przełomu politycznego związanego z wyborami czerwcowymi 1989 r. Jest to studium zdarzeń i zjawisk z tamtego okresu, z okręgu wyborczego nr 14 Chojnice, który to okręg do Sejmu PRL obejmował w wyborach kontaktowych całą północną część województwa bydgoskiego i był jednym ze 108 takich okręgów w Polsce. W książce przedstawiono zarówno genezę decyzji politycznych stojących za wyborem przedterminowych wyborów w 1989 r. przez reżim komunistyczny, jak i między innymi proces wyłaniania liderów na listy wyborcze. Zaprezentowano postawy polityczne, kontekst społeczno-polityczny, stanowisko lokalnych struktur Polskiej Zjednoczonej Partii Robotniczej i jej działaczy wobec perspektywy głębokich przemian politycznych, które zapowiadały wybory czerwcowe, jak i też zaprezentowano reakcje powyborcze chojnickich komunistów. Dokonano także analizy porównawczej, według podstawowej jednostki jaką była gmina, ukazując zróżnicowanie postaw również w odniesieniu do przynależności etnograficznej wyborców w okręgu wyborczym nr 14. Analizie poddano także wybory do Senatu, koncentrując się na przebiegu kampanii, kandydatach oraz wynikach z terenu północnej części województwa bydgoskiego. Całość studium jest wynikiem analizy materiałów źródłowych - tj. dokumentów Państwowej Komisji Wyborczej, Rady Państwa oraz Komitetu Miejskiego PZPR w Chojnicach i Komitetu Gminnego PZPR w Chojnicach oraz relacji i wspomnień.

It is common ground that in the EU the role of adjudication has always been, and continues to be, more important than in the Member States as the degree of political consensus is much more limited at European level. Therefore, issues which could be decided politically in the Member States had to be solved legally in the European context. At the same time, the authority and legitimacy of European court decisions is more fragile than that of national ones - not only as the EU crucially depends on the collaboration of national administrations and courts for the effective implementation and enforcement of its legal system, but also because the legitimacy of the EU itself as a political entity is more fragile than that of European Nation States, most of which are firmly rooted in democratic traditions and enjoy a considerable degree of political stability. These weaknesses notwithstanding, legal integration in the EC has been a long success story reconstructed by Joseph Weiler and others. Judicial activism led to important progress of the integration process not only in the foundationary period, but also in the years of political stagnation after the 1967 crisis and after the relance of the integration process following the Single Market project 1985. This kind of activism primarily relates to the constitutional foundations of the EC: the structural constitution (i.e. the relationship of European and national law including the famous doctrines of direct effect, supremacy, state li-ability), the substantive constitution (mainly composed of the basic market freedoms, competition law, and the protection of human rights) and the institutional constitution (setting forth the competencies and the rules of interaction of the various European institutions). In these fields, the ECJ has successfully developed the treaties into a full and mostly coherent constitutional system. On the whole, these developments have met the acceptance of Member States and enjoy a sufficient degree of legitimacy. This is probably so because they are primarily related to the initial project of market integration through the abolition of national restrictions and the establishment of a system of undistorted competition - on which there was an initial consensus of all Member States and which has in most cases led to economic benefits for a majority of them. In the case of human rights protection, this only replicated a more or less com-mon standard reflecting common historical and cultural heritage and achievements. Yet, in other areas - specifically in areas covered by European secondary legislation, which the ECJ is bound to administer so to speak as an ordinary court - European adjudication has proven to be far less successful. This is particularly true for the field of European private law which is a relative new-comer to legal harmonisation policy. European private law is characterised by selective European acts limited in scope which aim in most cases at consumer protection and which have to co-exist with a more or less coherent and encom-passing body of national law ("islands and archipelagos in an ocean"). In this constellation, numerous problems exist: First, one finds problems of access and effectiveness of justice, as the most frequent preliminary reference procedure usually lasts more than 2 years and only provides interpretations of European law, without resolving the case - which frequently leads to a "ping-pong" game between European and national courts to the detriment of the parties which has lasted in some cases more than 10 years. Moreover, we are con-fronted with quality problems, as it becomes ever more apparent that the ECJ judges cannot deal convincingly, without a meaningful degree of specialisation, with all legal matters ranging from constitutional to company and tax law. More generally, the usual methodological style of the ECJ, a combination between legal formalism and effect utile-oriented interpretation, is not suited to private law, whose essential task is to balance opposed interests among the parties in a just way. This is particularly so as the overall effects of the combined application of European and national law - which alone determines the outcome of a case - is almost never considered by the ECJ which limits itself to the interpretation of European law only. But there are more structural problems related to the specific characteristics of the field. Due to the fragmentation of European sources, decisions on European acts in private law often concern their scope of applicability and do not lead, unlike in national law, to an ever more precise and coherent systematisation of the field. Specifically, the ECJ is not well suited to decide on dispositive law issues, which typically do not reflect public policy matters, but consists of a balancing of party interests. This requires significant knowledge of the social and economic context of specific types of transactions - knowledge which the ECJ frequently lacks. Taken together, these problems render the effectiveness and legitimacy of European adjudication in private law thin in many instances. A way out from this dilemma is not easy to design in general terms. How-ever, basic provisos may still be formulated: The ECJ should handle private law with caution and more often resort to judicial self restraint. It should be aware of the fact that it is not the suitable court to do the fine-tuning in private law systems and to deliver private law justice (mostly commutative and only exceptionally distributive justice). Correspondingly, it should limit itself to implementing basic European principles such as market freedoms and human rights, and to instigating and monitoring learning and rationalisation processes in national law (a "procedural" function). Moreover, it should systematically reflect the consequences of its decisions resulting from the combined application of European and national law. In short, one might say that it is by behaving like a constitutional court for private law that the ECJ might replicate its constitutional law success story there.

Book Reviews in this Article:J. M. Winter and D. M. Joslin (Eds.).Dom David Knowles, C. N. L. Brooke, and Vera London (Eds.)Dorothy M. Owen. Church and Society in Medieval Lincolnshire. History of Lincolnshire.J. Z. Titow. Winchester Yields: A Study in Medieval Agricultural Productivity.Joyce Youings. The Dissolution of the Monasteries.A. L. Rowse. The Elizabethan Renaissance. The Life of the Society.B. Dietz (Ed.).J. de L. Mann.Arthur J. Willis and Margaret J. Hoad (Eds.).Joan Thirsk and J. P. Cooper (Eds.)L. M. Cullen. An Economic History of Ireland since 1660.Joan Wake and Deborah Champion Webster (Eds.).Mary Thale (Ed.).T. D. Campbell. Adam Smith's Science of Morals.R. D. Collison Black. Readings in the Development of Economic Analysis 1776–1848.Philip A. Stevens.H.J. M. Johnston. The Life of Sir William Fairbairn, Bart., Partly written by himself, edited and completed by William Pole.Howard Temperley. British Antislavery, 1833–1870.W. J. Reader. The Weir Group. A Centenary History.Asa Briggs and John Saville (Eds.)B. W. E. Alford. Depression and Recovery? British Economic Growth 1918–39.R. and E. Frow and Michael Katanka.Graham Humphrys. Industrial Britain: South Wales.Maurice F. Bond. Guide to the Records of Parliament.B. R. Mitchell and H. G. Jones.Robert Craig (Ed.). Maritime History.J. H. W. G. Liebeschuetz. Antioch. City and Imperial Administration in the Later Roman Empire.Sir Joseph Hutchinson. Farming and Food Supply: The Interdependence of Countryside and Town.Marguerite Kuczynski and Ronald L. Meek (Eds.). Quesnay's Tableau Économique.Guy P. Palmade. French Capitalism in the Nineteenth Century (1961)Glyndwr Williams (Ed.). Peter Skew Ogden's Snake Country Journals 1827–28 and 1828–29.C. W. Newbury. British Policy towards West Africa. Select Documents 1875–1914. With Statistical Aptendices, 1800–1914.G. B. Kay. The Political Economy of Colonialism in Ghana. A collection of documents and statistics 1900–1960.A. K. Bagchi. Private Investment in India 1900–1939.John B. Rae. The Road and the Car in American Life.Thorstein Veblen. The Theory of the Leisure Class.Alan S. Milward. The Fascist Economy in Norway.Hassanein Rabie. London Oriental Series.N. W. Posthumus. De uitvoer van Amsterdam, 1543–1545.P. H. M. G. Offermans. Arbeid en Levensstandaard omstreeks de Reductie in Nijmegen, 1550–1600. With French Summary.C. Ch. Goslinga. The Dutch in the Caribbean and on the Wild Coast, 1580–1680.J. G. Van Dillen. Van Rijkdom en Regenten. Handboek tot de Economisch en Sociale Geschiedenis van Nederland tijdens de Republiek.P. H. Winkelman (Ed.). Bronnen voor de geschiedenis van de Nederlandse Oostzeehandel in de XVIIe eeuw.A. C. Carter. The Dutch Republic in Europe in the Seven Years War.R. Darquenne. La conscription dans le département de Jemappes (1798–1813). Bilan démographique et médio‐social.M. A. Arnould, G. Despy, D. Gheret, P. H. Moureaux, and others. Recherches sur l'histoire des finances publiques en Belgique, Tome II.D. Degreve. D'une analyse historique de la Révolution industrielle à un diagnostic du sousdéveloppement.E. Schiff. Industrialization without National Patents. The Netherlands, 1869–1912, Switzerland, 1850–1907. Ada Historiae Neerlandica, Vol. V. Geschiedenis van ver en nabij. Bundel versfreide geschriften van Dr Th. J. G. Locher.A. M. Bonenfant‐Feytmans. L'èvolution des hǒpitauxà Bruxelles.A. C. J. De Vrankrijker. Geschiedenis van de Belastingen.M. K. E. Gottschalk. Stormvloeden en rivieroverstrorningen in Nederland. I: de periode voor 1400.C. Dekker. Zuid‐Beveland. De historisch geografie en de instellingen van een Zeeuws eiland in de Middeleeuwen.Cnr. Pierard (Ed.). La plus anciens comptes de la ville de Mons, 1279–1356: Tome I.J. Mertens. De Laat‐Middleleeuwse landbouweconomie in enkele gemeenten van het Brugse platteland.Alphonse Gillard. L'industrie du fer dans les localitès du comte de Namur et de L'Entre‐Sambre‐et‐Meuse de 1345 à 1600.David M. Nicholas. Town and Countryside. Social, Economic and Political Tensions in Fourteenth Century Flanders.W. P. Blockmans e.a. Studién betreffende de sociale strukturen te Brugge, Kortrijk en Gent in de 14e enW. P. Blockmans (Ed.). Handelingen van de Leden en van de Staten van Vlaanderen (1467–1477)J. Grauwels. Dagboek van gebeurtenissen opgetekend door Christiaan Munters, 1529–1545.M. Baelde (Ed.). De domeingoederen van de vorst in de Nederlanden omstreeks het midden van de zestiende eeuw (1551–1559)H. Hasquin. Une mutation: le "Pegs de Charleroi" aux XVIIème et XVIIIème siècles. Aux origines de la Révolution industrielle en Belgique.Georges Hansotte. La clouterie liégeoise et la question ouvrière au XVIIIe siècle.J. R. Bruijn. De admiraliteit van Amsterdam in ruatige jaren 1713–1751. Regenten en financien, schepen en zeevarenden.W. Ph. Coolhaas. Generale Missiven van Gouverneurs‐Generaal en Raden aan Heren XVII der Verenigde Oostindisch Compagnie,J. L. F. Engelhard. Het Generaal‐Plakkaat van 31 juli 1725 op de Convooien en Licenten en het Lastgeld op de schepen. Een studie over de heffing der in‐ en uitvoerrechten van de Republiek der Vereenigde Nederlanden, hoofdzakelijk tijdens de achttiende eeuw.Ph. Moureaux. Les préoccupations statistiques du gouvernement des Pays‐Bas Autrichiens.Annette André‐Felix. Les débuts de l'industrie chimique dans les Pays‐Bas autrichiem.P. Dekker. De laatste bloeiperiode van de Nederlandse Arctische walvis‐ en robbevangst 1761–1775.Irene Hasenberg Butter. Academic Economics in Holland, 1800–1870.R. Rentenaar (Ed.). Van Swindens Vergelijkingstafels van Lengtematen en Landmaten.K. Caulier Mathy. La modernisation des charbonnages liégeois pendant la première moitié du XIXe siècle. Techniques d'exploitation.I. J. Brugmans. Stapvoets voorwaarts. Sociale geschiedenis van Nederland in de negentiende eeuw.J. M. Dirkzwager. Dr B. J. Tideman, 1834–1883. Grondlegger van de moderne scheepsbouw in Nederland.C. Van Der Berg. H. B. J. Van Rijn, burgemeester van Venlo, pionier de milieuhygiëne.H. Wouters. Documenten betreffende de geschiedenis der arbeidersbeweging ten tijde van de Ie Internationale (1866–1880). Vol. I. Honderd jaar Brand. De historie van een Limburgse brouwerij 1871–1971.H. Claude. Histoire, réalité et destin d'un monopole. La Banque de Paris et des Pays‐Bas et son groupe (1872–1968)J. F. R. Philips. Vijftig jaar Hornerhide. Historisch beschouwingen over medische zorg in Limburg. Zeventig jaren statistiek in tijdreeksen 1899–1969.J. ‐M. Faverge, A. Houyoux, M. Olivier and A. Querton, J. Laporta, A. Poncin and P. Salengros. L'organisation viuante. Comportements d'ajustements et d'èvolution au sein des organisations.I;. Baudhuin. Histoire éonomique de la Belgique, 1957–1968.

Book Reviews in This Article:F. M. L. Thompson. Chartered Surveyors: the Growth of a Profession.B. W. E. Alford and T. C. Barker. A History of the Carpenters Company.C. R. Elrington (Ed.). A History of the County of Gloucester. Vol. viii. Victoria History of the Counties of England.Kathleen Major (Ed.). The Registrum Antiquissimum of the Cathedral Church of Lincoln. Vol. ix.Robert W. Dunning (Ed.). The Hylle Cartulary. Somerset Record Society, vol. 68.Ida Darlington (Ed.). London Consistory Court Wills, 1492‐1547.Howell A. Lloyd. The Gentry of South‐West Wales, 1540‐1640.Theodore K. Rabb. Enterprise & Empire: Merchant and Gentry Investment in the Expansion of England, 1575‐1630.Don M. Wolfe (Ed.). Leveller Manifestoes of the Puritan Revolution. Foreword by Charles A. Beard.Ragnhild Hatton and J. S. Bromley (Eds.). William HI and Louis XIV. Essays 1680‐1J20 by and for Mark A. Thomson.G. A. Chinnery (Ed.). Records of the Borough of Leicester. Vol. vi. The Chamberlains'' Accounts 1688‐1835.I. K. Steele. Politics of Colonial Policy: The Board of Trade in Colonial Administration, i6g6‐ij20.James L. Clifford (Ed.). Man versus Society in Eighteenth‐Century Britain. Six Points of View.University of Birmingham Historical Journal. Vol. ix, no. i. The Lunar Society of Birmingham.Timothy L. S. Sprigge (Ed.). The Correspondence of Jeremy Bentham. Vol. 1: 1752‐76. Vol. 2: 1777‐80.A. G. Banks and R. B. Schofield. Brindley at Wet Earth Colliery: An Engineering Study.Robert Craig and Rupert Jarvis. Liverpool Registry of Merchant Skips. Chetham Society, 3rd series, vol. xv.Jean Lindsay. The Canals of Scotland.E.J. Hobsbawm. Industry and Empire: An Economic History of Britain since 1750.John Francis. A History of the English Railway.Henry Grote Lewin. The Railway Mania and its Aftermath, 184.5‐1852.D. C. M. Platt. Finance, Trade, and Politics in British Foreign Policy, 1815‐1914.Seymour Shapiro. Capital and the Cotton Industry in the Industrial Revolution.David Dougan. The History of North East Shipbuilding.Archibald Prentice. History of the Anti‐Corn‐Law League. With a new introduction by W. H. Ghaloner.F. F, Rosenblatt. The Chartist Movement in its Social and Economic Aspects.P. W. Slosson. The Decline of the Chartist Movement.Donald Read. Cobden and Bright: A Victorian Political Partnership.University of GlasgowPhilip Gaskell. Morvern Transformed: A Highland Parish in the Nineteenth Century.Roy A. Church. Economic and Social Change in a Midland Town: Victorian Nottingham, 1815‐igoo.Helen Merrell Lynd. England in the Eighteen‐Eighties. Toward a Social Basis for Freedom.Peter d'A. Jones. The Christian Socialist Revival, 1877‐1914. Religion, Class, and Social Conscience in Late‐Victorian England.Basil Greenhill. The Merchant Schooners.Harry W. Richardson and Derek H. Aldcroft. Building in the British Economy between the Wars.R. W. Southern (Ed.). Essays in Medieval History selected from the Transactions of the Royal Historical Society on the Occasion of its Centenary.Sidney J. Madge. The Domesday of Crown Lands.Frances Gardiner Davenport. The Economic Development of a Norfolk Manor, 1086‐1565.R. A. Buchanan. Technology mid Social Progress.Alice Clark. The Working Life of Women in the Seventeenth Century.Bernard Jennings (Ed.). A History of Nidderdak written by the Pateley Bridge Local History Tutorial Class.W. R. Bisschop. The Rise of the London Money Market, 1640‐1826. With a Preface by H. S. Foxwell.William A. Shaw (Ed.). Select Tracts and Documents Illustrative of English Monetary History, 1626‐1730.Eric Roll. An Early Experiment in Industrial Organization: Being a History of the Firm of Boulton and Watt, 1775‐1805.H. W. Dickinson. James Watt, Craftsman and Engineer.Alexander J. Warden. The Linen Trade, Ancient and Modern.Stanley D. Chapman (Ed.). Felkin's History of the Machine‐Wrought Hosiery and Lace Manufactures.G. I. H. Lloyd. The Cutlery Trades: An Historical Study in the Economics of Small‐Scale Production.Harry Scrivenor. History of the Iron Trade.W. K. V. Gale (Ed.). Griffiths' Guide to the Iron Trade of Great Britain.Samuel Timmins (Ed.). Birmingham and the Midland Hardware District, 1866.C. A. W. Ward. A Bibliography of the History of Industry in the West Riding of Yorkshire, 175°∼1914‐ Proceedings of the Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society, Literary and Historical Section, vol. xIII, pt I.Robert Owen. The Life of Robert Owen Written by Himself with Selections from his Writings and Correspondence.Ronald Miller and David Sawers. The Technical Development of Modern Aviation.Samuel Mencher. Poor Law to Poverty Program, Economic Security Policy in Britain and the UnitedStates.David T. Gilchrist (Ed.). The Growth of the Seaport Cities, 1790‐1825.Alan R. Pred. The Spatial Dynamics of U.S. Urban‐Industrial Growth.Marvin Fisher. Workshops in the Wilderness. The European Response to American Industrialization, 1830‐1860.Jean Alexander Wilburn. Biddle's Bank: The Crucial Years.Stephen Salsbury. The State, the Investor, and the Railroad: The Boston & Albany, 1825‐i86y.Alice E. Smith. Millstone and Saw: The Origins of Neenah‐Menasha.John G. Clark. The Grain Trade in the Old Northwest.John A. Hawgood. The American West.Charles B. Dew. Ironmakers to the Confederacy: Joseph R. Anderson and the Tredegar Iron Works.Gene M. Gressley. Bankers and Cattlemen.Gerd Korman. Industrialization, Immigrants and Americanizers: The View from Milwaukee, i866‐ig2i.Gerald G. Eggert. Railroad Labor Disputes: The Beginnings of Federal Strike Policy.Thomas G. Manning. Government in Science. The United States Geological Survey, i86j‐i8q4.W. Turrentine Jackson. The Enterprising Scot. Investors in the American West after 1873.Henry F. Bedford. Socialism and the Workers in Massachusetts, 1886‐1912.Glenn Weaver. The Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance Company, 1866‐1966.Earl W. Hayter. The Troubled Farmer, 1850‐1goo: Rural Adjustment to Industrialism.Thomas D. Clark and Albert D. Kirwan. The South since Appomattox: A Century of Regional Change.Paul W. MacAvoy. The Economic Effect of Regulation.Ralph M. Hower. History of Macy's of New York, 1858‐1919.Allen F. Davis. Spearheads for Reform: The Social Settlements and the Progressive Movement, 1890‐1914.Benjamin G. Rader. The Academic Mind and Reform: The Influence of Richard T. Ely in American Life.Louis Galambos. Competition and Cooperation: the Emergence of a National Trade Association.

Books reviewed in this article:ABS HERMANN J.: Fragen der Zahlungsbilanz, des Geld‐ und Kapitalmarktes in der Bundesrepublik. (Kieler Vorträge, Neue Folge 5.) 16 Seiten, Kiel 1954Aktuelle Genossenschaftsprobleme. Internationale Professoren‐Konferenz über das Genossenschaftswesen, 7. bis 11. Oktober 1952, im Genossenschaftlichen Seminar Freidorf bei Basel. A. Francke AG, Bern 1953BARCLAY GEORGE W.: Colonial Development and Population in Taiwan. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N. J., 1954BARCLAY GEORGE W.: A Report on Taiwan's Population to the Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction. Office of Population Research, Princeton University, Princeton N. J., 1954BOVET ERIC: L'organisation rationnelle de la distribution, moyen de stabilisation économique. Editions Delachaux & Niestlé, Neuchtel/Paris 1954Bureau International du Travail. Initiation à la pratique de la coopération. Genève 1952BURLEW JOHN S. (ED.): Algal Culture. From Laboratory to Pilot Plant. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington D. C. 1953CARONE G.: Der Fremdenverkehr undsein Anteil am Wirtschaftsleben der Region Trentino‐Tiroler Etschland. Hg. vom Assessorat für Industrie, Handel, Fremdenverkehr und Transportwesen, Trento (Italien). Arti Grafiche R. Manfrini, Rovereto 1954CARELL ERICH: Allgemeine Volkswirtschaftslehre. 6. Aufl. Quelle & Meyer, Heidelberg 1954CASTILLON RICHARD: Les réparations allemandes. Deux expériences, 1919–1932, 1945–1952. 198 pages, Paris 1953CUVILLIER ARMAND: Introduction à la sociologie. 5e éd. revue et augmentée. Librairie Armand Colin, Paris 1954Defense against Recession: Policy for greater Economic Stability. A Statement on National Policy by the Research and Policy Committee of the Committee for Economic Development. New York 1954DUPLESSIS‐LE GUELINEL GÉRARD: Les mariages en France. (Cahiers de la fondation nationale des sciences politiques, n 53), xi, 198 p., Paris 1954The Federal Reserve System, Purposes and Functions. Ed. by the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. Washington, D. C., 1954Freedom and Welfare. Social Patterns in the Northern Countries of Europe. Edited by George R. Nelson, assisted by Aune Mäkinen‐Ollinen, Sverrir Thorbjörnsson, Kaare Salvesen, and Göran Tegner. xiii, 540 pp., Kopenhagen 1954GLESKE LEONHARD: Die Liquidität in der Kreditwirtschaft. Verlag Fritz Knapp, Frankfurt a. M., (ohne Jahr)HAAVELMO T.: A Study in the Theory of Economic Evolution. Contributions to Economic Analysis III. North‐Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam 1954HEGELAND HUGO: The Multiplier Theory. Lund Social Science Studies No. 9. C. W. K. Gleerup, Lund 1954HEIMANN EDUARD: Wirtschaftssysteme und Gesellschaftssysteme. Veröffentlichungen der Akademie fur Gemeinwirtschaft Hamburg. J. C. B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck), Tubingen 1954HEINRICH KLAUS: Strukturwandlungen und Nachkriegsprobleme der Wirtschaft Spaniens. Kieler Studien 28, Forschungsberichte des Instituts für Weltwirtschaft an der Universität Kiel. Hg. von Fritz Baade. Kiel 1954HELD GEORG: Noch einmal: Theorie der Merkantil‐ und der Kameralrechnung. 92 S. Wiesbaden 1953HENDERSON W. O.: Britain and Industrial Europe 1750–1870. Studies in British Influence on the Industrial Revolution in Western Europe. University Press of Liverpool, Liverpool 1954Income Redistribution and Social Policy. A Set of Studies, ed. by Alan T. Peacock. Jonathan Cape, London 1954KINDLEBERGER CHARLES P.: International Economics. Homewood 1953LAUFENBURGER HENRY: Economie du système fiscal français national et local. Traité d'économie et de législation financière, 5e éd. entièrement refondue. Recueil Sirey, Paris 1954LEHMANN M. R.: Lenkende Wirtschaftspolitik. Necessitas‐Verlag, Wiesbaden 1954LEIBENSTEIN HARVEY: A Theory of Economic‐Demographic Development. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N. J., 1954MARCUS EDWARD: Canada and the International Business Cycle. Bookman Associates, New York 1954MERCILLON HENRI: Cinéma et monopoles. Le cinéma aux Etats‐Unis: étude économique (Centre d'Etudes économiques, Etudes et Mémoires n 13). xii + 203 pages, Paris 1953MITRA ASHOK: The Share of Wages in National Income. Thesis, Netherlands School of Economics, Rotterdam 1954NEISSER HANS and MODIGLIANI FRANCO: National Incomes and International Trade. A quantitative analysis, xviii, 396 pp., Urbana (Ill.) 1953PHELPS CLYDE WILLIAM: Instalment Sales Financing: Its Services to the Dealer. (Studies in Consumer Credit, No. 2), 99 pp., Baltimore 1953PHILIP KJELD: Inter government Fiscal Relations, Federal State and Local Finances. Institute of Economics and History. Ejnar Munksgaard, Copenhagen 1954POSTEL CLAUDE: L'aéroport de Paris. (Cahiers de la fondation nationale des sciences politiques, n 49). 190 p. Paris 1953SCHICKELE RAINER: Agricultural Policy. Farm Programs and National Welfare. McGraw‐Hill, New York/Toronto/London 1954SCHOBESBERGER OTTO: Sozialversicherung und soziale Sicherung. Eine grundsätz‐liche Stellungnahme vom Naturrecht her. vi, 161 S. Braunau 1953SCHUMPETER JOSEPH A.: Aufsátze zur Soziologie. Hg. von Erich Schneider und Arthur Spiethoff. J. C. B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck), Tübingen 1953Das schweizerische Bankivesen im Jahre 1952 (Mitteilungen der volkswirtschaftlichen und statistischen Abteilung der Schweizerischen Nationalbank, 36. Heft). 273 Seiten, Zurich 1953SHIMKIN DEMITRI B.: Minerals ‐ A Key to Soviet Power. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1953SNIDER DELBERT A.: Introduction to International Economics. Richard D. Irwin, Homewood (Ill.), 1954TAUTSCHER ANTON: Die öffentliche Wirtschaft. Duncker & Humblot, Berlin und München 1953Thèses de sciences sociales: Catalogue analytique international de thèses inédites de doctorat, 1940–1950. 236 p. Paris 1954The Teaching of the Social Sciences in the United Kingdom. 140 pp. Paris 1953THOMAS BRINLEY: Migration and Economic Growth. A Study of Great Britain and the Atlantic Economy. National Institute of Economic and Social Research, Economic and Social Studies, Vol. XII. Cambridge University Press, London 1954United Nations: The Determinants and Consequences of Population Trends. A Summary of the Findings on the Interrelationships between Population Trends and Economic and Social Conditions. United Nations Population Studies No. 17. 404Uppsala Symposium on Psychological Factor Analysis 17–19th March 1953. Nordisk Psykologi's Monograph Series No. 3. Distributed by Ejnar Munksgaards, Copenhagen and Almqvist & Wiksell, Stockholm, 1953WALRAS LÉON: Elements of Pure Economics or the Theory of Social Wealth. Translated by William Jaffé. Published for the American Economic Association and The Royal Economic Society by George Allen and Unwin Ltd., London 1954WEBER WILHELM: Theorie und Politik der Beschäftigung. Der Stand der Debatte um die Vollbeschäftigung. Manzsche Verlags‐ und Universitätsbuchhandlung, Wien 1954WEISE HERBERT: Das britische Einkommenssteuerrecht in wirtschaftlicher Sicht. Kieler Studien 27, Forschungsberichte des Instituts für Weltwirtschaft an der Universität Kiel, hg. von Fritz Baade. Kiel 1954WELTER ERICH: Falsch und richtig planen. Eine kritische Studie über die deutsche Wirtschaftslenkung im zweiten Weltkrieg. Veröffentlichungen des Forschungs‐instituts für Wirtschaftspolitik an der Universität Mainz, hg. von E. Welter, Bd. 1. Quelle & Meyer, Heidelberg 1954WHELPTON PASCAL K.: Cohort Fertility. Native White Women in the United States. Princeton University Press, Princeton (N. J.) 1954WOLD HERMAN: A Study in the Analysis of Stationary Time Series. 2nd Ed., with an Appendix by Peter Whittle. Almqvist & Wiksell, Stockholm 1954

DEUTSCH-ÖSTERREICHISCHE FELDPOST 48-74 Deutsch-österreichische Feldpost (-) Deutsch-österreichische Feldpost 48-74 (48-74 / 1915 / 1916) ( - ) Einband ( - ) Nr. 48. (1. Juli bis 7. Juli 1915.) (Nr. 48. 1915) ([1349]) [Gedicht]: Land der Helden, Land der Lieder ([1349]) Der Viererverband und seine Sorgen. (1350) Kriegsereignisse. (1351) [Karte]: Zu den Kämpfen im Priesterwald. (1364 - 1365) Humor in ernster Zeit. (1378) Dies und das. (1379) Leutnant W. in memoriam. ([1380]) Nr. 49. (8. Juli bis 14. Juli 1915.) (Nr. 49. 1915) ([1381]) [Gedicht]: Heil Oesterreich! ([1381]) Wochenübersicht. (1382) Kriegsereignisse. (1383) Humor in ernster zeit. (1407) Dies und das. (1410) Nr. 50. (15. Juli bis 21. Juli 1915.) (Nr. 50. 1915) ([1413]) [Gedicht]: Die blinden Krieger. ([1413]) Wochenübersicht. (1414) Kriegsereignisse. (1415) [Karte]: Zu den Kämpfen im Argonner Wald. (1419) [Karte]: Zu den Kämpfen in Warschau. (1422) Humor in ernster Zeit. (1441) Dies und das. (1442) Nr. 51. (22. Juli bis 28. Juli 1915.) (Nr. 51. 1915) ([1445]) [Gedicht]: Gegen Welschland! ([1445]) Vor Warschau. (1446) Kriegsereignisse. (1447) [Karte]: Kartenskizze zur neuen Offensive Hindenburg. (1460 - 1461) Humor in ernster Zeit. (1472) Dies und das. (1474) Nr. 52. (29. Juli bis 5. August 1915.) (Nr. 52. 1915) ([1477]) [Gedicht]: Ein Kriegsjahr. ([1477]) Warschau genommen. (1478) Kriegsereignisse. (1479) [Karte]: Die Forts von Warschau (1492 - 1493) [Karte]: (1499) [Tabelle]: Ein Jahr Krieg. (1504) Dies und das. (1506) Nr. 53. (5. August bis 11. August 1915.) (Nr. 53. 1915) ([1509]) [Gedicht]: Deutschland-Oesterreich, siegumschlungen! ([1509]) Die zerstörte Dampfwalze. (1510) Kriegsereignisse. (1511) [Karte]: (1524 - 1525) [Karte]: (1532) Humor in ernster Zeit. (1536) Dies und das. (1538) Nr. 54. (12. August bis 18. August 1915.) (Nr. 54. 1915) ([1541]) [Gedicht]: Das Reich für unsre Erben. ([1541]) Kowno erstürmt. (1542) Kriegsereignisse. (1543) [Karte]: (1556 - 1557) [Abb.]: Kaiser Franz-Joseph von Oesterreich. (1564) Humor in ernster Zeit. (1566) Dies und das. (1569) Nr. 55. (19. August bis 25. August 1915.) (Nr. 55. 1915) ([1573]) [Gedicht]: Das Lied der Treue. ([1573]) Nowo-Georgiewsk erstürmt. (1574) Kriegsereignisse. (1575) [Karte]: Die Festung Novo-Georgiewsk. (1580) [Abb.]: Oesterreichisch-ungarische Truppenführer bei der Mackensen-Armee. General v. Köveß. (1594) [Abb.]: Feldmarschalleutnant Arz von Straußenburg. (1595) Humor in ernster Zeit. (1601) Dies und das. (1603) Nr. 56. (26. August bis 1. September 1915.) (Nr. 56. 1915) ([1605]) [Gedicht]: Deutsches Wehrlied. ([1605]) Abrechnung. (1606) Kriegsereignisse. (1607) [Karte]: Das Kampfgebiet zwischen dem Bielowskaforst und den Rokitnosümpfen. (1620 - 1621) Humor in ernster Zeit. (1630) Dies und das. (1632) [Tabelle]: Goldvorräte in den kriegführenden Staaten. (1633) Nr. 57. (2. September bis 8. September 1915.) (Nr. 57. 1915) ([1637]) [Gedicht]: Deutscher Siegesgesang. ([1637]) Der abgesägte Nikolai. (1638) Die Kriegslage. (1639) [Karte]: Die Karte bei Wilna. (1652 - 1653) Humor in ernster Zeit. (1661) Dies und das. (1664) Nr. 58. (9. September bis 15. September 1915.) (Nr. 58. 1915) ([1669]) [Gedicht]: Gott, Kaiser, Vaterland. ([1669]) Besuche in England. (1670) Die Kriegslage. (1671) [Karte]: Kartenskizze der Bahn Wilna - Dünaburg - St. Petersburg. (1685) Humor in ernster Zeit. (1694) Dies und das. (1697) Nr. 59. (16. September bis 22. September 1915.) (Nr. 59. 1915) ([1701]) [Gedicht]: Unsere Verwundeten. ([1701]) Wilna besetzt. (1702) Die Kriegslage. (1703) [Karte]: Kartenskizze zum deutschen Sieg bei Wilna. (1712) [Karte]: Kartenskizze zum Beginn der deutschen Offensive gegen Serbien. (1716 - 1717) Humor in ernster Zeit. (1728) Dies und das. (1730) Nr. 60. (23. September bis 29. September 1915.) (Nr. 60. 1915) ([1733]) [Gedicht]: Herbst 1915 ([1733]) Ein Milliardensieg. Die neue Offensive. (1734) Die Kriegslage. (1735) [Karte]: Karte zum Vorgehen auf Riga und Dünaburg. (1739) Humor in ernster Zeit. (1761) Dies und das. (1763) Nr. 61. (30. September bis 6. Oktober 1915.) (Nr. 61. 1915) ([1765]) [Gedicht]: Kamerad. ([1765]) Der Balkan vor der Entscheidung. (1766) Die Kriegslage. (1767) [Karte]: Kartenskizze der serbisch-griechisch-bulgarischen Grenzen. (1780 - 1781) Humor in ernster Zeit. (1792) Dies und das. (1793) Nr. 62. (7. Oktober bis 13. Oktober 1915.) (Nr. 62. 1915) ([1797]) [Gedicht]: Der deutschen Frau. ([1797]) Der neue Kriegsschauplatz. (1798) Die Kriegslage. (1799) [Karte]: Karte zum Vormarsch der deutschen und österreichisch-ungarischen Armeen in Serbien. (1812 - 1813) [Abb.]: Generaloberst von Kluck. Zu seinem 50jährigen Dienstjubiläum am 13. Oktober. (1823) Humor in ernster Zeit. (1826) Dies und das. (1827) Nr. 63. (14. Oktober bis 20. Oktober 1915.) (Nr. 63. 1915) ([1829]) [Gedicht]: Deutsche Helden. ([1829]) Vierverband gegen Vierverband. (1830) Die Kriegslage. (1831) [Karte]: Karte zum Vormarsch in Serbien. (1844 - 1845) Dies und das. ([1860]) Nr. 64. (21. Oktober bis 27. Oktober 1915.) (Nr. 64. 1915) ([1861]) [Gedicht]: Grenzwacht. ([1861]) Der Weg nach Konstantinopel frei. (1862) Die Kriegslage. (1863) Nr. 65. (28. Oktober bis 3. November 1915.) (Nr. 65. 1915) ([1893]) [Gedicht]: Mahnung. ([1893]) Die Kriegslage. (1894) [Karte]: Zum bulgarischen Vormarsch in Serbien. (1907) Dies und das. (1921) Nr. 66. (4. November bis 10. November 1915.) (Nr. 66. 1915) ([1925]) [Gedicht]: Die deutsche Eiche. ([1925]) Wochenübersicht. (1926) Die Kriegslage. (1927) [Karte]: Kartenskizze von Mittel-Serbien. (1941) Humor in ernster Zeit. (1951) Dies und das. (1953) Nr. 67. (11. November bis 17. November 1915.) (Nr. 67. 1915) ([1957]) [Gedicht]: Deutsch-österreichisches Bündnislied. ([1957]) Der Todeskampf Serbiens. (1958) Die Kriegslage. (1959) [Abb.]: General Bojadjeff, der Führer der bulgarischen I. Armee. (1969) [Karte]: Karte von Mittel-Serbien. (1972 - 1973) Dies und das. (1983) Humor in ernster Zeit. (1987) Nr. 68. (18. November bis 24. November 1915.) (Nr. 68. 1915) ([1989]) [Gedicht]: Totensonntag. ([1989]) Die Lage auf dem Balkan. (1990) Die Kriegslage. (1991) [Karte]: Karte zu den italienischen Angriffen an der Isonzofront. (2003) Humor in ernster Zeit. (2015) Dies und das. (2017) Nr. 69. (25. November bis 1. Dezember 1915.) (Nr. 69. 1915) ([2021]) [Gedicht]: Dankesschuld. ([2021]) Kriegsereignisse. (2022) [Tabelle]: Liste der im Mittelmeer in der Zeit vom 1. November bis 15. November durch U-Boote der Mittelmächte versenkten feindlichen Handelsschiffe (nach Pressemeldungen): (2028) [Karte]: Die Rückzugsstraßen der Serben. (2036) [Abb.]: General Taneft, der Kommandeur der bulgarische Kavallier. (2039) Dies und das. (2047) [Tabelle]: Danach ergab die letzte Viehzählung vom 31. Dezember 1910 folgende Statistik: (2050) Nr. 70. (2. Dezember bis 8. Dezember 1915.) (Nr. 70. 1915) ([2053]) [Gedicht]: Den deutschen Frauen. ([2053]) Ganz Serbien besetzt. (2054) Kriegsereignisse. (2055) Humor in ernster Zeit. (2081) Dies und das. (2082) Nr. 71. (9. Dezember bis 15. Dezember 1915.) (Nr. 71. 1915) ([2085]) [Gedicht]: Die Donauwacht. ([2085]) Hilflose Helfer. (2086) Kriegsereignisse. (2087) [Karte]: Kartenskizze zum Vorstoß der österreichisch-ungarischen Flotte an die albanische Küste. (2089) [Karte]: Kartenskizze zum Rückzug der Franzosen und Engländer an die greichische Grenze. (2100) Humor in ernster Zeit. (2110) Dies und das. (2113) Nr. 72. (16. Dezember bis 21. Dezember 1915.) (Nr. 72. 1915) ([2117]) [Gedicht]: Rhein-Donau-Lied. ([2117]) Die türkische Offensive. (2118) Kriegsereignisse. (2119) [Karte]: Kartenskizze zu den Kämpfen in Montenegro. (2126) [Karte]: Karte zur Vertreibung der Engländer und Franzosen aus Mazedonien. (2132) Humor in ernster Zeit. (2139) Dies und das. (2143) Nr. 73. (22. Dezember bis 28. Dezember 1915.) (Nr. 73. 1915) ([2149]) [Gedicht]: Deutschlands Beruf. ([2149]) Kriegsereignisse. (2150) [Karte]: Kartenskizze zu den Angriffen der Senussi gegen die Engländer in Aegypten. (2160) [Karte]: Die drei Verteidigungsstellungen der Franzosen und Engländer vor Saloniki. (2164 - 2165) Humor in ernster Zeit. (2168) Dies und das. (2173) Nr. 74. (29. Dezember 1915 bis 4. Januar 1916.) (Nr. 74. 1915) ([2181]) [Gedicht]: Zum neuen Jahre! ([2181]) Was die Entente unter Neutralität versteht. (2182) Kriegsereignisse. (2183) [Karte]: Kartenskizze zur Wiedereroberung des Hartmannsweilerkopfes. (2184) [Abb.]: Der Eroberer von Lüttich, General v. Emmich †. (2188) [Karte]: Kartenskizze zum Seegefecht bei Varna. (2191) [Karte]: Reliefkarte von Saloniki und Umgegend. (2196 - 2197) Humor in ernster Zeit. (2207) Dies und das. (2209) Einband ( - ) Einband ( - )

This document contains a series of reviews of books published in the 1970s. ; N/A

This document contains a list of book publications of the year 1967. ; N/A

Issue 4.1 of the Review for Religious, 1945. ; 'Origin o{ Ref.reats forR61i9ious INUMBER 1 Review t:or. Religious Volume IV January'--DeCember, ,1945 Published at THE COLLEGE PRES~ Topeka, Kansas Edited THE JESUIT FATHERS SAINT MARY'S COLLEGE St.'lVlarys, Kansas Origin of Re!:rea~:s for Religious Augustine Klaas5 S.3. THE statement is sometimes made that retreats t~or reli-gious originated in the sixteenth century with 'Saint Ignatius of Loyola. Historical facts, however, do not sustain this assertion. It is true that, owing to the influence mainly of Saint ignatius, and later of Saints Francis de Sales, Charles Bor-romeo, Vincent de Paul, and others, retreats for all classes of socii~ty flourished far .and wide in thelatter part of the sixteenth and especially in the seventeenth century--so much so that the seventeenth century could justly be called "the century of retreats." It is, also'true, as Saint John Eudes, a zealous promoter of retreats, wrote specifically of religious in 1636, that a retreat is made "every year at least once in all religious communities in which piety and the love of God reign." Yet, if one examines the spiritual writers of the period as to the origin of these numerous retreats, he will find that almost unani,mously they ascribe it, not to their own times, but to a far earlier period. They ascribe it to the primitive ¯ Church, even to Jesus Christ Himself. It was Christ, they say, who inaugurated, retreats, particularly when He Him-self made a forty days' retreat in the desert before heginni.ng His public life. Retreatants.down ~the centuries have only imitated Him--the retreatant par excellence. What Histor~t 8a~s Already in the early third century we find Tertullian exhorting the persecuted and imprisoned Christiansl among whom there were many religiou.s,.to make their AUGUSTINE KLAAS 'imprisonment a time of retreat.~ The Lord Himself was very often in retreat, thit He might pray more freely.and withdraw from the world (Luke.4). Let us abolish the word prison: let. us call it a retreat" (Migne, PL 1:623.):. Saint Gregory Nazianzen notes a century later that Christ "did not,need a retreat," but He made it "that we might learn that there i~ a time for action and a time for more sub-lime employment" (PG 35:1238). ~The most striking example of imitating Christ's retreat ot~ forty days is that furnished by the monks of Palestine in the fifth century. During Lent-they were not s:itisfied to imitate merely the Savior's fast, but were determined to emulate also His stay in the desertmand that titeratl~t. The monk who inaugurated these annual Lenten , retreats for religious in the Holy Land was Saint Euthy-mius, who.died in 473 at. the age of ninety-five. An Armenian by birth, he came to Palestine at twenty-nine and established himself about six miles from Jerusale-m, near. the laura of Pharan, a group of separate, independent, monastic cells under a common superior. Each year, from the octave of the Epiphany to Palm Sunda.y, he retired 'to the desert, at first with one companion, Theoctistus, and later with his disciples, Sabbas, Elias, Martyrios, Domitian, and many others. The desert was the iddn'tical, desolate region by the. Dead Sea where our Lord had fasted,-prayed, and was tempted by Satan. Here the monks dispersed and, with .only. wild animals for- companionship, they spent their long retreat, fasting, doingstrenuous penance, soul-searching, and° communing with God. They called their retreat "a combat," and that is precisdly what it was. The length of the retreat varie~l. Thus, Saint Sabbas, thefutuie abbbt of all the hermit monks of Palestine, con- 1The. word i"religious" is applied to these early Christians, not in the technical sense o( canon law, but in a wider sense, namely as persons who had dedicated thegn-selves to God by taking private vows. 4 danuarg, 194 ~ , ORIGIN OF RETREATS tinued ithe practice of his spiritual master, Euthymius, though he almost died of heat and thirst during his first retreats. However, he changed the date of beginning from the fourteenth tO the twentieth of January, in order, he kells us candidly, that before his departure he might cele-brate at the laura the feastsof Saint Antony and of Saint Euthymius--no doubt, to brace himself for the ordeal ahead! The retreats usuaily ended on Palm Sunday., Monks in Retreat A vivid description of th~se Palestinian religious setting out' for their annual retreat is found in the Life of St. Mar~/ of Eg~Ipt (PG 87:3702-3), believed to h~ive been written by Saint Sophronius, patriarch of Jerusalem, . who died in 638: "On the first Sunday of Lent were celebrated pubiicly according to custom 'the holy mysteries, during which all the monks communicated of the unbloody arid life-giving sacrifice. Afterwards they took a little breakfast.Then they assembled in the church, recited some long prayers accompanied with many genuflexions, and lgave one another the kissof peace. Singly they prostrated themselves at the feet of the abbot, asked his pardon, for faults cdmmitted, and his' blessing, that they might, be assisted by his prayers during the imp.ending combat. "Now. the door of the monastery was thrdwn open, and they went forth chanting in unison: 'The Lord is my light and my salvation, wh6m shall I .fear? The Lordis the protector of my life: of. whom shall I be afraid? . . . ' (Psalm 26). One or two were ordinarily left behind to guard the monastery, not that they might protect what was stored up within,, for there was nothing for thieves td steal, but that the church might not be without divine services. "Each one saw to his own provisions as suited l'iimself: AuGUsTINE KLAAS ReVieo7 for Re!igious for :his bodily needs, one ;took along a little bread; another, some figs; a third, s6me dates; a fourth, vegetables soaked in water. Some took nothing along with them except their bodies and the mantles they wore, and when nature should clamor for food, they purposed to eat the herbs which grow in the desert. "Among them there existed an inviolable rule and law~ one was not to know what.austerity another practiced, nor what manner of life he led. "Having crossed over the 3.ordan, they scattered far and wide, seeking complete isolation, so that they would not ¯ even meet one another. If it happened that any one saw another approaching in the distance, he Would turn aside immediately and proceed in another direction. Each one lived for himself and for God, chanting the psalms inces-santly., and subsisting on the food he had with him. "After they had spent the days of Lent in this fashion, they came back to the monastery ota the Sunday-preceding the life-giving resurrection of our Savior from the de.ad. Each returned bearing the personal fruit of his retreat and the testimony of his own conscienc~ as to the manner in which he had conducted himself, and the fruits of labor he had harvested. "No one, however,-presumed to ask another how he had carried out his combat. Such was the rule of the mon-~ astery and it was observed perfectly. For in the desert, every monk fought against himself° with God as referee, not seeking to please men-nor fasting out of ostentation, because what is done for the sake Of men and from the desire to please them, far_from being a help, is often th~ ¯ cause of great personal ruin." Abbot Zozimus in Retreat Naturally we are curious to know more in d~tail how 6 ,~m~um,'tj, 1~)'$.,~ . ORIGIN OF RETREATS these religious spent their Lenten retreat in the desert wil-derness by the Dead Siva. Sophronius tells us how the Abbot Zozimus, presumably a model monk, spent his time of retreat (PG 87:3703).: "According to the custom of the monastery, Zozimus also drossed the Jordan atthe sametime, carrying a modi-cum of provisions' for necessary use, and only the garments he had. on. There, as the rule prescribed, he wandered through the desert. To satisfy nature's demands, he had a set time for taking food, and wherev.er night overtook him, he lay down on the ground to snatch a little sleep. In the morning, he girded himself again for travel and gaily trudged onwards, desiring, as he afterwards narrated, tO penetrate into the deep interior of the desert to find a cer-tain Father living there who might guide him to what he " aspired. And he walked fast, as though he were going to arrive soon at some famous hostelry.' Thus he spent. twenty days in travel. At the.sixth hour, he slowed his pace somewhat, and turning towards the east, he recited his customai'y prayers. At certain times during the day he was al~;o wont to interrupt the strain of walking by resting a little and praying and chanting psalms, now standing, now kneeling." These Lenten retreats are the most notable ,example of retreats for religious in ancient times. They were not a mere passing episode. They continued on for centuries, surviving even the bitter Arab persecutions which destroyed so many Palestinian monasteries and .decimated the monks. Gregory's Life of Saint Lazarus, an eleventh-century document, describes the desert retreats as still flourishing in that century. Outside of Palestine Retreat~ for religious were by no means confined to 7 AUGUSTINE KLA&S [or Religious Palestine. All over the East we find religious withdrawing to greater seclusion and to a more penitential life during Lent. The saintly monk, Macarius of Alexandria, who died about 393, used to remain the whole of Lent in the dark-ness of a windowless, cell (PG 34:1059 C). A certain monk of the desert of Scete, in Egy.pt, was astonished to discover that he could seek spiritual direction from the ven-erable Poemen during the second week of Lent. ~'I almost decided not to come to' .you today," said the monk. "Why?" asked Poemen. '.'I was. afraid that because of Lent you wouldn't open the door to me." "We have not been taught to close the. wooden ~loor," replied the old man, "but the door-of the tongue" (PG 65:336): Saint Hypatius, the most influential monk in Constantinople at-the beginning of the fifth century, made his annual Lenten retreat. And Saint Theodore of Sice, a very famous sixth-century monk of Galatia, later a bishop, began the custom of making an annual retreat in his home at the age ,of twelve, and kept it up throughout his life. From Epiph-any to Palm Sunday, he used to retire to a cave, or an aban-doned, uncomfortable hut without a roof, there to pray and do penance. ¯ These are by no means exceptional, isolated cases: they are illustrative of a custom, widespread among religious throughout the East. And in the West The practice is also found in the Western Church:. Dynamius, in his life of Abbot.Saint Marius, says that the Lenten retreat was common among the religious in Gaul in the sixth century. Saint Radegunde, roundness and abbess of the famous convent of the Holy Cioss at Poitiers, is a notable~example.,,. Among the nuns~of the eighth Century January, 194.s. ORIGIN OF RETREATS we may cite Saint Sigolena,.Abbess of Troclar. " E~ample. after example can be.adduced to sh.ow that. religious, both. men and women, in Italy, France, Brittany, the German Rhineland, England, and Ireland, spent the time of Lent in ¯ the silence and recollection of retreat. Let us conclude the list with Saint Bernard,. Who would not leave his monas-tery to meet his good ~riend William of Saint-Tbierry, nor even to refute the false doctrines of Abelard, that he might not disturb the prayer and solitude of the Lenten retreat , (P.I2. 182:533). For the same reason he wrote shorter let-ters during Lent! Purpose of the Retreats The purpose of these retreats was substantially that of our own retreats: the' "noverim te, noverim me" of Saint Augustinema deeper knowledge of God'~nd of self. It was a time of greater seclusion, of more fervent prayer, of more intense spiritual life and¯activity. It was alooking back over the achievements and fhilures of the past year, and a looking forward with resolutions to a better year to come. In the tenth century, John Tsimitzes addressed, the monks of Mount ~thos in Greece as follow.~: "We exhort all those who practise the ascetical life in monasteries, all those who live in community, to spend the time¯of Lent in recollection, and not to deal with each other except about important~business, or when there is necessity, or on mat-ters of conscience. Let no one go out to work, except on Saturdays, and let all be occupied solely in spiritual things." ¯ Echoing Saint Augustine, Bishop Caesarius of Arlesl one of the most illustrious monks of the early sixth cen-tury, states the general purpose of these Lenten retreats very clearly (PL 39:2019-21): "Although throughout the year, thanks be to God, we llstened often and faith- AUGUSTINE KLAAS ~ ¯ Review) for .Religions fully to the word of God, nevertheless during these days, When we have retired from the. ocean storms of this world -as to the haven of Lent, we must gather the divine word in the receptacle bf. our hearts amid silence andpeace. And this we must do, in order that, occupied with eternal life, we may with the grace of God during these days repair leisurely and put in order all that has been broken, destroyed, damaged, or" lost in the ship of our souls by the year's storms, that is, by the tempests of our sins." Then, Changing the figure, he likens Lent to a time of spiritual harvest, a time .when, by fasting, ~by reading, and by praying, we .make provision for the future, and store up what the soul will live on for the following year. In a word, it is the opportune season to fill the spiritual barns and cellars of the soul. Other Retreats Too ¯ Bdsides these long Lenten retreats for religious, "so prominent in ancient Palestine, but also in vogue through-out the Eastern .and Western Church, there were other retreats in use, of varying .lengthmthree,.seven, or nine days: Notable in the monasteries were those following the religious profession, especially among the Benedictines and Carthusians. Retreats were not confined to religious alone: Including the Lenten one, they weri~ made in surprising numbers by bishops, diocesan priests, and even layfolk from the earliest times, the purpose being always the same, renewal of spirit and imitation of Christ. However, as we leave 'the Middle Ages and approach the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries there is a marked.decline in the making of retreats. May not that neglect have been one reason why the reJigious spirit of so many monasteries and convents was. at a 1.ow ebb on the eve of. the Reformation? danUarF, 1945 ORIGIN OF RETREATS Conclusion: Work of Ignatius It is c~rtain, then, that religious made retreats, quite like our own in purpose, long before the time of Saint Ignatius of Loyola. ~The work Of Ignatius lay mainly in injecting a new life into this pot.ent spiritual means to per-fektion that had come to be neglected in religious houses arid else.where, and in popularizing the making of retreats among all classes of soci.ety. This was noted by Saint Francis de Sales, who, in his Treatise on tb~ Looe of God (Lesson 12, chapter 8), lauds th~ retreat as "that holy de~-i~e, familiar to the primitive Christians, but since almost completely abandoned, until the great servant of God, Ignatius of Loyolal restored it to use in the .time of our Fathers." Arid Father Julius Nigronius, S.J., a 17th cen-tury authorit~ on the. history of retreats, cites with apprbval the judgment of his confrere Father John Lori-nus: "If Saint Ignatius is.not the originator, he is at least the restorer .of the spiritual retreat." This he accomplished, and it is his chief merit, by reducing the retreat to a definite method. Surely the spir-itual ideas, doctrines, and practices 0f the Spiritual Exer-cises are not original; they are for.the most part the com-mon traditional Ones of the Church. But the grouping and marshalling 6f them in logical sequence fo~ a clear-Jut and the striking psychological presentation of them,, this was something the old retreats had lacked. And this was supplied by Ignatius in masterly .fashion. He was not alone in. this work, but his is .the most important c0ntribu.- tion to the renascent retreat movement which grew so vig-orously during the sixteenth and seventeen'th centuries. This "second spring" Of retreats has flowered~ and prodt~ced ¯ a fruitful, harvest .that'still goes on increasing from year toi year, to the immense spiritual benefit of religious and of the whole Church of God. 11 AUGUSTINH As Plus XI so aptly remarks in the Encyclical Mens Nostra: "Ignatius, in the lit.tie book he compiled when he was still without literary education, and to which he him-self gave the title of Spiritual Exercises, was the first to trace a path, the first to teach a method of retreat, suitable ~o help marvellously the faithful to detest their sins and to model. holily their lives according to the exampl~ of 3esus Christ. . The power of the Ignatian method,a's Leo XIII affirmed, has been shown by .the experience of three cen-turies, and by the testimony of all who', during that time, have distinguished themselves by. their science of asceticism and sanctity of life. ~' Thus Ignatius of Loyola merits the title bestowed upon him by Plus XI: Patron of Retreats in the Universal Church. " " For Deans of Summer Sessions At about this time many religious throughout the country are beginning to con-sider their summer school programs. For some. of course, there is no difficulty. b~cause their own institutes provid.e the educational facilities. Others, however, must go to outside schools. It has occurred to us that superiors who must send their subjects-to outside schools might benefit by a summer session directory in our March and May numbers. We will gladly pro.vide this service if the deans will send us the requisite information. We cannot afford much space; hence we ask the deans to sen~l us only a very brief statement comprizing the following points: a) Name of school. ' b) Courses ~hat are of. special interest or value to religious. (Evidently we can-not print a complete statement of all courses offered at the summer sessions, We wish to know only about thbse things that have a particular interest or value for reli-gious.) c) Accommodations for religious who attend the summer school. d) Where to write for.further information. Deans who wish to have their announcement appear in the March number should send us the information immediately. Address: The Editors of 'REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, St.Mary's College,, St. Marys, Kati.sas. 12 General Councillors ot: a Religious Inst:i!:ul:e Adam C. Ellis, S.J. [T HAS ALWAYS beenapart of the polityof the Church . to provide that those who are given authority to govern in the name of the Church should have the benefit of the experience and wisdom.of prudent men. The glory of God, the welfare of the Church, and the good of souls,, are immeasurably, promoted by the prudent counsel of good men. Thus the Sovereign Pontiff has his Senate of Car-dinals; Bishops have their Chapter of Canons or board of Diocesan Consultors; Rectors of Seminaries have a two-fold council, one for discipline, the other for the adminis-tration of property. We are not surprised, therefore, but rather expect to find that the law of the Church shou.ld pro-vide some sort of council for religious superiors. It does,so in canon 516, § 1 of the Code of Canon Law, which reads as follows: The superior general of, every institute or monastic congregation, also every provincial superior, and local superior .at least of every fdrmal house, shall have their.councillors, Whose consent, or counsel they must seel( according to the terms of the constitutions and the sacred ca, n6ns. Appointment The Code does riot determine how the general councit-lors are to be appointed. ¯ Hence the constitutions or cus-toms of each institute will have to be Consulted. Usually ~h, ey are elected by ~he general.chapter in conformity with the nbrms laid down in canon 101,' § 1, 1 °, of the Code of Canofi L~w. These norms require an a~bsolute rnajorii~ for an ~lection 0fi the first .or Second ballot: that is, more than bali the vhlid votes cast. Thu~ 8 would constitutd a ADAM C. ELLIS Review for Religious majority when 15 votes are cast. If no majority is obtained oh the first or second ballot, a third and final ballot is taken in. which a relative majorit~l (plurality) will suffice for an election: that is, the person receivin.g the most votes of all the candidates will be elected, even though the i~umber of~ votes he receives does not constitute an absolute majority, or more than half the votes cast. In case two or more persons are tied for the .relative majority on the third ballot, the senior by reason of ordina-tion, of first profession, or of age, is 'considered to be elected. In clerical institutes ordination will determine the senior-ity: in non-clerical institutes the date of first profession, and, in case the persons concerned made their profession on the same day, the senior by reason of age will be considered as ~lected. The first person to be elected councillor is commonly also tl~e assistant or vicar of the superior general, and takes the place of the latter when he is absent or impeded from the exercise of his office. It is also usual to allow any one of the other councillors, but not the first, to hold the office of secretary general. Term of Ot~fce When gendral councillors are electei:l to office in a gen-. eral chapter, they rema'in in office until the nextgeneral chapter of ~lections takes place. Usuall~r their term "of Office coincides with that of the superior general to whose council they have been elected. However, should the superior general .resign,. or die during his term of office, .the assistant or vicarr (first councillor) will take the place of the superio~ general and convoke a general chapter of elec-tions. All the councillors continue in office until this gen-eral c.hapter convenes to elect a.new superior ge.n.eral. After his election the general chapter will proceedto, the. election danuarg, 194 ~ GENERAL COUNCILLORS of his general councill~rs.~ The general law of the Church places no restrictions on the repeated election of the same persons as general coun-cillors. Sometimes the constitutions of individual insti-tutes limit their cap.acity to.two or three successive t~rms of office. ~ General councillors may. not be removed fromoffice except for a grave cause, and.most constitutions require the deliberative vote of the council; as Well a's the subsequent approval of the Holy See, for such a course of action. Duties ot: General Councillom General councillors enjoy no authority merely by rea-son of their, office. They are not commissioned witfi the government of the institute; but it is their special and prin-cipal duty to give advice and aid to the superior general in the government and administration of the entire ~institute. They have the right and the duty to give a deliberative or consultative vote in matters to be submitted to them as pre-scribed by carion law or by the constitutions. Each may likewise suggest to the superior general that certain matters which he judges important and for the good of the insti-tute be submitted to the general 'council for discussion. ¯ Superiors are not limited in seeking the advice of their council to the cases in which the Code of Canon Law or the constitutions require them to do so. They may and should consult their council on all matters of great moment. The Normae of 1901 required that the general coun-cillors reside with the superior general, though they allowed .two of them to reside elsewhere, provided that they could easily be present at council meetings when needed (Art. 276). Furthermore, councillors were forbidden to hold any office whidb might impede their principal duty of 15 ADAM C. ELLIS Revi~to for Religious assisting the superior general ~ith advice and co~unsel (Art. 279) ; specifically, they were prohibited from holding the office of bursar or treasurer general (Art. 284), as well as that Of master of novices¯ (.Art. 300). These provisions are found today in most c6nstitutions of congregations approved by the Hoy See, although they are not contained _in, the Code. A councillor, though not enjoying any authority by reason of his office, may be given a share in the authority of the superior general in certain matters if the constitu-tions do not prohibit it. Or he may be given another office which carries ~authority with it, such as that of local superior. Council Meetings The Code does .not determine when or how often the superior must call meetings of his council. Constitutions usually prescribe that the general council meet once a month, and oftener whenneed shall require. ¯ ' Ir~ council' meetings it is customary for the superior gen~ eral to propose a subject for consideration and, after having given whatever information is required for a proper under-standing of it, to ask the opinion.of the councillors. It is advisable (and sometimes required by the cons~titutions) to ask the youngest councillor first, then the others in order,,and to have the superio.r general give his opinion last, so as not to influence the councillors by any undue regard for the opinion of their elders. After a reasonable time has been devoted to discussing the subject under consideration, a vote is taken. This vote may be eil~he~ delibe.rative or consultative, oral or secret. Deliberative vote: In certain matters the Code of Canon Law or the constitutions require the consent of his council before the superior canact validly. A vote taken in 16 January, 194 ~ GENERAL COUNCILLOR~; such cases is called a deliberative or decisive vote, .in contra-distinction to a merel~; consul~ative vote. The vote of the. council decides the matter, and the superior must follow the majority vote of his council in order to act validly. Here a?etbe canons of the Code in which a deliberative vote of the council is required: 5116, '§ 4: for the appointment Of bursars or treasurers, when "the constituti6ns make no provision for their appointment; 534, § 1 :. for the" alienation of property, and for the contracting of debts, even though the permission of the H~ly See is not required; .575, §. 2: for the admission poral profession of vows;' 647, 650, and 653: for hlI of a novice to first tern-cases of dismissal of reli-gious, whether they have temporary or perpetual vows. Furthermore, in loractice, the Sacred Congregation. of Religious demands the consen.t of the general' council for all matters requiring, the permission of the Holy See. Consultative vote: The vote of ~he chapter is s~'id to be only consultative when the superior is obliged indeed by the law of the. Church or by the constitutions to ask the advice of his council, but can. act validly even if he does not follow the advice given. Canon 105, however, admon-ishes superiors. "to make mu~h of the unanimgus opinion of those to be heard, and not to-depart, from it Without a weightier reason, of which~.they are the judge," Thus; canon 543~ requires at. least a consultative vote of the council for the' admission of candidates to the novb tiate;, as well as~ for professi.dn in general, subject Co the restrictions of canon 5.75, § 2,. which states: explicitly that the vote of the c6uncil is d~liberative for the first temporar~l profession of vows~ but only consultative for the subse- ADAM C. ELLIS Rm.tiew for~ Re~igio-~ quent perpetu.al profession, whether of simple or solem~i vows. . It may be well. to consider .here just how far the, lcon-stitutions. may require more in this matter than is required by the law of. the Church. These general rules may.help" to answer the question: ' 1. Evidently the constitutions may contain prov.isions regarding matters not determined b~ or contained in the Code, for example, the number of'consultors. ,Such a pro, vision-is said to be outside (or beyond) the law (praeter. 2. The constitutions may not contain prov.isions conz trary to the Code (contra ius), for example,, they may not exempt the superior from asking the vote Of his council wher~ the Code requires it; nor may they allow less than the Code dem~ni:ls (infra ius) ". for instance, they may no( pre-scfibe. ohlya con~ultative ~rote when thd Code reciuir.esa deliberative vote. '3. The constitutions may be stricter than the Code (supra ius), provided they are~notcontrary to it. Thus canon 543 requires thevote of the council or chapter for admission to the novitiate, as Well as for the subsequent profession of vows. The constitutions may require that the vote Of the council or chapter be deliberative for the admission of.candidates to the novitiate. However, .canon 575, § 2 defines the nature of the vote of the council or chapter "in two case~: for the/irst profession of temp0raiy vows, the vote is d~liberative;for the profession of per-petual vows, whether si,rnple or solemn, the vote is.con-sultative only. Hence the constitutions may not require that the vote .of the council or chapter be deliberative for. the final profession. That would be not only stricter than the Code, but contrary to it. All provisions of consti-tutions which are contrary to the Code.wdre abrogated January, 1945 GENERAL COU~,'C/LLORS by the Code itself (canon 489), and a special privilege would have to be obtained from the Holy See in order to ¯ " retain thefn. Again, in" some 'institutes tempbrary vows ari~ taken, not for a p~riod of three years, but for one year onlY, to be renewdd for a year on two successive occasions. The Code requires the deliberative vote of the council for the first pro-fesSilala of such temp6rary vows, but says rlo~hing about the nature of th~ vole for the anntfal renewal'of ~uch t~mpo-rary vowg Hence th~ cons~itdtions may detb~ine' ~hether thisv6te is deliberative or m~rely consultative. O'Orat or secret vote: Ordinary matters in which the ad~ic~ of tile~ coBncd is sought by '~he ~up~rior general are &scussea o~ally and op~mons are'expies~d verbally. Even ~ntfie cbnse~ 0f ihb c~b~ncil is requiie~ by law, it ii ~ot "~ e.~.a.dded t~"t a' s~cr~t ~ be taken, ~xc~pt in th~ case of cbntracfing Aebtl or aiienhtin.g property -(canbn ~34, ~. 1 ), -and in all card 6f ~diimislal 0f.rdigib6s With temporary ~ows (khfion~ ~47, ~ "1) Constithtions frequently' call f~r a secret vote i~other matters, a~ ifi the appointment of ocal superiors, and at t~me~ giye the ~guhcillors the right-to ~demand a ~ecret Vbte in any important matter. " ~The ~e~retar~ "oeneral is present at all council heetings, without vote; ~howe~r, unlem he be a councill~r. It is his-duty to re~drd th~ 8eliberations ~nd decisions arrived ht, be "iehd and appr6ved ~at ~he follbwing meeting' and si~ned b~the suPeiidr.and~e ~ecre'tdry. ' Spir~'t of Consultation All Oarsons whose cons~n~ or advi~o is askad, should s~a~a *hair opln-ion w,~h dun raspa~L ~ru~ulnass. and s,n~r,~ {canon 105. ~o}. 'T6~'~ ~hoh'td s?~ fbeir okibio~: .that is, they must. g~ve an opm~o~ tor or against me measure id question when their~onsem is'req~iredb~, the law or thee constitu- ADAM C. ELLIS Review [or Religious tions for the. validity of the superior's act; they may decline to give an o~pinion if they have nothing worth while to con-tribute to the discussion when the superior is only obliged° to hear his council, that is, to listen to and consider their ¯ advice. ' Councillors should always remember that they are but advisors of their superior, to whom reverence is due. When they find it necessary to e~press an opinion 'contrary to that of their Superior, 'it should, be given with all due respect, without acrimony, in simp~le but dignified language. Trutht:uli~ess means not merely the avoidance ofall that is false, but especially the positive disclosure of facts and cir-cumstances that are relevant to the matter under discussion. Sincerity implies a candid and genuine expression of opin-ion, and excludes ali dissimulation or pretence, even though motivated by a desire not to displease the superior. ¯ On his part the superior who is obliged by the law of the Church or by the constitutions to seek the advice or to qbtain the consent of his council should do so willingly and even eagerly, since it is for his benefit as well as for the com-mon good that th'e Church has established its system of councillors for all those who exercise authority in her name. To try to influence his councillors in such a way as to impose his opinion upon them, Or to give them the impres-sion that he considers the council meeting a mere formality, would show~ that the superior does not ,understand the spirit of the law. Provincial Councillors What has been said regarding general councillors may and should be applied to provincial councillors within the scope of their activity.as defined by the constitutions. They" are usually appointed by the superior general and his coun'cil, but in some institutes they are elected in a pro- 20 Janu'ary, 19#5 j GENERAL COUNCILLOR8 vincial chapter. Their ~umber is usually four, and the con-stirutions determine how often they meet, as well as the nature of their vote. Matters usually referred to the prrvincial douncil by .~he constitutions include the following: admission of can-didates to the novitiate; admission of novices to first vows; dismissal of novices; admission to perpetual vows; aliena-tion of property and the incurring of debts bY the province or by the houses of the province; investment of dowries; all matters which must-,be rei~erred to the Holy See for permis-sion or approval. Local .Councillors Canon 5.16, § l.requires them at lea'st foc .formal houses, those, namely, which have at least six professed religious in the community, four of whom must be priests in the case of a clerical institute (canon 488, 5°). The "'at least" of the. canon implies that they are desirable ialso in a smaller d0mmunity, but are not strictly of obligation. Usually they number four in larger communities,.and not less than two in smaller ones. They are appointed by the superior general and his council, or by the provincial supe-rior and his council in institutes which are divided into provinces. The matters in which their counsel or consent must be bad by the local superior are defined by the con-stitutions. OUR C~ONTRIBUTORS AUGUSTINE KLAAS, ADAM C. ELLIS, and GERALD KELLY are pr.ofessors of sacramental thdology, canon law, and moral theology, respectively, at St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas. ROBERT B. EITEN, of the University of Detroit, is an ~siduous writer bn ascetical subjects. FRANCIS L. FILA~, of West Baden Col-lege, West Baden Springs, India.ha, is the author of The Man Nearest to Christ. recently published by Bruce. JAMES A. KLEISTI Of St. Louis University. is the author of The Great Prayer Now in Time of War, published by The Queen's Work. 21 Towards $implit:ied At:l:ect:ive Prayer Robert B. Eiten~ S~J. THE purpose of the prdsent article is to offer some sug-gestions for disposing a soul to reach simplified affec-tive prayer or to grow in such prayer, if one has already attained it. Of course, not all these suggestions can be used by everyone. The important thing is that every-one who desires to advance in prayer will fdllow those sug-gestions that help him and then set about to prag, and prag, afld prag some mode. Only thus does one normally advance inprayer. The realization of God's presence is perhaps the first step toWaids successful prayer. Of course, we know by faith that Godis present everywhere in and about us and that, when we are in the state of grace, He dwells within us as in His temple; yet, unless we have received mystical graces, we m~ist frequently recall, this mar~rellous presence and try as far as possible t0 get a habitual realization of i~. Otherwise while at prayer we may fail to realize sufficiently His.presence. We do not see God, we do nottouch Him. All these pleasant experiences connected with our sense life are not ours in addressing God. Yet by faith we know that He is most near. Our faculties bf prayer, the imagination, memory, intellect, and will, have their natural-objects towards which they have a natural affinity and in which they find pleasure when they are exercised. It is hard to pull these faculties away from . natural objects. Much self-control and self-denial are required to withdraw them from ~hings_naturally pleasing to.them and tS direct them to that (the Divine) 22 SIMPLIFIED AFFECTIvE PRAYER towards which they have little or no natural attrac~jon or ~spontaneity in the beginning. When we speak to God in prayer we cannot see Him and it is no easy task to hear His whispered inspirations. But we must try to realize His presence. This c.ertainly is possibl~. I can be most awareof another person's presence in the dark even though I do not hear him.speak, nor see him nor even hear any movements of his, nor touch him. It is sufficient that some trustworthy person tell me of the presence of this third person. ¯ It is not strange, then, that a great saint insisted that at the beginning of our mental prayer we should recall God's presence. Much of our success and progress .in men-tal prayer will largely depend upon our growing realiza-tion of God's presence. If we fail to make God, our loving Father, vivid and rightat hand With us, our prayer will most likely be i;trai.ned; andlack a' familiar touch and spon-taneity. Mucfi care, thought, and ~oncentration should be devoted to developing within ourselves ~the realization of the Blessed .Trinity's indwelling. Briefly, our psychologi-cal dispositions toward God must bemade so realistic that" we act almob;t as if we saw Him, touched Him, and so forth. Then prayer will b~ easier and carried on with grbater relish. ' It will ordinarily take a l'ong time to arrive at the point where we instinctively, as it were, live in God's presence. And here I am not referring to the presence bf God as felt through inystical graces. Perhaps one of the best,ways to arrive at this state is to medi~ate fiequently on the in~lwel!- 0ing of the Blessed Trinity and to direct all our ejacula.tions ,to that indwelling Guest. Long, careful, and repeated striving,and prac'tice will'bear fruit. What a'grace it would bd if We could e~perience habitually all day long the reality. arid consciousness of. G0d's indwelling .as we experience ROBERT B.' EITEN ," " ,, " . Review for Religious His presence when we are before the tabernacle in church! Many who have been sacristrans or who have had occasion to.work inside a church *certainly have had this practically const:~nt and subconscious awareness of God's pre~efice. It resembles the awareness which a child, although much. occupied in playing with-his toys, has of his mother, who is perhaps busy in the next room of the home. Our realization of Christ's presence in the tabernacle b~gan in early~childho0d, our mothers cons(antly hushed us when we~babbled out in church. Then they ~pointed to ~he l~abernacle, and. tried, to tell.us most simply who was there. ~ With other training in this matter,, we gradually formed a sort of instinct or conditioned reflex whereby we .came to.~,an active and spontaneous realization of God:s ¯ presef~ce whenever we were in church. : ."' Heart-to-heart chatting with our indwelling Guest will help.not a little to obtain this rather spontaneous aware-' r~ess and living experience of His presence. This will bring 'us to St. Teresa's ;onception of mental prayer, which she says, "is nothin.~ else but an intimate friendship, a frequent ,converse, heart to heart, with Him Whom ~e know to be our Lover." Again, how we experience God's presence after Holy Communion! . We are very self-conscious of the necessity of being by ourselves, alone and recollected. Why cannot good habits directing our t.houghts and affections to the indwelling Trinity bring similar rgsults? True, this is not usually a. work of a few weeks or months, and ordinarily much patience, calm, and protracted effort is required. A soul that has reached this active rea!ization Of God's presence will 'instinctively :upon waking in the morning turn its first thoughts to God. Outside of formal rspiritual exercises such a. soul, while walking or unoccupied with other mental work, is rather instinctively taken, up with January, 1945 SIMPLIFIED AFFECTIVE PRAYER God's sweet presence. This soul too is alway~ seeking times and opportunities for spiritual reading, and visits to the Blessed Sacrament. Even during the various duties of the day such a soul is very frequently aware of God's abiding presence. Obviously such a soul'during formal mental prayer is quite, taken up with God since its every impulse, even outside of prayer, is towards a continuous and affectionate abiding with God. At praye~ we should not be afraid to interrupt our part, of prayer to listen quietly to God. We must permit God to have His parr in our chat with Him. He will do His part by His silent inspirations. We must get into the habit of making these attentive pauses. For beginners they should be short. Later on it will be easier to lengthen th'em either because of habits acquired here or because of an. attraction . for recollection. ~At any rate, let us rest in them as long as we find profit. In the beginning, if we: experience little or no results, we should not become wearied or distrustful. Patience will win out and have its day. of harvest. In any case these pauses are not.a waste of time. At least, they are made with a good intention, and this makes them pleasing to God. Moreover, to summarize de Caussade, they imply many Other good acts. For example,, they include an act of faith in the presence, the power, and the mercy of God, and an act of hope, for we await only that which we' hope for. The pauses further imply contempt of ourselves and great con-. fidence in God, since during these pauses, we suspend our own mental acts only because we count very little on our own and very much on God's. Finally they imply deep .humility, as well as resignation and surrender, since We" remain before God in silence either to be heard or'refused and in .spite of all the distractions, tedium, and weariness which make these attentive pauses at times wearisome,, ROBERT 15. EITEN ¯ Review for Religious tedious,¯ and distressing. (See de Caussade, On Pra~ter. pp. 210-211.) Some persons think erroneously that their prayer is of little worth unless the)~ are in a.continual interior activity or movement, piling reflection on reflection; prayer .on prayer, act on act. It Would be well for these people to realize that the more important part of prayer is rather the attention of the heart. Let us learn, then, to rest in God in silence, pe.ace, and attention, especially when He seems to invite us to this holy repose of soul. This, may happen Outside our formal .prayer, as during Mass, spiritual reading, and .so forth. Always bear in mind that this is a favorable moment, not for talking to God, but rather for listening to Him, not for .acting as.we ordinarily do, but rather for simply abiding in God's presence and being, receptive to all He. works in us. Let us try then to.enjoy His presence as a mother will qui-etly and.in silence at times enjoy the presence of her soldier- :~.on, who, after being a long time away, has now returned home. To sit merely in his presence is a real thrill for her. Would anyone be so rash as tO deny that this mother, although silent externally, is without any mental or affec: rive activity? .What maternal love is active in her heart! Although she doesnot reflect that she,is loving him, never-theless that love is there in a.sublime way. She loves him without saying anything. And if her 'son saw her heart, what actual tenderness he would find there, what depths of deliberat~ and freely accepted, although r~on-reflective, emo-tions he would see! Thus, in'this apparent idleness there is a height.of activity. This same height of activity can be present if, imitating this mother, .we quietly rest and enjoy God's presence. Another helpful means for progress in prayer is to repeat slowly, affectionately, and wi~h relish some aspira- 26 January, 1945. SIMPLIFIED AFF:ECTiVE PRAYER tion, be it one's own or another's, or some Scripture text, over some period of time. While this is being done we ought to ponder over it carefully, as well as sense and relish it in its complete significance. It is related of .St. Francis of Assisi that he spent an entire night in prayer uttering very slowly, but with great devotion and relish, the following ~ublime words: "My God and my All!" It is easy to see how this prac.tice can.be a beginning, 6r at least an approach, to the prayer of simplicity; for, ~Ithough there may .be various affections occurring, .there is one predominant one whose object is, as it were, a t~xed' idea about which our other ideas and affections are pivoted. This seems t6 be little more than an extension of St. Igna-tius' second method of prayer. Or even better, it is in some respects a combination of, or a variation between, St. I.gna-tiusr second and third methods of prayer. In his second method of prayer St. Ignatius-recommends that we leisurely meditate on the Our Father, or any other prayer, by dwelling on it word by ~word as long as we find meanin.gs, comparisons, relish and consolation in such con-siderations; while in his third methodof prayer he suggests that we,recite the Our Father, or any other prayer, in such a way that by properly synchronized rhythm only one word is said between one breath and another, and while the tim~ fromone breath to another l~ists, [one gives atten-tion] to the meaning of such word, or to the persgn .to whom he recites it, or to his own baseness, or to the 'differ-ence from such great height to his own so great l~wn'ess. Of course this rhythmic interchange between word and affectionate thought must not be taken too lit~rally or mathematically. It is {mportant for anyone aiming at high sanctity and progressive prayer to have recourse to God in all difficulties, joys, and so forth,'by informal ejacfilatory prayer. (See 27. ROBERT B. EITEN- Reoietu for Religious" gEVIEW r~0g RELIG~OUS, Sept. 1943, p. 305.) This can be reduced to an attitude resulting from the habit of talking, famiiia.rly with God as with anyone who is constantly around us. He becomes our constant ~;ade mecura. Why . not act on this principl~ .by familiarly talking with Him frequently as we would with a friend who never left our side? In this practice one must, of.course, avoid brain-fag. This latter can be largely obviated if, rather than trying to imagine too vividl~r God's presence, we simply take it for granted. This obviously is notthe work of a day; but "when. acquired, it will immeasurably help our prayer-life. Our progress in prayer is also helped by repeating the same meditations several times. After several reflections we find that the intellectual part ,0f our prayer has been con-siderably. diminished while the affective part ~has consider~ ably'increased. It can in many cases end in an affectionate, loving, and protracted gaze upon God or some divine mys-tery that would be simplified affective prayer. In gen.eral, it is well, after we have been accustomed for some time to mental prayer, to lessen gradually the discur-sive .element. Though it is profitable, while meditating on the mys.teries of Christ's life, to reason and weigh various facts, motives, and so forth, yet, other things being equal, we should not weary, ourselves too much b.y .trying to fatfiom these divers points. Let us rather remain in peace near our Lord. "The soul should then be occupied according to her ability in reflecting that He is.loo.king at her: she will keep Him company and will address her petitions to Him" (St. Teresa, Life., ch. 12). We ought to endeavor gradu-ally to lessen our considerations both in length and number, and accustom ourselves "to go through the mysteries of our Lord by merely glancing at them, rather than by meditating upon tbem;~ and to make use of their different circumstances 28 danuary, 1945 SIMPLIFIED AFFECTIVE PRAYER to excite in our soul acts of love, gratitude, humility, or similar affections" (Lehodey, The Wa~ts of Mental Pra~/er, p. 187). In.this way.our prayer will g.radually become a ¯ simple loving gaze at God or divine things. No 10nger,will ~the soul be seeking for truth as in meditation, for, now pos-sessing it, the soul rests in it with love. It looks and it loves--that is the sou1~s chief preoccupation. Grasping things now by intuition and immediately rather than by the long, toilsome, and roundabout 'ways of the~ imagination; the memory and the understanding, the soul perceives thd things of God almost as we perceive first principles. " "We remember, we look, we attend, and this is enougl'i. This does not hinder this view from being sometimes more luminous, sometimes weaker and more veiled. By i~s very nat.ure it is somewhat obscure and confused, because it pro.- ceeds mostly by way of general views, not stopping at details, pretty much as we take in at a single glance a whole landscape. "This simple look is always accompanied with love-- a love, it may be, almbst imperceptible or all on fire, calm or impetuous, bitter or savoury . . . We look because we love, we 10ok inorder to love, and our love is fed and inflamed by looking" (Lehodey, The Wa~/s of Mental Pra~ter, p. 193). Both our looking and. loving mutually help each other. In the beginning of the spiritual life we reason and meditate. But after we .have grasped our Lord's beautiful character we sit at His feet with Mary Magdalene tO look at Him that we may love Him. more, and our love in turn makes us want never to ~take our eyes from Him. "He is all mine and I am all His." ¯ .It is often helpful after preparing our prayer to go -before the Blessed Sacrament' (it can be done elsewhere too) and let our Lord speak to us on the matter prepared. Ask 29 ROBERT B.' EITEN Him to develop the ~ubject for us. Ask Him to let us know His mind on the subject. It is really surprising how many new angles and lights He sometimes suggests. It is,. besides, a very reposeful prayer, to say nothing of its being very simple and affective. Balthasar Alvarez, who directed St. Teresa and who, according to the latter, was more advanced in prayer than" she, thus describes what we have been trying to say: "To p~ay is to raise our heart to God; to communicate with Him familiarly, though with great respect, regarding ail our affairs; to confide in Him more than a child confidesin h;s mother, however good she may be; to offer Him all that we possess, all that we hope for, without any reserve; to open our heart to Him, and pour it out, as it were, before Him: to speak to Him of our labours, of Our sins, of our desires, our projects, and all that occupies our mind; finally, to seek in Him our consolation and our repose, as one friend with another, in whom he has full confidence" (Life of Ft. Bal-tbazar Alvarez, vol. 1, p. 175). The burden of this entire article has been to show ways and means of quickly disposing, ourselves" to reach simpli-fied affective prayer as well as to grow in it. Still, we must be on our guard against outrunning grace With the result " that we are like a boy in a class .beyond his intellectual years. We must avoid either extreme, the tendency to go too slowly and the impulse to jump too fast from ordinary meditation tO affective prayer: or from affective prayer to simplified affective prayer. A. Good Book for March For reading daring the month of March, we s~ggest The Man Nearest to Christ, by F. L. Filas, S.J.' It provides interesting and valuable material on St. doseph. Published by Bruce, Milwaukee. Price: $2.50. Some Th6ugh! s on t:he I-Ioly Family. Francis L.Filas, S.3. OWING to limitations of space meditation manuals usually present only tWO or three points for medita-tion on the hidden life of the Holy Family and do not enter on the. subject at greater length. Yet since the richness and utility of this meditation call for more ~letailed treatment, we shall bring together in this article the ideas ordinarily proposed and at the same time shall endeavor to .suggest several new avenues of thought. Above all else, meditation on the Holy Family finds its u~efulness in its direct, many-sided application to the reli-gious life. The religious life is essentially a hidden and obscure life, in which the interior efforts God alone sees (and not necessarily outward results) are the hallmark of success. It has its long periods of difficult preparation such as the postulancy, the novitiate, and years of Study--years tbat,:may appear utterly useless at the moment. At certain times temptations to discouragement arise because of a lack of tangib!e results. For the inspiration to adyance stead-fastly amid all such circumstances there is no antidote or tonic better than the example of the hidden life of 3esus, Mary, and 3oseph. Perhaps' we db not suflicientJy associate the hidden life of Christ with the life of the Holy Family: yet .the one is .actually a part of the other, as Leo XIII wrote: ".In the( veneration of the HolyFamily the faithful rightly under-stand that they are reverencing the mystery Of the hidden life which Christ led together With His virgin mother and 31 FRANCIS L. FILA8 Review for Religious St. Joseph."* It is from this that the meditation derives so much of its richness." Then, too, it offers healthy variety. Whatever con-sideration we select can be projected against any of six or" seven aspects, according as we feel inclined at the moment. We can look at the relations of Jesus to Mary or Joseph; of Mary to Jesus or Joseph: of Joseph to Jesus or Mary: or ,finally, at the union of these three h61iest of. persons as the "earthly trinity." This opportunity of co.ntemplating the same truth from different angles is of great psychologi-cal value, for the mind quickly becomes fatigued if its atten-tion is focused uriswervingly on only one facet of a given subject. The meditation falls into two salient divisions,: the fact of the hidden life of the Holy Family, and the multiple lessons,it teaches. Its Gospel. text is, of course, that of St. ,Luke (2:51, 52),_"And He went down with them and came to Nazareth, and was subje~t to them; and His mother kept all these things carefully .in her heart. And Jesus advanced in wisdom an~ age and grace before God and men." The Fact Jesus Christmthe Second Person of the Blessed Trin-ity, who took to Himself human nature--whose mission was the redemption of mankind by means of suffering and a p.ainful deathmwho came to teach mankind the difficult law of brotherly love--to found a Church that would last for all time as the only .certain road to salvati0nmwho would draw men to embrace a moral code of self-denial and even suffering for the love of God. W.ith this tremendous task before Him Jesus spent ten *,Further information on the nature and history of the devotion to the Holy Family is contained in the author's article in REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, January 15, 1944. 32 danuarg, 1945 THOUGHT8 ON THE HOLY FAMILY times as much of His life in obscurity as in His p.ublic aposa tolate--because it was the will ,of His Father in heaven. Only two personswere Hi~ intimate and c6nstant com-panions during this period Mary and Joseph. Mary--the Mother; of God-God's choices~ handi- Wi~rk among mere creatures--who lived with Jesus'in the intimacy of mother With son--in obscurity because He willed it--the second Eve, .united with Him in His.work of redemption as the first Eve was united with Adam in the ' first sin. Joseph--the only man who ever received the virginal conjugal 10ve of Mary and the filial, submission'of Jesus--- truly the'virginal husband of the Mother of God and the virginal f0ster-i~ather of the Son of God--buried in obscurity because. Jesus willed it--and realizing perhaps that this obscurity must be continued in the life of the Churcl"i for more than a thousand years, lest the iecogni-tion of the foster-father hinder the recognition of Christ's divinity and Mary's virginity. The Holy Family--a true family supported by Jbseph its head--mothered by the perfect mother--preparing the Lamb for the sacrificemthe Child and Son in this .family like to us in all things, sin alone excepted. - The Lesions Obedience and use of authority: Jesus with His divine wisdom often knows a "better way,'"but does He refuse to obey Mary and Jbseph? .--Mary has the unsurpassed holi-ness and dignity that befit the Mother of God,, but is. she any.less submissive to her husband and head of the fam-ily?-- How,great must be theworth of Joseph, to be put in charge of Jesus and Mary, as the representative on earth of the Eternal Father!--See how prudently Joseph usds his authority, recognizing that its source rests in no intrinsic 33 FRANCIS L. FILAS Review for Religious superiority or. merit of his own~ but.on the will of God! The value ot: labor and ot: works ot: charity: Jesus works for Mary and Joseph diligently, in a spiri.t of coop-eration, and with a willingness to take up any task assigned . Him.---Mary and Joseph work for Jesus; was ever labor done more perfectly "all for Jesus" ?--If a cup .of water offered in Christ's name is to receive its reward, what must be the merit of these two great souls directly employed in Christ's personal' service.~ Yet even this their pri.vilege is not all-exclus.ive, for we can always remember that what we do for the least of Christ's brethren, we do to Christ-- in imitation of Mary and Joseph. Life of obscurity: The actual fact is that for thirty years Christ. hid Himself from the public view. For our. instruction and for the .success of His own future miiaistry. Christ shows the need of conformity to God's will even if it means givingoup the externalworks of the apostolate.--If God wishes to accomplish great work for souls through our efforts, the or~e essential condition is that~ we be conformed to His will,, united to Hini.--Then, too, there is only one soul over which we have .direct power, and that is our own. All othets~we can help or guide only indirectly, :for God with His grace does the work, using us as instruments.---!f our life is obscure according to God's will (we may be spending months and years in preparation for the active apostolate, .or on the other hand our time of labor may be cut short by sickness or old'age) ', we should not fret because of the apparent uselessness of our efforts. They are highly meritorious for ourselves and fo~ others precisely because they are done according to God's will.-~They can be far more selfless than prayers united with an exterior action in which we have Succeeded and semi-deliberately take the credit for ourselves.---We lose 0nly self-love in God-willed bbscurity. 34 THOUGHT~ ON THE HOLY FAMILY If We are spending Ourselves in a public apostolate such as the hospital Or classroom, our interior life ever remains hidden and obscure, knownonly to the Father from Whom we derivethe strength and inspiration to labor in His sdrv~ ice, and from whom Will come the reward that is Himself. ¯ ---To imitate the hidden life that Christ led, we look.to the two persons who followed Him most. closely, Mary and ~Joseph. Cbarit~l: desus, the perfect Son; Mary,. the perfect wife-arid mother; Joseph, the perfect husband and father: need more be said to describe the bond ~of lord that existed at Nazareth, our ideal to imitate? Pra~let': At Nazareth we see the value of the contem-plative apostolate, as well as the background of prayer that is so essential in. supporting and making fruitful the works o'f the mixed apostolate.--Our novitiate, our annual retreat, monthly recollection, daily meditation,' and exa-mens, are all so many times when we "go down to Naza-retl'i" to" pray.m"Whoever wants a master to teach him how to pray, let him take St. doseph for. his guide, and he will not lose his way" (St, Teresa of Avila).--Mary is the mediatrix of all graces, whose prayer God can never refuse, who a~ St. Luke says (2:52), pondered "all these things carefully:in her heart."--Jesus here at Nazareth is pre-paring Himself bypraying during a period ten times as long as His public life--and even in His public life and Passion He prayed before anal during every, action, To pray is to raise, the mind and heart to God, to put oneself consdously in God's presence. Mar~r and: Joseph were ever in the bodily presence of Jesus; can we doubt that the house at Nazareth was a house of prayer?-,--We marvel at thii privilege of Mary and Joseph; do we appr.edat.e and utilize to the full ~our.privilege of b,eing in the b.odily pres-ence of Jesus in the Blessed Sacrament? FRANCIS L. FILAS ¯ Farnil~ virtues: If the.Holy Family is the patron of the Christian family, it is no less the exemplar for all families of religious. We have the love and concord that existed at Nazareth to show us how we should live our religious fam-ily life.--:-' In imitating the family virtues that were exempli, fled at Nazareth, we may well offer our own efforts ~n con-junction with those of Jesus, Mary, and. Joseph, begging God to protect and bless the families of our Church and ¯ riation. - Triple,Colloquy/: with Joseph, Mary, and desus--"By :.Joseph we are led to Mary, and by Mary to Jesus" (Bene-dict XV).--No one, save Jesus, ever loved Mary more than did Joseph: his greatness comes from his union With her" .and Jesus--can there be a greater proponent of devotion to Mary?:--No human person ever loved Jesus more than did Mary; can there be a. surer way of coming to the Son than through the Mother? '--"Jesus, ' Mary, Joseph, be with us now and at the hour of our deathV'- ¯Books Received (From O~tober 20: to December ~0) THE BRUCE PUBLISHING CO., Milwaukee. War Is My "Parish. By Dorothy Fremont Grant. $2.25. A Realistic Phi-losopby. By K.'F. Reinhardt, Ph. D. "$2.75. The Man Nearest to Christ. By the Regerend F~ L. Filas, S.J. $2.50. THE NEWMAN BOOKSHOP, Westminster, Md. ' " With the Help of Thy Grace. By the Reverend John V. Matthews. S.J. S.T.D., Mag. Agg. (Pont. Greg. Uniw). $1.50. Our Lady of Fatlmm B~ the Most. Reverend Finbar Ryan, O.P. $1.25. SHEED ~ WfiRD, New York. Secrets of the Saints. By Henri Gheon.$3.1~0. 8peaMng, of How to Pray. By Mary Perkins. $2.75. GEORGE GILL ~ SONS, LTD., London. A Heroine of the Mission Field. By Dom. Romanus Rios. O.S.B. $1.00. ST. PAUL'S PRIORY, Keyport, New Jersey. Symbols of ChriSt. Volume I: The Old Testament. By the Reverend Damasus Winzen, O.S.B. $1;00~ 36 "l'he ,D~ily I::~min~:ion of Conscience James A. Kleist, S.J. RELIGIOUS are accustomed.to make a"dai'ly examina-tion of conscience. ' In some communities.the rule pre-scribes two such examinations: one at noon, the other ifi the evening. The time allowed for the exercise varies in different institutes, but nevor, so far as I know, exceeds fir-teen. minutes. It is not.to my present purpose to stress the imp0rtanc¢ of this spiritual exercise, beyond saying that i~ is intended, not only tO cleanse the. soul from blemishes con-tracted during the part of the day which it covers, but also to pave the way for a definite improvement of the whole-tone 0f one's spiritual 1ire. My immediate purpose is to enlarge upon a partic,ula.r method of conducting this inquiry into the state of one's soul. The fifteen minutes at our disposal pass sw!ftly, and they are either fruitfully spent or frittered away without results. To avoid iuch loss of time, it is well to have a definite method, for example, that recommended by St. Ig-natius in the Spiritual Exercises, "The method for making the general ¢xamen,:' says. th~ saint,. ~'has five points in it. The first po, int is to give thanks to God our Lord for the benefits received." Itl was a stroke of genius for the saint to advise opening the unpleasant business of examining our conscience with an act of thanks- .giving to God, the. Supreme Judge, who is either to. ratify or to. reject, our findings. We. are to thank "God our Lord." God is infinite in all. His perfections. He is holy, almighty, immense, everlasting:, just, sovereign in every respect. He is; 37 JAMES A. KLEIST Re~ieu~ [or Religious moreover, supremely happy. And yet, He created the worId, and u.s, who live in the world. He willed to be "our Lord." Vainly ~hall we try to~ understand fully God's reasons'for creating. What we do know for certain is that He wished to share His happiness with other beings, with finite creatures. To enable us to reach this end lie has endowed us with marvellous faculties, both of body and of soul. Moreover, He so directed the oursd of events fro.m the beginning that the wOrld might almost seem tO be cre-ated for ea'ch one Of us ihdividually. The psalms cannot 'say enotigh of His Providence, which looks after the tiniest details of our lives. When mankind failed to cooperate with H~s original beneficent designs, even then He was not turned aside: He sent His Only-begotten Son into the world to restore us to grace. Besides these.general ble~sings,.each one of us can tell of special graces showered upon him. No 'need of going into details; but we must not overlook the .blessings received on the particular day when the examen is made. : ' Thus .far our minds have been busy with'a rapid survey ~of God's g00dne~s toward~us. But wehave'not yet corn- .plied with St. Ignatius's first point. We have not yet ¯ ~'~halnk~d. God our ILord.'~. Ev!denfly, we must do more than m e 'r e'l y , r e h e a r s ~ o u r B e n e f a c t o r ' s k in d l y ' d '~eds. The next and altogether necessary st~p, then, is to find ~¢ords :a~Pr0tSriate to the praise of God our LOrd. This is the problem of the first point. Imight solve it by saying that each one is be~t qualified to find words to express his thanks. Or I might suggest the use of the¯psalms,those great store-houses of devout aspirations. But ~just now I prefer to recommend the use of' the ¯Roman Missal, especially the Ordinary of the Mass, for .fitting expressions of gratitude. Many prayers Of the Mass have beer~ in Use for fifteen hundred years, or even more: Itsword~ tome to us laden Januar[l, i945 DAILY EXAMINATION OF (:ONSCIENC~ with" an unction which nothing else can rival, except, of course, the words ~)f Holy V~.rit. A further advantage is that, if~we cull our ejaculations from the Mass, we feel, our-selves in communion, with the whole Church. V~re speak not merely as individuals, .but as God's "holy people." This is an important point, as we shall see presently. To begin with, we ,may repeatthe Church's doxology: "Glory be to the F~ther, and to the Son, and to the H01y Spirit." Again, we may recite the tuneful opening of the Preface: "T~uly fitting it is and just, truly right and wholesome for the soul, that we.should, in every place and. time, give thanks to Thee, 0 I-I~ly Lord, Omnipotent Father, Eternal God." Then there are the Urgent declara-' tions of the Gloria: ."~re.p.raise Thee! "~xr~bless Thee! "~re adore Thee! :V~re glorify Thee! ~re give Thee thanks for Thy great glory!" Again,-we may turn tO our Blessed .Lord in phrticular, and say the beautiful, ending of that song of' the angels: "ThOu alone art holy; Thou alone art Lord; Thou alone' art Most High, 0 Jesus Christ, together with the Holy Spirit, in the glory of God the Father." A well-known text from St. [~aul's epistle to the [~hilippians occurs in several Introits: "In the name of Jesus every knee shall bend, of beings in heaven, of beings on earth, of beings in the world below; and every tongue shall confess, to the Father's glory, that Jesus Christ is Lord." Again, there is-not a priest but feels a touch of solemnity ,when he says at the "little elevation": "Through;Him, and with Him, and in Him, all/2onor and glory/ redounds to Thee, O God the .Father Almighty, in the unity of the Holy Spirit." In our examination of conscience, why not make the priest's words our own?. W~ thus conclude the first of the five points. Wh~t counts is not so much a multiplicity of prayers as a :deep-felt desire to pour out our thanks to God for.all the benefits 39 JAME~ A. KLEI8T Re~ieu~ for Religious received. The prayers suggested ~above will be helpful, unless we have still better ones suited to our individual temperament. I said a while ago that it was important ifor us to feel ourselves in communion" with th~ whole Church whenever we pray. It is signHcanr that her prayers are ~couched in the plural number. Are there not millions and millions of men and women who breathe God's air and have their daily bread from God, but never have a word of thanks for Him? ]~riefly, then: while the mind takes a rapid view of God's blessings, the heart is .constantly and devoutly engaged in prayer., "The second point," says St. Ignatius, "'is to ask grace to knov~" our sins and cast them out." How well the saint understood the paramount place which di~rine grace holds in the sanctification of ~e soul! "Without me you can do nothing," our Lord had said. We cannot know our failings in their true light, and rid ourselves of them, withou~ help ~rom God. Gettihg rid of inordinate habits is much like casting out the devil, and this, a~ the apostles found, out on a certain occasion,, is no child's play. The grace we ask is twofold: to cure the blindness of mind which refuses to recognize sin, and to rouse the sluggish will to form strong resolutions. Our problem now is how ~o secure this divine assist-ance. ~,Ve must pray for it. "vVe may, perhaps, begin with a prayer to Mary Immaculate, whose mind was flooded. with light, and whose will was untouched even by the faintest weakness. We shall of course,, recall the Church's official prayers for light and strength, the vigorous Veni Sancte Spir~rus and the.collect for the Sunday of Pentecost. The.Sequence, in particular, will yield a number of power~ ful pleas for help, especially the two stanzas in which each verse begins with an urgent imperative.~. "Wash, water, Januarg, 19415 DAILY EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE heal; bend, warm, direct"--all expressions that stress the difficulty the soul experiences in the process of driving out sin. But here, as elsewhere in this examination of conscience, - I would recommend that we go through this point with an eye to the future. We may ask the grace to know and expel sin., not only here and now for the purposes of this examen, but also. to secure help for the future, as, for example, by asking the twofold grace for our next weekly confession. This practice, faithfully adhered to, will raise our estima- .tion of the Sacrament of Penance, and, no doubt, make its reception more profitable. Again, there is but one step in thought from the weekly confession to that last ~f all con-fessions which we hope to make when we arrive on the threshold of eternity. Our death is in the hands of a mer-ciful God: it may be sudden, if He so decides, but we pray' that it may not be unprovided. This long-range prepara-tion for it will win us special light' and special strength in the momentwhen'we shall welcome them most. It is then that we shall wish to know all our "innumerable sins and offences and negligences" and to repent of them so genuinetg that our entrance into "the Holy of Holies" may, if pos-sible,, be instantaneous. And here, too, we may be apostolic in our prayer and ask the twofold grace for the thousands, that shall die this day. Are they prepared? Or are they ' unprepared? We shudder to think of it. Many live so lightheartedly as hardly ever to think of God.~ We can assist them in the hour of their greatest need. I repeat what I said in the first point: what is v~anted is. not a multiplicity of prayers, the depths of which we do not sound, but rather one or two sincere aspirations that set our hearts aflame. We are "now ready for the third point, the scrutiny. Here we are: defendant, prosecutor, witness, judge, all in 41 JAMES A. KLEIST Reuietu f6r Religious one. "The.third.point," says St. Ignatius, ;'will be to ask account of our soul from the time at which we rose tO the present examen, hour by hour, or period by periodl and first .as to thoughts, then as to words, and finally as to acts." Thoughts,. words and deeds are. the material on which to base the final verdict. Of th'e five points this is the only one into which prayer as such does not enter. It is a Cold-blooded examination conducted by the understanding, illumined, of course, by the light of the Holy Spirit for which we prayed in the sec-ond point. Among the "thoughts" we include motives, those hidden springs of action which make an individual's seemingly plain, monotonous life so ~colorfui in the sight of God. Further detail is unnecessary: We know the ten commandments, we know the precepts of the Church, we kno~¢ the rules of our order. We recall the persons .w.ith whom we were dealing earlier in the day, and the work or task we were expected to perform. That is all. The minutes allowed for the examination'are brief, and we must proceed to its most important part. "The fourth point," 'says St. Ignatius,, "will be to ask pardon of God our Lo~d for the faults committed." Contrition is sorrow for sin,, and sorrow has a sting in it. St. Ignatius has two significant words for it, "shame"-and "confusion.''~ But while the realization of the numerous'lapses in the past (I ¯ say "the past" designedly, for we may wish to include in. .every act of contrition the sins committed from the dawn of reason onward-) is painful ~o a soul that loves God, yet sorrow for them must not be depressing. True Christian contrition is hopeful, and hop~ is not unmingled with joy. Even the Church on Holy Saturday, after the night of sin has passed away and the true Light of the world has risen, cries' out: "'0 felix ci~Ipat."' Adam's fault was a "happy" one in the sense that it has brought "us " a Redeemer.so 42 danuar~ o 1945 DAILY EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE good, so great." So in" our own case; our sorrow for sin, if genuine, will be a source of blessings. Every sin of the past will be a stimulus to greater fervor in the service of God. This, surely, is reason enough, even if there were 'no others, to make our contrition as perfect as we can. The devil, who rejoiced in. our faults, ~s thus utterly routed. In going through this fourth point, we should remem-ber that there is a distinction between perfect and imperfect contrition, the former based on the love of God, the latter on supernatural, though inferior, m6tives. Furthermgre, every sin presents many. aspects. It is "heinous," says St. Ignatius, "even' if it were not forbidden." It forms the , strongest possible contrast to the infinite holiness of God. It is also an offence.against the divine lawgiver who forbids sin as an infringement of His commandments. It is ingrati-tude toward'our divine Benefactor, whose blessings we recalled in the first point. To deplore our faults more e~- caciou'sly, we may also remember that, in committing them, We seemed to make so little of all that Christ our Lord did and suffered for us. Thoughts like these will furnish numerous motives for making a heartfelt act of contrition. As to the words in which to clothe our act of contrition, the Church supplies us with numerous well-tried patterns. There is, first of all, the act of contrition so familiar to us from childhood. Then, again, we may find something suited to our state of mind in the psalm, called the Miserere. But here, again, I would stlggest that we closely adhere to the Ordinary of the Mass. It is.not without significance . that the priest at the foot of the altar, in preparing for the Holy Sacrifice, spends so great an amount of time in asking God's pardon. The Conliteor invites Heaven to witness our contrition, and thereby increases our sense of shame. Again, have we ever tried to utilize the urgent appeals for divine'mercy in the versicles and responses directly follow- 43 JAMES A. KLEIST Reoieu~ [or Religious , ing the Conl:iteor? "May Almighty Go~] have mercy on us, forgive our sins, and bring .us to ere}hal life. May the Almighty and Merciful Lord grant us pardon, absolution, and remission of our sins. Turn to us, 0 Lord, and give us file: and Thy people shall rejoice in Thee." (Note by the way, how the Church couples "joy" with the act of con-trition. Sin is not forgiven except through the infusion or an increase of "life,"' tha/is, sanctifying grace.) Ascending the altar Steps, the priest says the beautiful Aut:er a nobis:. "Take away from us our sins, we beg, O Lord, that by Thy grace we may enter the Holy of Holies with minds that have been purified." In the Oramus te he calls upon the saints for their intercession: "We implore Thee, O Lord, by the merits of Thy saints whose relics are upon our altars. graciously to forgive all our sins." Th~ need of contrition for sin is so vividly present to the mind of the Church that expressions of it appear again in later parts of the Mass, as, for example, at the offering of~the bread, when the" priest asks pardon "for my innumerable sins, offences, and negli-gences." Again, a little later: "In humble frame of mind and with a crushed heart we beg to be received by Thee, O .Lord." ¯ The last reference to sinin the Mas.~ occurs in the Placeat, the ver~ last prayer in thi~ Mass. Th.ese prayers are all apt expressions of contrition that We 'may use in the examination of conscience. Fr. Meschler says:. "Our sorrow for sin should be as perfect and sincere as we can make' it " A further warning by the same writer is also jn place here: "It is of importance td spend most of the time (that is, during the dxame.n) on the act of contrition and on the constructive part of the exercise. To rembve ~the dust from a piece of furniture w~ do not pick up particle after particle. One good sweep of the duster will do the woik in a momimt. The effect of deep-felt sorrow fo~: sin and a firm purpose0f amendment 44 January, 1945 DAILY EXAMiNA'~ION Ol= CONSCIENCE is much the same. One more remark before we pass on. As Ghrist our Lord took.upon Himself the whole burden of the world's load of sin', and made Himself a pe¢¢otum, that is, a sin, a repre, sentafive of the whole sinful race, so we may, in imi-tation of Christ, take the world's sins~upon ourselves and include, in our act of contrition, a will to make reparation forthe sins of all men. In the general examination of conscience, by the way, St. Ignatius says nothing about corporal penances or acts of mortification which, one may undertake as a natural and spontaneous fruit of contrition. But we know from his life that he was one of the world's great penitents; and besides, from occasional remarks in the Spiritual Exercises, it is clear that he approves of this pbacfice. There is one more point to consider, the constructive part of the examination of conscience. After tearing down the whole or part of a building, it is necessary to build up again. "The fifth point," says St. Ignatius, "is to propose amendment with God's .grace."-Again we notice the saint's awareness of the fact, that divine grace plays an indispen-sable part in the work of sanctification. "The resolution," says Fr. Meschler, "should be.firm and. strong. ¥~re should foresee 'the ordinary occasions of our faults and take preo caution agaifist them." Here, as elsewhere in this examination, the Missal is a trustworthy guide. I would call attention tO two prayers in the Canon of the Mass which seem to me well suited to ask the help of God in laying a solid foundation for the future. There is first the Supptices te rogamus, in which we pray that our sacrifice (which in our own case should mean-all ~the efforts we wish to make to reform our lives) may be presented,, by the hands of the Angel, to God's majesty "in order that we may.be filled more and 45 JAMES A. [~LEIST , Review for Religious ¯ more with every celestial grace and benediction.~' Then I suggest the Libera nos, which comes directly after the Pater~ noster and ends in this consoling prayer: "Graciously shed peace upon our darts, in order, that, aided by the wealth of Thy mercy, we may ever be free from sin and secure from eyeful disturbance." Here the Outlook is upon the rest of our days which we hope to spend in this vale of tears. "Gra-ciously shed peace upon our aa~ls. Once more I wish to point out that these prayers of the Church are phrased in the plural number,, so that, in saying them, we actually include the interests of our fellow men. HoWever good a prayer may be, it is still better for an addi-tional touch of Christian charity,.and since charity begins at homel we are praying for our fellow religious, thosel in particular, who live in the same community with us. With them our lot is cast by the arrangement of our superiors, and it is essential tha~ we live in harmony and give edifica-tion. When. defects are noticed, human nature is prone to ~riticize, to judge rhshly, to harm more than to help. All such unlovely traits of character may be effec.tively stifled ¯ by a hearty prayer for the supposed offender. Nor would khe examination of conscience be quite complete if we did hot resolve to mend such ways of our own as we know from experience to be irritating to those with whom we live. ,St. Ighatius Wants us to close the examination with ~in Our Father. After all, the Lord's Prayer contains every-thin. g we need for a devout life. I must conclude. The daily examination of conscience is a recognized practice in religious institution~. It is of vi~al importance for the spiritual well-being of the entire community, and should, therefore, be made, to borrow a ¯ phrase from St. Ignatius, "with all~ diligence in the Lord." Unless our heart is in it, it becomes a matter of routine ~vhich leaves us just where we ~were before we began. -46 danuar~l, 1945 DA!LY EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE An examination well made prepares the soul 'for the various indulgences, plenary or partial, which one may ¯ wish to gain that particular day. It is essential to St. Ignatius's method to go through all the five points as often as the examen'is made. But it would "be contrary to his mind'to give the same amount of time, say, three minutes, to each of the points. °On Easterday, for example, it would seem natural to draw out the time for the giving of thanks, while on Good Friday the soul is, perhaps, more attuned to sorrow for sin. St. Ignatius believed in methods, but had no ,use for soulless rigidity in the use of them. , The pattern here set forth links the examination with the Roman Missal and thus centers our attention arofmd the one great act Of worship, the Mass: There are, of course~, other ways,, of conducting this inquiry. I once listened to a talk in which the instructor linked St. Ignatius's five points with the Five Wounds of our Blessed Savior. The saints are ingenious in devising methods of prayer that suit their personal preferences and, at the same time, yield notable results. A decided advantage of the method here proposed is, I think, that it lays stress on actual prayer. The complaint has been made that "some religious giv~ more time, in their devotions, to the play of the intellect than they give .to the Will." After all, prayer is the daily bread of a religious. I,shall close, therefore, with the admonition of St. Paul: "Be assiduous in prayer." Holy Hour for C6nvers;ons Father Albert A. Murray, C.S.P., has m~de a simple, striking arrangement of prayers for use during a Hol!i Hour for Cont~e~:dons. The Paulist Fathers will supply the 'booklets, free of charge, to religious communities that wish to establish this apostolic devotion. Write to: The Paulist Fathers. 911 South Wabash Ave-nue. Chicago 5. Illinois. 47 Decisions'orr I-Ioly .July 21, 1944: The Sacred Cbngregation of the Holy Office pub-lished a decree in whicl~ it declared that the system of mitigated mil-ler~ arianism cannot be taught safely. His Holifiess, Pius XII, approve~l and confirmed this answer and o~dered it to be published. In its decree the Holy Office defines mitigated millenarianism as that system "which teaches that Christ the Lord will come before the final judgment, either before or after the resurrection of many of the just, for the purpose of reigning visibly here upon this earth." May 20. 1944: In an audience granted to the Cardinal Major Peni-tentiary, His Holiness, Pius XII,in reply to the .request of' many "priests, granted to those who, in the adversities of this life lift up a trusting heart to God and with pious mind and contrite heart recite the words: "Thy will be done," t14e following indulgences: (1) 50 days each time; (2) a plenary indulgence to be g;iined under the usual conditions, after having devoutly recited the aspiration every day for a month. Promulgated in a decree of the Sacred Peniten-tiary, dated July 10, 1944, , January 24, 1944: In an audience granted to the Secretary of the Sacred .Congregation of Religious, His Holiness, Pius XII, approved with his apostolic authority, the erection and constitution of a special commission within the said Sacred Cdngregation to assist it in ful-filling the duties entrusted to it by canon 251. This new commis-sion, tO be made up of learned and experienced men, will handle all questions and matters in any way pertaining to the religious and clerical training of aspirants, novices, and junior members of every-religious institute, and of societies living in common without vows. It will also handle questions pertaining to their literary, scientific and practical training. The following will be especially entrusted to the Commission: (a) to define and outline the cardinal principles and p~uliar charac-teristics which should guide the education and ~training of religious; (b) to keep a watchful eye on the ordinations of supdriors and chapters regarding matters pertaining to education and training, as well as to inspect and examine carefully the reports furriished on these subjects by superiors and apostolic visitors. 48 Should We Baptize Dying Adults? Gerald Kelly, S.J: 44~ATHER, why do priest~ differ so much on the qu~s- I~ .tion of baptizing unconsc!ous dying people?" The speaker was a zealous nurse. I suspected what she meant, but I preferred to reply the Irish way: ",Just what do you mean, 'differ so much' "Well, during my trainingthe priest who taught us religio.n advised us always to give conditional baptism, to unconscious dying people, ~nless we were surethey.-were already:baptized. But our hospital chaplain insists that it is wrong to baptize people unless they have given some kind of sign that they want to be baptized. This is a.pretty serious matter, it seems to me. We nurses frequently have to attend patients who. were brought into the hospital unconscious.and who die without regaining consciousness. Sometimes we don'~ know anything, about their religious beliefs. It might be that they want baptism and that they .need it, but.they can't express themselves. Are we to stand by and let them lose their souls when we might do the :one thing necessary to save them?" That nurse rather completely outlined a difti~:ulty not infrequently encountered by those who care for the sick. .Priests differ on a point of seemingly supreme importance. Some say, "Baptize": and some say, "Don't dare baptize": and the result is confusion, even distress, on the part of the Sisters, Brothers, and nurses. In slightly varying form, this question has been often presented to me. -I have given answers and explanations to the.individuals presenting the qtiestion; but it has occurred 49 GERALD KELLY. Reoie'w for Religious to me'that, since a large number of our readers are engaged in caring for the sick, it might.be well to give them the back-ground for this diversity of opinion among priests regarding the baptism of unconscious dying people. The ques'tion, of course,, concerns dyingadults. No chaplain, I know,' would tell a nurse that she ~hould never bapfze an unbaptized .dying baby. ¯ Dying infants who are not certainly baptized, are always to be baptized unless their baptism wouid bring harm to the Church--something which is quite improbable. But the question of baptizing dying adults has certain complications, both theoretically and practically; and a difference of opinion regarding some casesis almost inevitable. The Church law concerning the baptism of adults is contained in canon 752. The thrde parts of this c~an0n. 'cover three distinct cases: (1) The baptism of adults.who are not' in danger of death; (2) the.baptism of adults.who ¯ "are, in danger of death, but conscious; and (3) the baptism o°f adults who are in danger of death and already uncon-scious. Since our present discussion coficerns the baptism ¯ of the dying, the first part of the canon is not strictly per-tinent. However, for the sake of ~:ompleteness and clarity, [ believe it advisable to give 0a brief commentary on the entire canon. NoDanger of D~ath The first part of canon 752 prescribes that adults who are not in dangerof death are not tO be baptized unless they expressly desire it. Moreover, before they are baptized they are to be given complete catechetical instructions and are to be warned to make an act of contrition for their sins. Such are the' regulations for what we may'term the 6rdin~rycases: that is, the'.preparation and baptism of con-verts who ard nol~ in danger of death. .The reasbn for the January, 1945 "SHOULD WE BAPTIZE DYING ADULTS? first prescription is obvious. Everyone who has reac~ed the agi~ of reason must decide for himself whether bewishes, to receive baptism; God does not force his gifts on anyone. Hence, in the case of ail but infants, a: requisite for valid baptism is the w(lffngness of thesubject. And of course, the ministel of l~he sacrament should know of this willing-ness before he baptizes. The need of complete instruction in this case is also evident. The convert is being prepared to lead a Catholic life, and one can hardly lead such a lifd iif he knows only the few truths of Faith that are necessary for salvation. Finally', the act Of- contrition is necessary, because even bap-tism cannot wipe away his persorial sins unless he iepefits of them. We need not delay further on thi~ p.art of the canon. - A priest would be the one to confer baptism in these ordi-nary cases, and he would know. the requisites of law and should see that they are fulfilled. I might add, however, for the benefit of those religious who may be called on occa-sionally to instruct converts, that it is very important to teach them how to go to confession. The knowledge .will be an immense help tO them after their conversion. Dying, but Conscious The second partof the canon deals with the case of a person who is in danger of .death,but still conscious and in possession of his faculties. In this case there is no change with regard to the requisiti~ intention and act of contrition. The person, is not to be baptized unless he wishes it; and. if he isbaptized, he is to be cautioned to make an act of contrition for his sins. With regard to the instruction, there must be some modification. The complete instruction of a convert-takes sever~il weeks, or even several months, depending on the GERALD KELLY Review for Religious convert's capacity and on ~the frequency and durdtionof the instructions. Evidently such complete instruction is im-possible, when death is imminent. The canon recognizes this and indicates the minimum essentials of instruction to be given in these urgent ~ases: namely a sufficient explana-tion of the principal truths of the Catholic Faith so that the sick person can give some assent' to these truths and pro-fess his willingness to live up to the obligations.imposedby the Christian religion (in case he should recover). The principal truths of our Faith, belief in which is ' necessary for salvation, are four: the existence of one God, the.fact that God rewards the good and punishes the wick-. ed, the mystery of the Blessed Trinity, and the mystery of the Incarnation. These truths ar,e. aptly expressed in simple acts of faith by Monsignor Markham in the prayers he. has composed for the assistance of. dying non,Carbolics. "I believe, iri oneGod, I believe that God rewards the good and punishes the Wicked. I believe that in God there are three divine Persons--God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy. Ghost. I believe .that God the Son became Man, without ceasing to be God. I believe that He is my Lord and My Saviour, the Redeemer of the human race, that He died on the Cross for the salvation of all men, that He died also for me." Such isonebrief statement of the four truths tha~every-one must believe in order to be. certain of saving his soul. If at all possibl~, something should be said about each of the truths so that 'the dying person can make his act of faith ¯ ~n all of them. This can generally be done in a few min-utes; hence there is usuaIly no great difficulty in at least out-lining the truths. In the rare cases in which all "four truths ' cannot bementioned, we should, at least help the patient m~ke an act of faith in the first two truths: namely, in the e~istence of one Godand in the fact that God rewards the 52 danuar~t, 194"5 SHOULD WE BAPTIZE DYING" ADULTS? good and punishes the wicked. It is probable, though by no means certain, that faith in these two truths is sufficient for salvation; ahd that probability can be'acted upon when further instruction is impossible. In assisting dying non-Catholics we should not place ,too much confidence in the mere words,. "I believe." In Catholic doctrine the words' "faith" and "believe'.' have technical meanings. When we say we believe, we meah we accept a truth, not because we see it' or understand it, but because God revealed ~t. in other words, we take God's word for it. It is important for us to bear this in mind and to impress this point on the dying non-Catholic, because many of them have v.ery vague notions Of "faith" and "be-lief." Monsignor Markham's card, after giving the acts of faith cited above, adds this brief prayer: "I believe, on God's authority, everything that He has taught and re-v. ealed." If a nurse is using this card, these words would give the opportunity for a brief explanation of the true meaning of faith. Father William Bowdern, S.d., in his pamphlet, The Catholic Nurse and the Dyin'9, suggests that the nurse ex-plain the meaning of faith and the truths necessary to be believed in the. following simple manner: "You believe that there is a very good and loving God, don't you? You know that He could not tell a lie or teach us anything wrong. Hetold us some tlSings about Himself, and because He only tells the truth, you and I believe what He has told us. We take His word for it, don't we? He told us that there is only one God and three divine persons: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. And He said that the Son ~ame down on earth and took on Himself our hu-man nature, and then died on the' cross to save us, ~because He loved us so much. And He told us that He wants us all to be happy with Him forever in heaven when we die. 53 GERALD KELLY ¯ minist,ered unconditionally."~ . : ".* .: ~ Dging, bht Unconscious Reoieto [or Religious And He told us that the only ones who will not be with Him in heaven are those who insis.t on going to bell where they wills u"f f e r~ and never see Him. We believe these thir~gs because God told us," don't we? The fof~goiiag are ways ,9f helping 'the d~inigperson make th'e necessary acts of fhith. Every nurse ought to have some s,mple, eleafly-planfied way o~ doing .th~s? ,Having helped the patient m~k~ th~ acts of faith, ~h~ ~shbuld then help him to make the other pr~ers,particularlY the act of contrition. M0nsi~fi~r Mhr~am's card is'also a great aid to this, as it contains, be~des the ~cts of faith: also brief acts,of hope~ charity, and'c~n~rition. - What we have said thus far pertains to the preparatton 0f a dyi.ng person for baptism. Tfiis is equivalent to saying that '@e are ~repa~igg him for admtss~oh into t~e C~iholic Church; hence the canofi caa~ions u~ t~.have ~e~atient ex-press a wilhngn~ss to observe tb~* ~recepts "of~the Christian rehg~on. ~h~s db~s fi~t ~an 'tSat~we 'have to &codnt all thesd precepts ifi d~tail: but wh:en~e ar~" d~aling ~with a con-scio~ person and~there ,s ~me We should~ at least be sure that he wants to.keep thCe o m "mandmen.ts of God and live ~p to thebbligatio~s that the Church impos(s on him. - he~xpresses't~s wflhng~ess,be is tb be baptized Without oe~ay. ~ne canon supposes that the oapt~sm~wm oe con-ferred while the recipient ~s sm~ onscious, i~ tbis'i~ possible. H~w4ver, should he ~o~e" ~o~scious~ess~ bef6re receiving the sacrament, bu~ after havin~ requ~s~e~"i°t, ~:sho61~ be ad- The third part of Canon 752 gives us.some-practical rules about dying adults who are either wholly or partially-unconscious. Such persons are to be bapti'~'ed'd~3ndi~ionally if, before°becoming uncbnscious, they"gave Some l~robable 54 , Januac~/o 1945 :, ~. SHOULD WE BAPTIZE DYING~ADULTS?. sign that they wanted baptism, or if, in their present state (when-partially unconscious) they give.a probable indica-tion that they wish to be baptized. The baptism is admin-istered c0nditionally--the condition being: "If you wish to.be baptized." Later,~ if the subject recovers and mani-fests a clear desire to be baptized,, he is tO be re-baptized conditionally (".if Y0u.are not baptized:7.), because it'.is not certain, that the first, conditional baptismis valid. Such are the prescriptions of the canon. In. themselves, these prescriptions are clear.and admit of ~no controversy. However, with regard to one .point there is evidently room for differences of opinion. I.refer to the interpretation Of the words. "a probable, sign that be wishes to be baptized." Theologians can and do dispute .over what. constitutes a wish to be baptized, and also over what constitutes a mani-festation of such a. wish. Because of this possibility of differencesof opinion, it may be.well for us to consider some of the cases likely to arise. - - Mr. X belongs to no particular religion: but his wi~e is .a Catholic and his children areCatholics. He.has never said openly that he intended to join~thi~ Catholic Churcki, l~ut he has manifested such general good will that those who know .himfeel rather confident that he had .~'leanings". in that direction. Cases like this are not infrequent. One who is assisting at X's deathbed has good reason to conclude" "It is probable that this man intended to join the Catholic Church before his death." Evidently, an intention to join the Catholic Church incl.ukles an intention.to receive bap-tism; hence we have here a probable .sign of the will to be baptized. I doubt if any one would question the.fact that such a person should be given, conditional baptism if be -were.unconscious and dying. . . Mr. ~Y presents a somewhat different case. He has never manifested ~hat he wanted to be a Catholic, but he has 55 GEliD KELLY Reoie~o for Religious shown a disposition to be a '~Christian," ~l~at is, to belong to One of the sects that profess Christianity. In other words he has given some indication that he Wants to belong to "Christ's religion,." whatever that is. Actually, of course, thi~re is only one true Church of Christ.- A person may be mistaken as to which is the' true ohe: but, if he does want to belong to Christ's Church, he also wants baptism, because our Lord made baptis.m the sacrament of entry into His Church, Hence, anyone who has given an indication that he .wants to be a Christian should be c0nd!tionally baptized when he is unconscious and dying, unless it is ce'r-tain that he is already validly baptized. Mr. Z presents a still different and. more difficult dase: He belongs to. no Christian bod~,; but he has been a "good man," in the sense that he wanted to do the right .thing, or at least he has manifested' that he was sorry for all his sins and: that he wanted to do what was necessary to save his soul. This, of course, is a much more ger~eral disposition than that of X or Y. And the question arises: can such a. disposition, for example, sorrow for sins and desire to do what is necessary for salvation, be construed, as a wish~ to receive baptism, or is something more definite d~mafided? Theologians do. not agree in 'their answer to, the question. Many hold that this dispositi0n~ is entirely too general: others consider that it implicitly includes the' wish to receive baptism, because baptism is one' of1 the ordinary means, of salvation instituted by God. Because of the controversy ~just mentioned:, .we cannot say .with certainty, that a man who has indicated that he wants to do everything necessary tO save his, souli has tl~e requisite intention for baptism. But we can say, at least because of the authorities behind: the opinion,, that it is ¯ p.robable ~that such a, person, wishes to be baptized; hence we are justified in conferring conditional baptism when the 56 January/, 1945 SHOULD WE BAPTIZE DYING ADULTS? man is in danger of death and unconscidus. ~. The foregoing .brief .comments exhaust the .provi-sions of canon 752. The canon says nothing directly about thecase proposed by fhe nurse at the beginning of this article" namely, about the unconscious pearson about whom we know nothing. From the silence of the Code, ,and from the severe tenor of cert~iin decisions of theHoly See that are used as the foundation for canon 752, many theologians argue that the Church forbids the baptism, even conditional, of a dying unconscious person unless he has given some posit!ve sign that he wishes to be baptized. In other words, according to these theologians, canon 752 tells us not merely everything that we should do,. but also everything that we rnag do, Some authors convey the. impression that this severe opinion is the only tenable opinion in the matter. Very likely the reh.son why the.chaplain referred to by the nurse a(the beginning of this article insisted that unknown, unconscious dying persons may not be baptized, even con-ditionally, is that he had not heard of another tenable opinion. ' Yet there is another, opinion, an. opinion held as prac-tically probable by such theologians as Bucceroni, Cappello, Da, vis, Genicot, Iorio; Lehmkuhl, Piscetta, Sabett~i, Ver-meersch, and Wouters. I. realize, of course, that a list of names like this may be "so much Greek" to nurses and hos-pital Sisters and Brothers; yet to the priest wh~ is conver-sant with books of Moral Theology the list should be highlY significant. Some, if not all, of these men are cer-tainly among the outstanding moralist~ of the present cen, tury. We may safely say that the opinion they sponsor as probable in the present matter may be followed unless some further decision of the Holy See makes it clear that the opi.nion is to be.rejected. 57 GERALD KELLY Review ~or Religiotts In the opinion of the authors just cited--an opinion often referred to as the "lenient" opinionmwe are°justified in conferring conditional baptism on the unknown and unconscious dying adult. The authors admit that their opinion seems less in conformity with the decrees of the Holy See than the severe opinion; but they deny that these decrees make the other side certain. To sum Up the mate~:ial treated.in this article. In 6rdi-nary cases of conversion, when there is no urgent necessity for baptism, thd sacrament is not to be conferred unless the subject expressly asks for it and until he is prepared for the sacrament by complete catechetical instruction. And, in order that the ~acrament be certainly fruitful, he is to be warned to repent of his sin~. In urgent cases, in which even those who are not priests may confer the sacrament, it suffices to help the dying per-son make the essential act of faith and a sindere act of con-trition. The supposition here, of course, is that the sub-ject wishes to be baptized and is willing to live up to the precepts of God and the Church, should he recover. As for unconscious persons, we have treated three dis-tinct cases. First; those who certainly wanted baptism before lapsing into unconsciousness are~ to be baptized unconditionally. Secondly, those who gave some probable sign that they wished to be :baptized are to be baptized con-ditionally. And finally--in the case proposed by the nurse --if nothi~ag is known about the person, the nurse is justi-fied in conferring conditional baptism if she wishes.to do so; but because of the strong opinion against it, she is not strictl} obliged to do so. As Father Sabetti would say: "If she does nothing, I do not reprimand her; but if she confers conditional baptism,. I. praise her." In other words, the nurse may make her ow6 the opinion of Father Ver-meersch, who, after having examined all the arguments of 58 January. 1945 SHOULD WE BAPTIZE DYING ADULTS? the severe side, concluded that: "If scandal is avoided, one may confer conditional baptism on any unconscious, dyi~.g adult who is not known to be already baptized." As for myself, I believe that this same Father Vermeersch expressed what seems to be a Catholic instinct when he said: "I could not resign myself to permit a single soul to be lost that might have been saved by my ministrations." Father Vermeersch's words could ~ell be taken as an ideal by all who minister to the dying. The wolds are applicable, not merely to the case of giving conditional baptism to unknown, unconscious persons,, but also and even especially to the preparation of conscious patient~ for death. After all, the baptism of unknown and unconscious persons is of very dubious efficacy, as even the staunchest defenders of the practice will admit. It is the seizing Of a last plank of hope, the use of a last desperate remedy. But "when a patient is conscious, no matter what his religion, the nurse accomplishes results that abe definitely fruitful, even to.a high degree, by encouraging.him to devout acts of faith, hope, chaiity, and contrition. In the case of non- Catholics, in particular, the nurse's spiritual assistance may be badly needed, .because very often they have no one to help them prepare for their meeting with our Lord. For this reason, I again recommend the splendid work of the Apostolate to Assist Dying Non-Catholic.~.1 1For further information about the Apostolate to Assist Dyin~ Non'Catholics,' see REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS,. I, p. 338; or write for sample brochure and prayer cards to one of the following addresses: (a) Rt. Rev. R. J. Markham, S.T.D., Comptora Road, Hartwell, Cincinnati ! 5, Ohio. (b) Sisters of the Poor of St. Francis, St. Clare Convent, Hartwell, Cincinnati 15, Ohio. (e) Sister M. Carmelita0 R.S.M., Cdnvent of Merclr, 1409 Freemarl Avenue, Cincinnati 14, Ohio. Ques ions and Answers I ¯ Our (ionsfitufion~ prescribe a half hour of' private spiritual reading. Is that requisite fulfilled when we have reading in common and one person. delegated to do so reads for the duration of half an hour? Yes, the common performance of.an act will always sat.isfy the obligation of the coristitutions requiring the private performance, of such an act. Thus on special occasions, such as feast days, or on the day of m6n.thly recollection, it may be desirable to have some special reading appropriate for the feast or monthly recoll~ctibn. Sin~e such. reading may not be available for all because c~f the lack of°books, the reading held in common would satisfy .the obligation of private spir-itual reading¯ The question, might be rai~ed whether the superior could oblige the Sisters to have, rea.ding .in common when the Constitutions requi,re private reading. We think that this might be done occa-sionally, as indicated above, but not habitually. If the superior d~sired to have some. particular book read for the community because of its spedai spiritual value, she might invite the Sisters to attend the common reading of that book over a period of time, but she could not strictly oblige them to be present at the common reading. In s6me cbmmfinifies the Sisters wffh temporary vows are referred to as "professed novices," Does this imply that they may be classed with and mingle with the n6v;ces rather than ~;th" the perpetually professed Sisters? The.t~rm "professed novices" is a misnomer. If they. are pro-fessed they. are not novices, and if they. are novices they are not pro-fessed religious. The custom of having the religious professed of temporary vows remain in a class by themselves, and of giving them special additional training in the stiiritual life, is most praiseworthy, though not required byCanon Law. A better name for them is that of "junior professed" whereby they are distinguished from the "sen-ior professed," that is, those religious who have taken their perpetual VOWS. The Codeof Canon Law is meticulous in its u~e of the terms 60 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS "novice". arid "professed religious," and' this use should he re'rained in order to°avoid many misunderstandings. ~ The answer to our question is given in canon ~640 § 1 which tells us that "the novitiate shall be, as far as possible, "separated from that part of the house inhabited by the professed religious, so that, Withbut a'special cause and the permiSsion of the superior or of the master, the novices ma~, not have comm,unication with the professed religious, nor these latter with the novices." The canon makes no distinction between religious whb have taken temporary vows, and those who have maiie p~ofession of perpetual, vows, as it frequently does in other cases. Hence we can only conclude that the. professed of temporary vows are included in °th~ prohibition. What is the mean;nq of the statement in a recent issue of the Review " (111, 371)that the Epistle to the Hebrews may be the work of another writer than Paul~ at least ;n part? It means that the literary form of theEpistle may be the world of ¯ someone other than Paul. Catl~olic critics are permitted to hold this view, with deference, of course, to any further decision of the Church. For further explanation confer the introduction to the Westminster Version of the Epistle to the' Hebrews, or sde the Commentary on the Ne'w Testamerit prepared by the (American) Catholic Biblical Association. Our constitutions prescribe our makincj the Stations of the Cross ;n common every Friday. Do we ejaln any indulgences, if the congregation, which consists of some thirty S;sters~ remains ;n the pews and the superior alone proceeds from station to stati6n? Although this question was answered in Volume I, page 424 of REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, we shall give here the substance of that answer for the benefit Of tbosd who may not have that volume. On February 27, 1901, the Sacred Congregation of Indulgences granted to the Marist Brothers the favor whereby they could gain the indul-gences of the Way of the Cross if only one person (for example, a Brother of the community) made the round of the stations, the rest of the community remaining in their places. The condition laid down in this grant was that there was a lack of space in the community 61 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS chapel for hll the religious to move from station tO station. On May .7°, 1902, this same privilege was extended to the chapels Of all reli-gious ~vomen, under the same ~onditions. Is it being "more ~athollc than the Church" to keep the. Lenten fast, if the blshop.has dispensed from the obligation of fasti~g"for'the duration"? The dispensation takes away the obligation imposed by the gen-eral law of the Church: and even those who are able to fast and who would normally be obliged to do. so are exempted. The dispensa-tion does not affect obligations imposed bn religious, by their rule, and it does not change the. fact that fasting is a good penance when prac-ticed accor.ding to the norms'of prudence. Fasting, even "during the duration," is very much in tune with the spirit of the Church¯ The Ldnten liturgy is full of references to fasting. Would it be incorrect to have flowers on the altar during the Benedic-tions of the Blessed Sacrament which occur from Passion Sunday to Easter~t The prescriptions of the~ rubrics forbidding the placing of flowers on the altar during penitential seasons, apply only when the Mass or o~ice of the season is said. Even then flowers are allowed on the altar by way of exception on the occasion of the First Communion Of children: and in honor of St. Joseph during the month of Ma~ch (S.R.C., d. 3448 ad XI). Hence it seems reasonable to allow them during the Benedictions of the Blessed Sacrament which occur during Passiontide. Could you suggegt, through the pages of the Review, a book of medi-tations suitable for boys in a'mlno~ seminary? We r, egret our inability to suggest such a book of meditations, and request our readers whohave knowledge of such a book or' books ¯ to communicate it to us sO that we may publish it in this column. 62 Book Reviews DO I REALLY BELIEVE? Meditations on the Aposfl.es' Creed. By the ,Reverend Henri Lebon, S.M. Translated from the French by the Reverend Peter Resch, S.M. The Abbey P~ress, St. Melnrad, Ind. $2.25. This book of meditations should receive an enthusiastic welcome, especially from religious. It consists of ~ s~ries of seventy-four medi-tations based entirely on the articles of the Apostles' Creed. The theme, of. co.urse, is not new; many meditations have been based on. the Creed. But this series is possessed of a unique spirit. It is the~ spirit of the Founder of the Society of Mary, the venerable Father Chaminade. Father Lebon.has captured this spirit hnd edited it. ¯ Father Chaminai:le, in his work of catechising and training young religious, found himself constantly stressing faith as the bed-rock of all Christian per.fecti0n. Indeed he was convinced that defection from religious vocation could be traced to a lack "of lively faith. So he found it exceedingly~ profitable to base many medita-tions on the Apostles' Creed. The book follows faithfully the traditional form'of preludes, division of matter fok thought, followed by examen, affections, and resolutions. However, into that form the author succeeds in weaving a wealth of apt illustrations from personal experience. The Holy Fathers speak too from e;cery page. And there are constant quota-tions from both the Old and New Testaments. ---W. J. O;SHAUGHNESSY, S.J. LENT: A Liturglc.al Commentary on the Lessons and Gospels. "By the Reverend Conrad Pepler, O.P. Pp.x -I- 406. B. Herder Book Co., St. Louis, 1944. $4.00. ¯ This bodk of very serious Lenten reflections has an advantage for religious communities in that the daily portion offered is .of greater length, closer to fifteen minutes, than the sparse outline contained in most manuals. A further merit is that its reflections on penance and the Passion are brought clearly into line with the day's Holy Sacrifice. Undoubtedly every religious, as the sombre impressiveness of Lent looms on his prayer horizon each year, ha~ felt a thirst of soul 63 BOOK REVIEWS Review for Religious .for. a richer understanding of the Le~nten liturgy. How fine it would be if those reflections on sorrow for sin and union with the suffering Christ, which common consent.dictates as the atmbsphere of the Forty Days, might, unfold naturally out of the venerable solemnity of each day's Mass, obviating that unwanted disunity in the morning's stint of prayer! Hence the value of, Father Pepler's achievement. It would be no small injustice to this meditation book to judge it too' ~arrowly in the light of its subtitle, "A LiturgicalCommen-tary." 'The author uses the liturgical text. He wrestles earnestly with it to make it subserve the orderly plan of reflections he has pro-posed to himself as likely to be most profitab!e to the reader:' whereas the task of a commentator is to fol[oto his text, adapt him-self to it, "make all his explanations serve it faithfully. Moreover, Father Pepler is di,tinctly patristic, rather than modern or scientific, in his attitude toward both Scripture and the liturgy. The Jacob incident, like the whole of Scripture, "is not intended to signify itself, for that is some material fact, but a hidden truth which ~is tO be soughtunder the symbolism" (p. 126). Thd author's Augus-tinian emphasis on the "mystical" accommo'dation of Sclipture, though not precisely what we look .for 'in a modern "commentary," " is satisfactorily handled for purposes of devout meditation.': --R. G, NORTH, S,J~ A REALISTIC: PHILOSOPHY. By K. F. Relnhardt, Ph.D. Pp, xli-I- 268~ The Bruce Pdbllshincj Company, Milwaukee, 1944. $2.75.' In this "Science and Culture" book," Dr. K. F. Reinhard~ of Stanford University presents a brief account of Scholastic philos-ophy, and shows how it works into political and economic philos-ophy. Philosophers should read this book to see how their thought furnishes principles of ac'tion most appropriate, to reestablish peace and justice. Those who are working for internationfil order and social justice should read it for its clearand rel.atively simple presen-" tation, of the 0principles through which alone these ends can be achieved. Dr. Reinhardt is well qualified to handle the interrelations be-tween these fields. He has a doctorate in philosophy to give him a solid background in this field; his practic.al experienceas an active member ~of the German Centrist party, as editor and publisher, 64 January, 1945 BOOK REVIEWS qualifies him to speak on polit.ics and economics. Scholastic thought, as.it appeari in this necessarily brief compass, is shown tO be realistic and logical. The author's main effort in the earlier section of the book is to show the realism of the "perennhl philosophy"; .that it ft, in fact, the only true realism, since it alone deals 'with all reality. Philosophy is of course never light reading. Dr. Reinhardt does "well in avoiding technical terminology and Latinism. His vigorous and concrete style carries the educated reader along through pages of closely packed reasdning. Those who are interested in the ploblems which are treated here. but who have felt themselves excltided from the technical literature on the subjects thr6ugh lack of formal training in them, will profitably and gladly read this eminently worth-while book. The book is implemented with a glossary of technical terms and bibliogr~aphy: there is an index.--G. P. KLUBERTANZ, S.J. SPEAKING OF HOW TO PRAY. By Mary Perkins. Pp. xll + 276. Sheed and Ward. New York. 1944. $2.75. Saint Teresa, who loved intelligent persons, would have loved ¯ Mary Perkins, for Mary Perkins is a Very intelligent person. More than that, she. is able to explain what she understands~ in clear and non-technical language. She has written a very sound and valuable book, which should enable any reader to comprehend better" than he did before the meaning of life and the way to live. The title is not very revealing. The book is much more than a disc.ussion of how to pray. It sets forth God's blue print for the universe and for each man, and points out the orie.m~thod of carry-ing out the divine idea. Part I, about a fourth of the book, is ;an amazingly fine syn-thesis of theology, ~given the brief compass allotted to it. God's pur-pose in creating the world, original sin, the Incarnation, the redemp-tion, and the Church are discussed and related in such a way that the whole o.rganism of~Christian revelation, stands forth clearly. The remaining chapters, which make up Part II, describe the life each Christian is called to live in the Church so as to achieve the closest possible union with Christ, and through Christ with God, our ultimate end. This section of the work is extremely practical; it shows us how to utilize the means of: union which Christ offers us in the Church,: especially the Mass, the sacraments, the divine office, 65 BOOK REVIEWS Reuieu~ for Religious and prayer, b6th vocal and mental. The author fully appreciates the wealth of Catholic liturgy, and is in complete sympathy with the objectives of the liturgical movement that has given a renewed impetus to Catholic life in recent decades. Anyone who follows the plan here attractively presented is on the road to sanctity. For this is the.Church's own plan, and the life outlined is the life of the , Church. The book should not be read rapidly. Otherwise a certain unrelieved monotony in the style will pail. A chapter each day, read slowly and reflecti'bel'y, would be ideal. An excessive fondness for capitalization of words which need not, by any. rules or. usage, begin with capital letters, and the d~vice of splitting words into com-ponent elements, such as "will-full," "super-natural," "norm-al," and a host of others, may serve to attract the attention of some readers, but will probably irritate others.--C. VOLEERT, S.d. WITH THE HELP OF THY GRACE. By the. Reverend John V. Mat-thews, S.J., S.T.D., Macj. Acjg. (Pont. Gre9. Univ.). Pp. 114. The Newman Book Shop, Westmlnsfer, Maryland,' 1944. $1.50. This book is, in substance, the treatise On Actual.Grace taught in seminaries. As such it Will be of interest to the student of the-ology, for laymen and for religious. It takes up in turn the meaning of Grace, its source, a few fundamentaldivisions, a definition of Actual Grace, its supernatural character, its nature, necessity and dis-tribution, Grace and freedom of the will. To these questions are added such distinctive chapters as: :'Can Actual Grace be seen or touched? . When may Actual Grace be expected?" . "How great a gift is Actual Grace?" Certain sections of the formal treatise on Actual Grace are omitted. For example, no mention is made of the highly controverted subject of the reconcili~ition of Actual Grace with the freedom of man's will. Discussions of this nature are not considered pertinent to the purpose of the "book. The topic of each chapter is propose~l in the form of a question. The body of the chapters PrOceeds in the catecbetical method of question and answer. To these are appended Scripture quotations in support of the truth proposed. But the book is more than a cate-chism, as some of the questions run through two pages or more. Chapter questions serve as a striking way of approach t'o a truth put in thesis form in theological manuals. They remind one of the very January3, 1945 BOOK REVIEWS effective yet simple problem method of St. Thomas. The primary purpose of this book is to convey to the reader'a fuller knowledge of Actual Grace. 'This is as it ought to be, for appreciation and solid devotion presuppose understanding. ToO little has been said and .written in explanation of Actual Grace. Too much of the little said has left minds without a grasp of basic ideas. To accomplish his aim .the author bends every effort. His insistence throughout is on clarity and ~implicity, even to the deliberate sacri-rice of literary style. But th~ book is not all purely informational. A certain propor-tion of appreciation joine~l to.instruction 'is obtained by the intro~ .duction ~it the end of each chapter, of what is called a "Practice." 'This "Practice," a word used for want Of a better one~ includes fur-ther explanations, applications, comments and exhortations. In them occur such expressions as: "Dear Reader," "which could bettei have been omitted. This book offers no surprises for those who know their Actual Grace. "For others it has both limitations and "advantages. The method adopted by the author limits the richness and power of pres-entation to which Actual Grace, or, for that matter, any doctrinal subject lends itself. On the other hand, the bbok is a simple and unmistakably clear explanationof fundamentals. As such it merits the highest rating. :It can serve as a valuable aid for individual study, for the prepa-ration of sermons and for teaching in High School and College. With its help, many more souls can come. to a fuller knowledge and appre-ciation of Actual Grace.-~L. A. CORESSEL, S.,J. HUMILITY OF HEART. By Father Caietan Mary Da Bergamo, Capuchin. Translated by Herbert Cardifial Vaughan. Pp. 211. The Newman Bookshop, Westminster, Maryland, 1944. $2.50. This book of 153 paragraphs contains "Thoughts and Senti-ments on Humility." Written in Italian by one who led the humble life of a Minor Capuchin, the book made a profound impression On Cardinal.Vaughan who, as we are told in the introduction, "For more than thirty years had known and studied ihat Work and it is scarcely an exaggeration" to say he .had afade ito during the last four-teen years of his life, his constant companion, his vade mecum." To the Cardinal we are indebted for the present excellent translation of Father Cajetan's treatise on humility. BOOK REVIEWS " Reaiew [or Religious The book is divided .into six chapters. The first of these gives us a clear idea of. humility, its necessity, its excellence and its motives and arouses in us a fervent desire to practise it. In the four succeeding chapters we have treatises on apractical examen on the virtue of humility, humility towards God, towards our neighbor, and towards oneself. Finally, there is the chapter "Moral Doctrine on the Vice of. Pride and the best Us~ to be made:of the Practical-Examen." " Each of the 153 .paragraphs furnishes ample matter for one or more meditations. Containing sublime and practical reflections/the book shows Us how to obtain that humility of heart wherein "the soul," as Father Bernard Vaughan, S.J., tells us in his introduction, "will find a sovereign remedy for its many ills, a matchless balm its many wounds, while' a soul-beauty all its.own wilbspring up in

We employed Mendelian randomization (MR) to evaluate the causal relationship between leukocyte telomere length (LTL) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) with summary statistics from genome-wide association studies (n = ~ 38,000 for LTL and ~ 81,000 for ALS in the European population; n = ~ 23,000 for LTL and ~ 4,100 for ALS in the Asian population). We further evaluated mediation roles of lipids in the pathway from LTL to ALS. The odds ratio per standard deviation decrease of LTL on ALS was 1.10 (95% CI 0.93–1.31, p = 0.274) in the European population and 0.75 (95% CI 0.53–1.07, p = 0.116) in the Asian population. This null association was also detected between LTL and frontotemporal dementia in the European population. However, we found that an indirect effect of LTL on ALS might be mediated by low density lipoprotein (LDL) or total cholesterol (TC) in the European population. These results were robust against extensive sensitivity analyses. Overall, our MR study did not support the direct causal association between LTL and the ALS risk in neither population, but provided suggestive evidence for the mediation role of LDL or TC on the influence of LTL and ALS in the European population.

Drosophila melanogaster is a leading model in population genetics and genomics, and a growing number of whole-genome datasets from natural populations of this species have been published over the last years. A major challenge is the integration of disparate datasets, often generated using different sequencing technologies and bioinformatic pipelines, which hampers our ability to address questions about the evolution of this species. Here we address these issues by developing a bioinformatics pipeline that maps pooled sequencing (Pool-Seq) reads from D. melanogaster to a hologenome consisting of fly and symbiont genomes and estimates allele frequencies using either a heuristic (PoolSNP) or a probabilistic variant caller (SNAPE-pooled). We use this pipeline to generate the largest data repository of genomic data available for D. melanogaster to date, encompassing 271 previously published and unpublished population samples from over 100 locations in > 20 countries on four continents. Several of these locations have been sampled at different seasons across multiple years. This dataset, which we call Drosophila Evolution over Space and Time (DEST), is coupled with sampling and environmental meta-data. A web-based genome browser and web portal provide easy access to the SNP dataset. We further provide guidelines on how to use Pool-Seq data for model-based demographic inference. Our aim is to provide this scalable platform as a community resource which can be easily extended via future efforts for an even more extensive cosmopolitan dataset. Our resource will enable population geneticists to analyze spatio-temporal genetic patterns and evolutionary dynamics of D. melanogaster populations in unprecedented detail. ; DrosEU is funded by a Special Topic Networks (STN) grant from the European Society for Evolutionary Biology (ESEB). MK (M. Kapun) was supported by the Austrian Science Foundation (grant no. FWF P32275); JG by the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (H2020-ERC-2014-CoG-647900) and by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (BFU-2011-24397); TF by the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF grants PP00P3_133641, PP00P3_165836, and 31003A_182262) and a Mercator Fellowship from the German Research Foundation (DFG), held as a EvoPAD Visiting Professor at the Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity, University of Münster; AOB by the National Institutes of Health (R35 GM119686); MK (M. Kankare) by Academy of Finland grant 322980; VL by Danish Natural Science Research Council (FNU) grant 4002-00113B; FS Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) grant STA1154/4-1, Project 408908608; JP by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft Projects 274388701 and 347368302; AU by FPI fellowship (BES-2012-052999); ET Israel Science Foundation (ISF) grant 1737/17; MSV, MSR and MJ by a grant from the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia (451-03-68/2020-14/200178); AP, KE and MT by a grant from the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia (451-03-68/2020-14/200007); and TM NSERC grant RGPIN-2018-05551. ; Peer reviewed

Funding: We are grateful to the members of the DrosEU and DrosRTEC consortia for their long-standing support, collaboration, and for discussion. DrosEU was funded by a Special Topic Networks (STN) grant from the European Society for Evolutionary Biology (ESEB). M.K. was supported by the Austrian Science Foundation (grant no. FWF P32275); J.G. by the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (H2020- ERC-2014-CoG-647900) and by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (BFU-2011-24397); T.F. by the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF grants PP00P3_133641, PP00P3_165836, and 31003A_182262) and a Mercator Fellowship from the German Research Foundation (DFG), held as a EvoPAD Visiting Professor at the Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity, University of Mu ̈nster; AOB by the National Institutes of Health (R35 GM119686); M.K. by Academy of Finland grant 322980; V.L. by Danish Natural Science Research Council (FNU) (grant no. 4002-00113B); FS Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) (grant no. STA1154/4-1), Project 408908608; J.P. by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft Projects 274388701 and 347368302; A.U. by FPI fellowship (BES-2012-052999); ET Israel Science Foundation (ISF) (grant no. 1737/17); M.S.V., M.S.R. and M.J. by a grant from the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia (451-03-68/2020-14/200178); A.P., K.E. and M.T. by a grant from the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia (451- 03-68/2020-14/200007); and TM NSERC grant RGPIN-2018- 05551. ; Drosophila melanogaster is a leading model in population genetics and genomics, and a growing number of whole-genome datasets from natural populations of this species have been published over the last years. A major challenge is the integration of disparate datasets, often generated using different sequencing technologies and bioinformatic pipelines, which hampers our ability to address questions about the evolution of this species. Here we address these issues by developing a bioinformatics pipeline that maps pooled sequencing (Pool-Seq) reads from D. melanogaster to a hologenome consisting of fly and symbiont genomes and estimates allele frequencies using either a heuristic (PoolSNP) or a probabilistic variant caller (SNAPE-pooled). We use this pipeline to generate the largest data repository of genomic data available for D. melanogaster to date, encompassing 271 previously published and unpublished population samples from over 100 locations in > 20 countries on four continents. Several of these locations have been sampled at different seasons across multiple years. This dataset, which we call Drosophila Evolution over Space and Time (DEST), is coupled with sampling and environmental meta-data. A web-based genome browser and web portal provide easy access to the SNP dataset. We further provide guidelines on how to use Pool-Seq data for model-based demographic inference. Our aim is to provide this scalable platform as a community resource which can be easily extended via future efforts for an even more extensive cosmopolitan dataset. Our resource will enable population geneticists to analyze spatio-temporal genetic patterns and evolutionary dynamics of D. melanogaster populations in unprecedented detail. ; Publisher PDF ; Peer reviewed

For the poorest of our world, non-communicable diseases and injuries (NCDIs) account for more than a third of their burden of disease; this burden includes almost 800000 deaths annually among those aged younger than 40 years, more than HIV, tuberculosis, and maternal deaths combined. • Despite already living in abject poverty, between 19 million and 50 million of the poorest billion spend a catastrophic amount of money each year in direct out-of-pocket costs on health care as a result of NCDIs. • Progressive implementation of affordable, cost-effective, and equitable NCDI interventions between 2020 and 2030 could save the lives of more than 4·6 million of the world's poorest, including 1·3 million who would otherwise die before the age of 40 years. • To avoid needless death and suffering, and to reduce the risk of catastrophic health spending, essential NCDI services must be financed through pooled, public resources, either from increased domestic funding or external funds. • National governments should set and adjust priorities based on the best available local data on NCDIs and the specific needs of the worst off. • International development assistance for health should be augmented and targeted to ensure that the poorest families affected by NCDIs are included in progress towards universal health care.

Los países de América Latina contienen una tradición hispánica que posee dos características problemáticas: por un lado, un sistema político pensado para un presidente fuerte; por otro lado, una realidad socio-económica que genera inestabilidad en el sistema político. Argentina es un ejemplo representativo: desde la concepción alberdiana en las "Bases y Puntos de Partida para la Organización Política de la República Argentina" (1), el Poder Ejecutivo ha estado pensado para convertir al presidente en un rey sin corona. Es decir, en un actor político que tenga las herramientas suficientes para enfrentar la crónica inestabilidad y desafíos a su poder que llevaban a cabo diversos grupos de interés.La literatura ha comenzado a alcanzar un consenso sobre las características mayormente negativas que ha tenido para el desarrollo argentino la construcción de un hiper presidencialismo (2). Sin embargo, esa misma literatura ha demostrado un peculiar desinterés para argumentar las bondades del parlamentarismo. En la lógica que emana de los críticos del hiper presidencialismo argentino, las virtudes del parlamentarismo se reducen meramente a expresar lo opuesto del presidencialismo. La dinámica es particularmente nociva porque las criticas que se realizan del hiper presidencialismo argentino son rigurosas. Luego, existe el peligro de una confusión analítica importante: pensar que el parlamentarismo es bueno o mejor para Argentina porque el presidencialismo ha demostrado ser muy malo. Paso seguido, la pregunta no debiera ser si el presidencialismo es bueno o malo para Argentina sino, en cambio, si hay una mejor alternativa. ¿Por qué el parlamentarismo sería mejor que el presidencialismo de mala calidad que padece? ¿Cuáles son las características relevantes de la economía política argentina? ¿Están ellas relacionadas con el sistema presidencialista o lo trascienden? Por ejemplo, podemos mencionar que el asimétrico y estable federalismo, los distintos peronismos y la complejidad del área metropolitana de Buenos Aires (donde conviven 14 de los 40 millones de habitantes) son características de la economía política argentina que poco o nada tiene que ver con las estructurales dificultades que refleja su hiper-presidencialismo (3).Sin embargo, surge una pregunta subsecuente y aún mas relevante: asumiendo que las mencionadas características (federalismo, peronismo, complejidad del área metropolitana buenos aires (AMBA)) no están directamente relacionadas al sistema presidencialista, ¿Podríamos pensar que la aparición del parlamentarismo profundizaría aún mas esos problemas? Para ello, recurrimos a variables políticas e institucionales existentes. ¿Cuáles son? Por ejemplo, una representación parlamentaria de 258 diputados, un sistema electoral que sobre representa a las provincias chicas y las mencionadas condiciones: un conurbano hiper-poblado y un movimiento político (el peronismo), que posee distintas expresiones que cooperan o se enfrentan dependiendo de la coyuntura. Este ultimo punto es clave: el peronismo se ha consolidado desde 1983 como la expresión política-electoral principal de la Argentina (4). A partir de la matriz presidencialismo-parlamentarismo, podemos pensar cuales son los incentivos que uno y otro sistema han generado o generarán en el peronismo.En primer lugar, vemos que la vigencia de un sistema hiper-presidencialista no construyó los suficientes incentivos a todas las vertientes peronistas como para permanecer bajo el ala protectora del presidente todo poderoso. La pregunta que sigue es: ¿Si el hiper presidencialismo no construyó los suficientes incentivos para permanecer en la coalición gobernante, no generaría un sistema parlamentario aún menos incentivos a permanecer en la coalición gobernante para este tipo de movimientos políticos atrapatodos y populares?Otra manera de preguntar lo mismo sería: ¿Hay una relación entre peronismo, presidencialismo y parlamentarismo? Si es así, ¿Cuál es? Mas aún, la relación entre peronismo y sistema político de gobierno (presidencialismo y parlamentarismo) no sería analíticamente anterior a la correcta percepción del hiper-presidencialismo como problema en la polis argentina?Inestabilidad, hiper presidencialismo y parlamentarismo¿La inestabilidad política es anterior o posterior al hiper presidencialismo? La historia política argentina contemporánea nos informa que el hiper presidencialismo ha estado analíticamente ligado a la inestabilidad porque, cuando un líder poderoso se debilita o es percibido como débil, el resto de los actores políticos relevantes no encuentra mecanismos institucionales para dialogar (y eventualmente co-gobernar), por lo que se generan incentivos para profundizar una inestabilidad que, eventualmente, degenerará en la caída del presidente. En este sentido, el hiper presidencialismo sería la causa y la inestabilidad la consecuencia. Por ende, argumentan, es necesario cambiar la causa principal para modificar la consecuencia, es decir la inestabilidad política argentina.Paso seguido, es necesario cuestionar la lógica de este razonamiento. Por un lado, aceptamos como valida la causalidad hiper presidencialismo-inestabilidad. Sin embargo, marcamos que es una causalidad analíticamente incompleta. Una causalidad mas rigurosa sería 1) inestabilidad 2) hiper-presidencialismo 3) inestabilidad. Si esta dinámica es correcta y la primera que mencionamos (hiper-presidencialismo-inestabilidad) es consecuentemente incompleta, luego, modificar el hiper-presidencialismo no llevaría necesariamente a maniatar o abolir la inestabilidad. Mas aún, podemos pensar un escenario donde la introducción de un régimen parlamentario potenciaría esa estructural inestabilidad política.Para ello, debemos primero comprender la dinámica inestabilidad-hiper presidencialismo e hiper presidencialismo (5) -inestabilidad. Como mencionamos, en esta lógica el hiper presidencialismo ayudaría a generar inestabilidad política porque no permitiría la construcción de un ámbito de negociación entre los actores políticos relevantes cuando una crisis o sucesivos errores del presidente generaran un marco de debilidad. En las democracias presidencialistas sólidas como EE.UU., Chile, Uruguay o Costa Rica, un presidente que se ha debilitado puede recurrir a la oposición para dialogar. Ese dialogo podrá o no ayudar a solucionar la crisis, pero la alternativa existe realmente como tal. Dado que los actores políticos en el gobierno y en la oposición perciben al otro como leal en su respectivo rol, el ámbito de negociación existe, independientemente sea exitoso o no.En cambio, la dinámica previa en el ejercicio del poder en Argentina genera des-incentivos para que los actores políticos relevantes en la oposición perciban que un ámbito de negociación no será utilizado por el presidente para negociar genuinamente sino para encontrar un mecanismo para volver a ser un "hiper-presidente". Por ende, para quienes defienden la necesidad de una reforma, la implementación de un sistema parlamentario obligaría, de alguna manera, al primer ministro a negociar cuando se genera una crisis y, mas importante aún, a respetar lo pactado ya que, si así no fuera, los miembros del parlamento tendrían la capacidad legal de revocarle inmediatamente el mandato.Sin embargo, un ejemplo histórico reciente ayuda a refutar esta posible dinámica. En marzo de 2008, el gobierno presidido por Cristina Fernández de Kirchner intentó imponer nuevos impuestos a las exportaciones agropecuarias. La medida generó fuerte rechazo y comenzó un período de 4 meses donde los actores políticos y sociales confrontaron fuertemente. Por primera vez desde su llegada al poder, el kirchnerismo enfrentaba a una coalición articulada. Por un lado, había una batalla política y cultural. Por otro lado, el conflicto ofrece la oportunidad de comparar retrospectivamente un hipotético funcionamiento de un sistema parlamentario.Cristina Fernández de Kirchner alcanzó el 46% de los votos en las elecciones presidenciales de octubre de 2007 y el 54% en las elecciones presidenciales de octubre de 2011. Es decir, hoy sabemos que entre 2007 y 2011 se vivió en Argentina un proceso político que mayoritariamente satisfizo a la ciudadanía. Cristina ha obtenido en su reelección un porcentaje de votos solo superado por el caudillo Juan Domingo Perón. Sin embargo, ¿Qué habría pasado con Cristina si en Argentina hubiera estado vigente un sistema parlamentario? Cristina hubiera caído con el voto negativo del congreso a la ley que incrementaba los impuestos a las exportaciones agropecuarias. Esta explicación no es contra-fáctico. Efectivamente, en las horas posteriores a la votación en el Congreso, el líder del kirchnerismo y esposo de la presidenta, el ex presidente Néstor Kirchner, amenazó con hacer renunciar a su esposa. El punto no es anecdótico en cuanto semejante amenaza habría sido innecesaria si hubiera estado vigente un sistema parlamentario, ya que el gobierno habría caído, quisiera Kirchner irse o no, por propia lógica de ese sistema de gobierno. Es decir, hoy sabemos que el sistema presidencialista salvó a la actual administración de haber caído en julio de 2008 y, por ende, no haber respetado la voluntad popular que, hemos comprobado, mayoritariamente quiere que la administración en curso continúe hasta el año 2015. La profunda crisis de 2008 en Argentina ayuda a comprender, a través de un contra-fáctico, que los problemas del parlamentarismo podrían ser incluso mayores a los (enormes) problemas que ha demostrado tener el presidencialismo.Podemos pensar el mismo punto desde otra perspectiva: supongamos por un momento que Argentina introdujera una reforma en las reglas del federalismo (sancionando, por ejemplo, una nueva ley de coparticipación, una nueva ley electoral que aboliera la sobre representación parlamentaria y una regionalización), una reforma estructural en el AMBA (generando incentivos para que la inmigración al conurbano se transformase en emigración hacia el interior del país). Por su parte, supongamos que el peronismo articula un profundo cambio en su dinámica, dejando de ser un partido atrapatodo y deviniendo un actor que respete el juego de la alternancia en los tres niveles de gobierno. Paso seguido, es posible ver que, asumiendo la existencia de estos 3 cambios estructurales en la economía política argentina, la posterior existencia de un régimen presidencialista o parlamentario no sería irrelevante pero si secundaria. El ejemplo de la existencia de estas 3 características estructurales de la Argentina alcanza para comprobar que el hiper presidencialismo puede ser causa de determinadas inestabilidades pero que no es causa de otras variables relevantes (como las mencionadas) que han devenido factores mas estructurales de la baja calidad de la democracia argentina. Si la inestabilidad política no solo se encuentra (analíticamente) después sino también antes de la aparición del hiper presidencialismo, la decisión de modificar un factor o sistema que es consecuencia de un problema no solo no solucionará la situación sino que, incluso, podría empeorarla. (1) Es posible acceder a una versión online en http://es.wikisource.org/wiki/Bases_y_puntos_de_partida_para_la_organizaci%C3%B3n_pol%C3%ADtica_de_la_Rep%C3%BAblica_Argentina(2) Es posible escuchar una provocadora crítica desarrollada por el Profesor Martin Bohmer al papel de Alberdi en la construcción de la Argentina moderna, en tanto impulsor del hiper presidencialismo, en: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CR_KBLrp-Vk(3) La Universidad Di Tella posee un Centro de Investigaciones sobre Federalismo y Política Provincial (CIFEPRO), donde puede accederse a trabajos de uno de los principales expertos en el tema, Carlos Gervasoni. Ver http://www.utdt.edu/ver_contenido.php?id_contenido=5833&id_item_menu=11999. Por su parte, la problemática del conurbano bonaerense es tratada por el profesor Javier Auyero en "La política de los pobres. Las prácticas clientelistas del peronismo". Editorial Manantial. Buenos Aires, 2001. CIPPEC y la Fundación Metropolitana han publicado el libro "La gran buenos aires", editado por Antonio Cicioni. Buenos Aires, 2011.(4) Sobre el peronismo, ver el artículo escrito por Luis Alberto Romero "La democracia peronista", enhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1423249-la-democracia-peronista. Romero ha escrito en los últimos meses en el Diario La Nación sobre el peronismo como problema estructural de la Argentina. Por su parte, ver Novaro, Marcos: "Historia de la Argentina Contemporánea. De Peron a Kirchner". Editorial Edhasa. Buenos Aires-Argentina. 2005. Halperin Donghi, Tulio: "La larga agonía de la argentina peronista". Editorial Ariel. Buenos Aires. 1994. Altamirano, Carlos: "Bajo el Signo de las Masas (1943-1973)" y Sarlo, Beatriz: "La batalla de las ideas (1943-1973)", Tomos VII de la colección Biblioteca del Pensamiento Argentino. Editorial Ariel. Buenos Aires. 2001. Un clásico libro es Page, Joseph: "Perón. Primera Parte (1895-1952)". Javier Vergara Editores. Buenos Aires. 1984 y Page, Joseph: "Perón. Segunda Parte (1952-1974)". Javier Vergara Editores. Buenos Aires. 1984. Horowicz, Alejandro: "Los cuatro peronismos". Editorial Edhasa. Buenos Aires.2005. Sidicaro Ricardo: "Los tres peronismos. Estado y Poder Económico". Siglo XXI Editores. Buenos Aires. 2010. Torre, Juan Carlos (editor): "Introducción a los años peronistas", en Nueva Historia Argentina, Tomo VIII. Editorial Sudamericana. Buenos Aires. 2002. *Profesor Depto. Estudios Internacionales, FACS - Universidad ORT Uruguay.Master en Filosofía Política, London School of Economics and Political Science.

Frontmatter -- CONTENTS -- THE CONTRIBUTORS -- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- TABLES AND FIGURES -- PREFACE -- 1 INTRODUCTION -- PART 1 ENERGY POLICY DELIVERY IN GENERAL -- 2 SIX MAXIMS FOR INFORMED ENERGY ANALYSIS AND POLICY -- 3 ENDING SUBSIDIES FOR FOSSIL FUEL EXPLORATION IN A WORLD OF UNBURNABLE CARBON -- 4 WERE NORTH SEA OIL AND GAS 'FIELD ALLOWANCES' SUBSIDIES - AND DOES IT MATTER? -- 5 RENEWABLE ENERGY DISPUTES -- 6 USING A LEGACY FRAME TO DELIVER ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT POLICIES -- 7 THE EMERGENCE OF EU ENERGY LAW -- 8 HOW TO IMPROVE REGULATION -- 9 DELIVERING ENERGY NETWORKS SECURITY: ECONOMICS, REGULATION AND POLICY -- 10 THE ROLE OF MARKETING IN DELIVERING ENERGY LAW AND POLICY -- PART 2 ENERGY POLICY DELIVERY IN THE UNITED STATES -- 11 A BRIEF HISTORY OF US ENERGY POLICY -- 12 APPLYING INNOVATION POLICY TO THE US ENERGY/CLIMATE CHALLENGE -- 13 NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC LABORATORIES AS AN ENERGY POLICY VEHICLE: THE UNITED STATES' EXPERIENCE -- 14 DELIVERING ENERGY POLICY IN THE US: THE ROLE OF TAXES -- 15 DELIVERING THE WIND: DECONSTRUCTING RENEWABLE ENERGY SUCCESS IN TEXAS -- 16 SOLAR RIGHTS IN THE UNITED STATES -- 17 THE US-CHINA CLIMATE AGREEMENT: A NEW DIRECTION -- 18 GOING GREEN: THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE AND ENERGY SECURITY -- 19 US CONJUNCTIVE WATER MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE ENERGY DEVELOPMENT -- PART 3 ENERGY POLICY DELIVERY IN THE EUROPEAN UNION -- 20 DELIVERING NEW POLITY: PAVING THE WAY FOR THE EUROPEAN ENERGY UNION -- 21 ANTITRUST ENFORCEMENT IN THE EU ENERGY SECTOR -- 22 DELIVERING ENERGY POLICY IN THE EU: SOME THOUGHTS ON THE ROLE OF CONSUMERS -- 23 THE GROWING IMPACT OF FREE MOVEMENT PROVISIONS IN THE EU ENERGY MARKET -- 24 ENERGY, EXTERNALITIES AND THE NEED TO REVISIT DEUTSCHE BAHN: A PROPOSAL TO REVERSE THE EUROPEAN STANCE ON EU STATE AID LAW AND INTERNATIONAL AVIATION -- 25 RES: TOWARDS A NEW EUROPEAN POLICY -- 26 ENERGIEWENDE IN GERMANY: THE DAWN OF A NEW ENERGY ERA -- 27 WHAT IS A SUSTAINABLE POLICY? A CASE FOR THE ENERGIEWENDE -- 28 THE FINNISH ENERGY POLICY: FULFILLING THE EU ENERGY AND CLIMATE TARGETS WITH NUCLEAR AND RENEWABLES -- 29 THE EU-RUSSIA RELATIONSHIP AND THE EU ENERGY UNION: FROM DEPENDENCE AND VULNERABILITY TOWARDS COMPETITION AND A FREE FLOW -- PART 4 ELECTRICITY POLICY DELIVERY -- 30 THE ROLE OF UNCERTAINTY IN ENERGY INVESTMENTS AND REGULATION -- 31 ENERGY SECURITY IN AN UNPREDICTABLE WORLD: MAKING THE CASE AGAINST STATE AID LIMITATIONS IN ELECTRICITY GENERATION -- 32 DELIVERING A LOW-CARBON ELECTRICITY SYSTEM IN A LIBERALISED MARKET -- 33 A PROPOSAL FOR REFORMING AN ELECTRICITY MARKET FOR A LOW-CARBON ECONOMY -- 34 THE ROLE OF THE DEMAND SIDE IN ELECTRICITY -- 35 REPLACING FOSSIL FUEL GENERATION WITH RENEWABLE ELECTRICITY: IS MARKET INTEGRATION OR MARKET CIRCUMVENTION THE WAY FORWARD? -- 36 SUSCEPTIBILITY OF ELECTRICITY GENERATION TO CLIMATE VARIABILITY AND CHANGE IN EUROPE: A REVIEW OF LITERATURE -- 37 THE EXTERNAL DIMENSION OF CROSSBORDER ELECTRICITY TRANSMISSION PLANNING IN THE EU -- 38 INTEGRATING VEHICLES AND THE ELECTRICITY GRID TO STORE AND USE RENEWABLE ENERGY -- 39 A STITCH IN TIME: COULD IRELAND'S FORTHCOMING WHITE PAPER BREATHE NEW LIFE INTO ITS BRAVE BUT FALTERING RENEWABLE ELECTRICITY POLICY? -- 40 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE HUNGARIAN ELECTRICITY REGULATORY FRAMEWORK -- PART 5 NUCLEAR ENERGY -- 41 DELIVERING THE REVIVAL OF NUCLEAR POWER -- 42 ENERGY POLICY: THE ROLE OF NUCLEAR POWER -- 43 FINANCING NEW NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS -- 44 UK NUCLEAR NEW-BUILD PLANS IN THE LIGHT OF INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE -- 45 DELIVERING UK NUCLEAR POWER IN THE CONTEXT OF EUROPEAN ENERGY POLICY: THE CHALLENGES AHEAD -- 46 NUCLEAR LIABILITY: CURRENT ISSUES AND WORK IN PROGRESS FOR THE FUTURE -- 47 THE PRESENT STATUS OF NUCLEAR THIRD-PARTY LIABILITY AND NUCLEAR INSURANCE -- 48 SMALL MODULAR REACTORS: THE FUTURE OR THE SWANSONG OF THE NUCLEAR INDUSTRY? -- PART 6 RENEWABLE ENERGY -- 49 COHERENT PROMOTION OF RENEWABLES UNDER A CARBON EMISSIONS CAP -- 50 RENEWABLE ENERGY POLICIES CHANGE CARBON EMISSIONS EVEN UNDER EMISSIONS TRADING -- 51 THE RENEWABLE TRAJECTORY: AVOIDING THE TEMPTATION OF CHEAP OIL -- 52 IMPACT OF RENEWABLE PORTFOLIO STANDARDS ON IN-STATE RENEWABLE DEPLOYMENT IN THE US -- 53 RENEWABLE SUPPORT POLICIES IN EUROPE: EVALUATION OF THE PUSH-PULL FRAMEWORK FOR WIND AND PV IN THE EU -- 54 A VIEW FROM THE GLOBAL WIND INDUSTRY -- 55 THE NEW CONCEPT OF COMPETITIVE BIDDING ON PHOTOVOLTAIC IN THE GERMAN RENEWABLE ENERGY ACT 2014 -- 56 LEGAL CERTAINTY FOR GREEN ENERGY PROJECTS: SURE, BUT AT WHAT PRICE? -- 57 THE FUTURE OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER IN THE UNITED STATES: THINKING SMALL -- 58 HYDROPOWER: FROM PAST TO FUTURE UNCERTAINTIES -- 59 RENEWABLE ENERGY PRODUCTION IN MARINE AREAS AND COASTAL ZONE: THE NORWEGIAN MODEL -- 60 THE GEOPOLITICS OF CLEAN ENERGY: RE-ENGAGING WITH RUSSIA THROUGH RENEWABLE ENERGY COOPERATION -- PART 7 FOSSIL FUELS -- 61 TALKING ABOUT SHALE IN ANY LANGUAGE -- 62 THE SHALE REVOLUTION, FRACKING AND REGULATORY ACTIVITY IN THE US: A POLICY DIVIDED -- 63 FRACTURED SYSTEMS: A MULTIPLE POLICY PROPOSAL FOR PROMOTING SAFE SHALE GAS DELIVERY IN THE UNITED STATES -- 64 PREPARING PENNSYLVANIA FOR A POST-SHALE FUTURE -- 65 THE DECLINE OF COAL AND THE ECONOMIC TOLL ON THE APPALACHIAN REGION -- 66 THE EU NETWORK CODES AND PROSPECTS OF CROSS-BORDER NATURAL GAS PIPELINE PROJECTS -- 67 BUILDING THE ENERGY UNION: THE PROBLEM OF CROSS-BORDER GAS PIPELINE INTERCONNECTIONS IN BALTIC, CENTRAL AND SOUTHEASTERN EUROPE -- 68 EMINENT DOMAIN AUTHORITY FOR UPSTREAM GAS INFRASTRUCTURE: AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH -- 69 PETROLEUM LICENSING ON THE UKCS FIFTY YEARS ON: PROBLEMS, SOLUTIONS AND MORE PROBLEMS? -- 70 GREENLAND OFFSHORE PETROLEUM REGULATION TOWARDS 'THE BLUE ARCTIC' -- PART 8 ENERGY JUSTICE -- 71 ENERGY JUSTICE: THE YIN AND YANG APPROACH -- 72 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND ENERGY JUSTICE: TWO AGENDAS COMBINED -- 73 ASSESSING THE JUSTICE IMPLICATIONS OF ENERGY INFRASTRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE ARCTIC -- PART 9 ENERGY POVERTY AND HEALTH -- 74 ENERGY POVERTY AND AFFORDABLE SUSTAINABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES (ASETS) -- 75 CHALLENGING ENERGY POVERTY POLICIES: INSIGHTS FROM SOUTH-EASTERN EUROPE -- 76 POLICY CHANGES FOR FUTUREPROOFING HOUSING STOCK -- 77 CHALLENGES FOR HEALTH SERVICES IN IDENTIFYING WHICH GROUPS ARE MOST VULNERABLE TO HEALTH IMPACTS OF COLD HOMES -- 78 ENERGY, LIFE, METABOLISM AND THE FOOD CHAIN -- PART 10 ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND DEMAND -- 79 ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND ENERGY DEMAND -- 80 ENERGY DEMAND REDUCTION POLICY -- 81 DEMAND RESPONSE IN WHOLESALE MARKETS -- 82 PERCEIVED EFFECTIVENESS OF DIFFERENT METHODS OF DELIVERING INFORMATION ON ENERGY EFFICIENCY -- 83 DEVELOPING BEHAVIOURAL INTERVENTIONS: THREE LESSONS LEARNED FOR DELIVERING ENERGY POLICY -- 84 POLICY MIXES IN STIMULATING ENERGY TRANSITIONS: THE CASE OF UK ENERGY EFFICIENCY POLICY -- 85 THE JOURNEY OF SMART METERING IN GREAT BRITAIN: A REVISIT -- 86 RETHINKING HOUSEHOLD ENERGY CONSUMPTION STRATEGIES: THE IMPORTANCE OF DEMAND AND EXPECTATIONS -- 87 FINANCIAL INCENTIVES FOR ENERGYEFFICIENT APPLIANCES -- PART 11 ENERGY SECURITY -- 88 ENERGY SECURITY AND ENERGY POLICY INCOHERENCE -- 89 DESIGNING INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN ENERGY GOVERNANCE FOR EU ENERGY SECURITY -- 90 NATO AND EUROPEAN ENERGY SECURITY -- 91 GENEALOGY OF THE CURRENT GAS SECURITY SITUATION IN THE EU-UKRAINE-RUSSIA ENERGY TRIANGLE AND THE ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW -- PART 12 COUNTRY-SPECIFIC AND INTERNATIONAL ENERGY POLICY DELIVERY -- 92 GERMAN ENERGY LAW -- 93 DELIVERING ENERGY LAW AND POLICY IN MALTA -- 94 DELIVERING ENERGY EFFICIENCY POLICIES IN ROMANIA -- 95 ENERGY LAW IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC: 'UNBUNDLING' ČEZ -- 96 DELIVERING ENERGY POLICY REFORM IN UKRAINE: LEGAL ISSUES IN THE LIGHT OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATION -- 97 A SYSTEMIC APPROACH TO RENEWABLE ELECTRICITY TECHNOLOGY DEPLOYMENT: THE 'MISSING LINK' IN OPTIMISING POLICY DELIVERY IN THE UK? -- 98 DELIVERING ENERGY POLICY: IS THERE NEED FOR KEY CHANGES IN THE NEXT UK PARLIAMENTARY PERIOD? -- 99 ENERGY AND THE STATE IN THE MIDDLE EAST -- 100 DELIVERING ENERGY POLICY IN ARGENTINA -- 101 THE ARCTIC: SOURCE OF ENERGY? SOURCE OF CONFLICT? SOURCE OF POLICY INNOVATION -- PART 13 CITIES, COMMUNITY ENERGY AND PUBLIC ENGAGEMENT -- 102 DELIVERING ENERGY (OFTEN) REQUIRES PUBLIC