How did bilateral relations between Italy and Ethiopia-Eritrea evolved after the colonial period? What was the impact of the Italian economic presence on the economy of Ethiopia and Eritrea in the post-colonial period? Why since the end of the World War II has been existing in Ethiopia a widespread pro-Italian judgment despite the colonial past? The purpose of this research is to answer to such questions. Description of the research Chapter 1 is dedicated to the evolution of the bilateral relations between Italy and Ethiopia between 1947 and 1955. The Treaty of Peace, signed in Paris on February 10, 1947, imposed to Italy, among the other provisions, the recognition of the independence of Ethiopia, the renouncement of claims to colonies including Eritrea and the payment of war reparations to Ethiopia. These issues took time to be actually solved. Especially with regard to the future of Eritrea the tensions between Italy and Ethiopia flared up despite the fact that diplomatic relations were resumed at the beginning of 1952. In addition there were complex negotiations on the amount of the war reparations to be paid. Finally, the artworks carried away from Ethiopia during the occupation period were returned with delay and in several tranches between 1954 and 2005. As a general consideration, the whole picture of the bilateral relations between 1947 and the beginning of the '70s shows the alternation of long periods of strong tension with shorter ones of détente. Chapter 2 and 3 outline the main characteristics and the evolution of the Italian economic presence in Ethiopia and in Eritrea between 1941 and 1974. The first years after 1941 were extremely troubled. Many Italians were expelled from the two countries, many were confined to concentration camps, and in Ethiopia many became clandestines in order not to be forced to leave the country. In the late '40s, Italians in Eritrea became the target of terrorist actions by the shifta. Many Italians were killed and several companies managed by them were destroyed or seriously damaged. Italians went through other serious difficulties in the early '70s when the growing guerrilla made Eritrea highly insecure. Despite these difficulties Italians kept on carrying out their activities that flourished in the '50s and the '60s but were decimated by the nationalizations of the Derg during the first half of the '70s. Main Results With regard to the bilateral relations Italian diplomatic documents show the will of both parties to reach an agreement on the post war issues. However it was a very tough negotiation, as expected. In contrast to the belief expressed in some relevant and well-known works, i.e. Del Boca's one, the complexity of such a negotiation seems to be due more to the Ethiopian tactics than to the alleged Italian purpose to delay the final settlement. Furthermore it is crystal clear that one of the top priority of the Italian Government in negotiating was to protect the Italian communities in Ethiopia and Eritrea. This result is in contrast with what affirmed by Del Boca in particular, who stressed a sort of lack of interest of Italy in the co-nationals resident in the two countries. Chapter 2 and 3 shows that the efforts of Italians workers and entrepreneurs in Ethiopia and Eritrea after the end of the occupation are worthy of note and memory. Such efforts testify to an extraordinary commitment. Italians arrived in Ethiopia and Eritrea with dreams and hopes that many were finally able to see come true. Some of their stories are uniquely interesting. Emperor Haile Selassie undoubtedly played a significant role in fostering the rapid development of Italian economic activities and in shaping fruitful and cooperative relations between Italians and Ethiopians. He protected the Italians because he was deeply convinced of the important economic role that Italians would still have been able to play in Ethiopia, not only in the early post-occupation period, but also for the future of the country. Italian economic presence was strong in quantity and quality both in Ethiopia and Eritrea. However it is quite clear that throughout the period between 1941 and 1974 the incidence of Italian economic activities was significantly higher in Eritrea than Ethiopia. Italian firms were modern and efficient, and they were the backbone of the economy of Eritrea. The higher impact of our entrepreneurs in Eritrea was due to the longer stay of Eritrea itself under the Italian Government, which resulted in a much larger Italian community in Eritrea than in Ethiopia, both in absolute and relative terms. Almost the entire industrial and advanced agricultural sectors in Eritrea was in hands of the Italians. Provided that at the beginning of the '50s, the 80% of manufacturing plants of the Ethio-Eritrean Federation was based in Eritrea, it must concluded that the incidence of the Italian companies in the whole industrial sector was huge. In addition, except for the Italian activities, there were only a few other companies, especially in the agricultural and commercial sectors, managed by Eritreans or expatriates of other communities. In agriculture, where traditional ways and means of cultivation and a subsistence production still prevailed, the big agricultural and agro-processing companies run by the Italians were extraordinarily efficient. The Italians used modern techniques and machinery. They diversified their production. They also built dams, irrigation systems and major infrastructure projects for the reclamation of land to production. Even before the 50's and increasingly in the following decades, the Italian agricultural firms were able to export to neighboring markets, after meeting domestic demand. For the rest, the Eritrean economy was based on subsistence and largely unproductive agriculture. Italian activities strongly contributed to the national economy. In the economy of the Empire, characterized by a very low incidence of industrial development and the export of a few agricultural products (coffee, hides, oilseeds), the production for export made by Italian companies represented a unique economic opportunity for the entire country. The contribution of Italian economic activities was more evident in Eritrea than in Ethiopia. According to many sources, if Eritrean exports and imports would have been precisely accounted for - that is without considering the value of the goods that passed through Eritrea, but whose final destination was Ethiopia - Eritrea's trade deficit would have been significantly reduced or even zeroed out. Furthermore, the presence of flourishing Italian companies had positive repercussions also on the Eritrean state budget thanks to the tax 5 income they produced. By the way, the rates applied to Italian companies were much higher than those applied to local ones. The Italian business elite was also able to translate in images the social renewal processes of the 50's and the 60's. The buildings designed by Arturo Mezzedimi were perhaps the most evident symbols of such ability. Such buildings represented the avant-garde architecture of those years. Another building contractor, Mario Buschi, very active throughout the Empire, highly contributed to shape the modern image of Addis Ababa. The statistics shows that from 1957 to 1974 Italy was, together with USA, the main commercial partner of the Ethiopian Empire. Even in the period 1941-1951, during which official diplomatic relations between Italy and Ethiopia were absent, the bilateral trade was relevant and in particular Italy was in those years the first importer from Ethiopia. These exceptional results were due indeed to Italian resident community that with its economic activities highly contributed to nurture commercial flows from and to Italy. The good relations between the Italians who remained after 1941 and the Ethiopians played a decisive role in rapidly archiving the memory of the Italians as colonizers. Indeed such relationship was generally dominated by a constructive spirit of cooperation and probably fueled by some deep affinity of character between our two peoples. They were the Italians that contributed to maintain a good image of Italy in Ethiopia even during the absence of official diplomatic relations or at times of misunderstandings and difficulties in the dialogue between the two governments. In decades of coexistence the Italians and Ethiopians have been able to establish a fruitful dialogue, marked by mutual understanding, esteem and respect. Workplaces were the main venue where such a dialogue has taken its shape. The author spent 4 years in Ethiopia, from 2008 to 2012, as head of the commercial section of the Italian Embassy. This experience allowed her to learn parts of the history of the Italian community in Ethiopia and in Eritrea between 1941 and 1974 directly from the present generations of Italian businessmen resident in Ethiopia. The author also had the opportunity to consult Italians' personal archives in which she could find documents and books that are not anymore on the market and difficult to find in libraries. Her personal experience and knowledge of the country and the people added depth to this work that is however based almost exclusively on written sources.
Integrity is fundamental to everyone involved in education – students, parents, teachers, lecturers, administrators and future employers, as well as the general public. It is hardly surprising therefore, that research on educational integrity continues to gather momentum, as evidenced by the growing number of conferences and seminars on this subject around the world. I am very pleased to report that while student cheating and plagiarism continue to be topics of interest, practitioners and researchers are also exploring the broader, social context and the changing, globalised and increasingly commercialised nature of education itself. The current issue of the International Journal for Educational Integrity is introduced by William Astore's Plenary Address from the Annual International Center for Academic Integrity Conference, held at Washington University in St Louis, Illinois in October this year. Astore spoke boldly to conference delegates of the 'wider dimensions of academic integrity', using anecdotes from his own experience as a military instructor at the Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs, and as a history professor at the Pennsylvania College of Technology. He convincingly argued that systemic breaches of integrity are far more harmful than individual lapses such as student cheating because they compromise the institution as a whole. In his Address, Astore was openly critical of the marketisation of higher education, a topic which was also explored at the 4th Asia-Pacific Conference on Educational Integrity: Creating an Inclusive Approach, held in September at the University of Wollongong in NSW, Australia. The four best refereed papers from the Asia-Pacific Conference are included in this issue of the IJEI. Kim awyer from the University of Melbourne, and Jackie Johnson and Mark Holub from the University of Western ustralia, provide a candid analysis of the decline in academic standards and integrity in Australian higher education. This paper provides a thorough overview of recent changes in Australian higher education. As Richard Davis commented in his review, "Critics of the modern university face an uphill task. Accused of advocating old, inefficient ways and lamenting a decadent past, they are easily silenced by self-satisfied colleagues enjoying their large research grants and consultancies. Some critics can do little more than condemn local personalities. All would be well if the vice-chancellor was less authoritarian or the university council less mean in its refusal of salary increases. The strength of the current paper lies in its remorseless analysis of the system which developed inexorably from the government's determination to educate more students while cutting its higher education costs. The 'new' corporate market-based university replaced the 'old' university dedicated to the ideals of free enquiry and education as an end in itself". Moving from the broad educational context to specific practices, the next four papers in this issue investigate issues of learning, teaching, assessment and adjudication. Clair Hughes from the University of Queensland addresses an apparent shortfall in Australian universities' implementation of 'Graduate Attributes' (GA), including the GA relating to ethical conduct. Hughes maintains that to authentically operationalise GAs, much more is needed than simply mapping specific attributes against existing programs and courses. Hughes argues for a whole of programme approach, the explicit inclusion of ethics in course teaching and assessment plans, and provides specific examples of how this may be achieved. Jon Yorke, Kathryn Lawson and Graham McMahon from Curtin University of Technology in Western Australia, ask how those who adjudicate breaches of academic integrity can reliably determine 'intent' in cases of plagiarism. The authors draw on a desktop study of institutional policies and procedures in 20 universities from Australia, US, Singapore, Hong Kong, India and the UK to analyse the way that 'intent' is defined and determined. Their findings indicate that despite the espoused significance of 'intent' in determining outcomes for alleged academic misconduct in many policies, there is inconsistency in the way that it is treated. The authors provide a preliminary series of 'probability factors' which might be used to determine 'intent' and call for further research in this little explored aspect of academic integrity. Grace McCarthy and Ann Rogerson from the University of Wollongong in NSW, Australia, share the results of a trial at the Sydney Business School where 61 international students were encouraged to use 'originality reports' provided by the software program Turnitin to assess the originality of their own work and thus avoid inadvertent plagiarism. In conjunction with hands-on support from teaching staff, students were permitted to submit as many drafts as necessary to Turnitin, with the result that all final submissions had a text match of 5% or less. As a consequence of the positive results of the trial, the use of Turnitin as a drafting mechanism, coupled with an extensive program of embedded support and supplementary workshops, has now been mandated for all subjects. The authors share further qualitative and quantitative data to support their thesis that "the use of text-matching software can be a powerful aid to help students improve their writing and to help academic staff identify potential plagiarism". The final paper in this issue is the only one not previously presented at one of the international conferences on academic integrity held during 2009. Mary Davis and Jude Carroll from Oxford Brookes University, using data collected over three years from cohorts of international students in the UK, also explore the role of text-matching software in plagiarism education, with a focus on the importance of formative feedback through tutorial intervention. As one part of an overall educative approach, students worked hand in hand with their tutors to read and interpret the Originality Reports of ungraded drafts of assignments prior to final submission. Students were also surveyed at the end of the module to ascertain their perceptions of the value of using Turnitin in this way. The data indicated that the approach taken at Oxford Brookes University resulted in reductions in the amount of plagiarism, over-reliance on sources, citations errors and insufficient paraphrasing. This study provides an example of best practice in the educational use of text-matching software and provides a potential counter to those who are concerned that the sole function of such software is to police and punish students. I hope that you enjoy this issue of the International Journal for Educational Integrity, and invite you to submit a paper for review directly to me at tracey.bretag@unisa.edu.au or respond to the Call for Papers for Volume 6(2) below. Tracey Bretag, IJEI Editor December 2009 Call for papers, Volume 6(2) 2010 Special issue of IJEI on 'digital technologies and educational integrity' Edited by Chris Moore and Ruth Walker This special issue seeks articles that address the impact of digital technologies on educational integrity. Many different terms have emerged in an attempt to capture the shifting terrain of media and users in various networked environments: 'social', 'participatory', 'user-generated' or simply 'new' media. Common to the online and interactive spaces of Web2.0 is the challenge of technologies and practices that are capable of changing the way we teach, learn, and share knowledge. How can we best engage and support students and colleagues coming to terms with the dynamics of these technologies and the development of new literacies? We are particularly interested in innovative research from scholars in cultural and media studies and/or the scholarship of teaching and learning, and welcome interest from the other disciplinary researchers, who might consider a broad range of questions about digital technologies that critically unpack the conversation about education integrity that goes beyond preoccupation with plagiarism and research ethics. Critical voices of concern, examples of best practice and consideration of the perceived impact of digital technology on institutional boundaries are keenly sought as is research exploring the collaborative approaches to social and participatory media that challenge conceptions about authorial identity and scholarly writing practices. Research examining the development of new literacies that celebrate the appropriation, adaptation and transformation of source material would fit well within the scope of this special issue. Abstract due date: 31 March 2010 Full paper deadline: 1 July 2010 Special issue release date: December 2010 Send all enquiries and 500 word abstract to the guest editors at ruth_walker@uow.edu.au With thanks to our reviewers in 2009: Kate Andre, University of South Australia Peter Bowden, University of Sydney Kylie Brass, University of Western Sydney Deborah Churchman, University of South Australia Geoffrey Crisp, University of Adelaide Richard Davis, University of Tasmania John Dearn, Australian National University Fiona Duggan Lawrence B. Ebert Teddi Fishman, Clemson University Neera Handa, University of Western Sydney Beverley Kokkin, University of South Australia Margaret Lightbody, University of Adelaide Nancy Matchett, University of Colorado Paul Moore, University of Wollongong Gerry Mullins, University of Adelaide Nicholas Proctor, University of South Australia Wendy Sutherland-Smith, Monash University Daniel Wueste, Clemson University
A new melting device for on-line decontamination and continuous analysis of alpine firn/ice cores has been designed, built and tested. Melt water from the inner part of each ice core section was pumped to an ICP-QMS and a conductivity micro-cell for continuous measurements of trace elements concentrations and conductivity, respectively. Discrete samples were also collected for trace elements, Pb isotopes and 239Pu determinations by ICP-SFMS and ICP-OES. Melt water from the outer section was extracted on-line by solid-phase cartridges for semi-continuous Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) analysis. Pronounced seasonal variations were observed for all elements, both crustal (Mg, Al) and anthropogenically enriched (Pb). To understand short-time variations, air mass back trajectories are an important parameter which must be considered. Also the knowledge of the temperature inversion dynamics and the boundary layer features is extremely important because they play a key role in the transport and dispersion of aerosol and gases from low-altitude emission sources. The largest emissions of Pb through history occurred during the 19th and 20th centuries and especially between the 1950s and 1970s. To determine if changes observed in Colle Gnifetti core faithfully reflect changes in emissions from nearby European countries, we have compared snow/ice data with emissions data present in the literature. For example, from 1800 AD to the first decade of 20th century Pb concentrations progressively increased, reaching a maximum in the 1920s. During the 1920s Pb concentrations suddenly halved and remained low for the next two decades. After the Second World War, Pb depositions increased dramatically with the introduction of Pb additives in gasoline, peaking in the mid-1970s. From 1975, Pb concentrations in Colle Gnifetti ice began to decrease in accordance with the first environmental policies in Europe which started to limit pollutant emissions. Before 1875 PAHs levels were very low: the pre-1750's PAHs concentrations were assumed to be the background level. ΣPAHs in the 1945-1955 ten-year period were 10 times greater than background values with ΣPAHs* greater by about 40-50 times. From 1900, PAHs concentrations increased exponentially, reaching a maximum in 1920. In the 1920s, after the First World War economic stagnation in Europe depressed industrial activities which were converting to civilan production. From the mid-1930s PAHs rapidly doubled reaching their maximum concentrations from 1940 to 1950. The heaviest ΣPAHs* concentrations decreased by a factor 5 from 1950 to 1975 while for total ΣPAHs the concentrations halved. From 1975 to 2003 ΣPAHs rose again and nearly returned to 1910s values. Although the general PAHs trends are strongly correlated with anthropogenic emission variation, the fine shape of the profile is less clear and could be influenced by several parameters. Plutonium is present in the environment as a consequence of the atmospheric nuclear testing carried out in the 1960s, the production of nuclear weapons and nuclear industry releases over the past 50 years. The shape of 239Pu profile reflects three main periods of atmospheric nuclear weapons testing. The 206Pb/207Pb ratio for the pre-1700 background period ranged between 1.18 and 1.20, in agreement with the composition of local rocks. Although Pb deposition on Colle Gnifetti after 1900 was almost totally due to anthropogenic emissions, the 206Pb/207Pb ratio does not decline intensely until 1975. This is due to the average Pb isotopic composition of industrial emissions and gasoline additives used which was very similar to the crustal composition in local rocks and soil. After 1975, a sudden and intense 206Pb/207Pb ratio depletion is recorded. This value reached a minimum of 1.11 in 1979-1980. This behaviour is characteristic of the ILE experiment (Isotopic Lead Experiment) - a large scale isotopic tracer experiment using Pb isotopes that was carried out between 1975 and 1980 in the Piedmont region of northwest Italy centred on Turin. ; Nous avons conçu, construit et testé un nouveau système pour la décontamination en ligne et l'analyse en continu de carottes de neige ou de glace des Alpes. L'eau de fusion obtenue à partir de la partie centrale des carottes est directement introduite dans un spectromètre de masse à quadrupole (ICP-QMS) et un conductimètre, pour la détermination en continu de différents éléments présents à l'état de traces et de la conductivité. Des échantillons sont également prélevés en discontinu pour la détermination de divers éléments présents à l'état de traces, des isotopes du Plomb et du Plutonium par spectrométrie de masse à secteur magnétique (ICP-SFMS) et par ICP-OES. L'eau de fusion obtenue à partir de la partie externe des carottes est quant à elle utilisée pour la détermination en semi-continu des Hydrocarbures Aromatiques Polycycliques (HAPs), avec extraction en ligne à l'aide de cartouches en phase solide. D'importantes variations saisonnières des concentrations sont observées pour tous les éléments, aussi bien les éléments qui proviennent de manière prédominante de la croûte terrestre (Mg, Al) que les éléments enrichis par suite d'apports anthropiques (Pb). Pour comprendre ces variations à court terme, il est important de se référer aux rétro-trajectoires des masses d'air. D'autres paramètres importants sont la dynamique des inversions de températures et les caractéristiques de la couche limite. Ils jouent en effet un rôle majeur dans le transport et la dispersion des aérosols et des gaz à partir des sources d'émissions situées à basse altitude. Les émissions les plus importantes de Plomb au cours de l'histoire ont eu lieu pendant les 19e et 20e siècles, et plus particulièrement des années 1950 aux années 1970. Pour déterminer si les variations observées dans la carotte du Colle Gnifetti reflètent fidèlement les variations des émissions dans les pays européens voisins, nous avons comparé les données obtenues pour la neige et la glace avec les données d'émission disponibles. De 1800 jusqu'à la première décennie du 20e siècle, les concentrations de Plomb ont augmenté de manière très marquée, atteignant un maximum dans les années 1920. Pendant les années 1920, les concentrations de Plomb décroissent rapidement d'un facteur deux, et restent à ce niveau pendant les deux décennies suivantes. Après la fin de la 2e guerre mondiale, les flux de retombées de Plomb augmentent de manière très importante par suite de l'utilisation des additifs au Plomb dans l'essence, et atteignent un maximum au milieu des années 1970. A partir de 1975, les concentrations de Plomb mesurées dans la neige et la glace du Colle Gnifetti commencent à décroître par suite des règlementations adoptées en Europe pour limiter les émissions de polluants. Avant 1875, les concentrations de HAP étaient très basses: les concentrations observées dans la glace datant d'avant les années 1750 représentent très probablement le niveau de bruit de fond de ces composés. Les concentrations cumulées des HAP au cours de la décennie 1945-1955 sont supérieures d'un facteur dix aux valeurs de bruit de fond, alors que les concentrations cumulées de HAP* sont environ 40 à 50 fois plus élevées. A partir des années 1900, les concentrations de HAP augmentent de façon très importante, atteignant un maximum vers 1920. Pendant les années 1920, après la première guerre mondiale, la récession économique en Europe conduit à une chute des activités industrielles. A partir du milieu des années 1930, les concentrations de HAP doublent rapidement, atteignant un maximum pendant les années 1940. La concentration cumulée des HAP* les plus lourds décroit ensuite d'un facteur cinq de 1950 à 1975 alors que la concentration cumulée des HAP décroit d'un facteur deux. De 1975 à 2003, la concentration totale des HAP augmente à nouveau, approchant les valeurs des années 1910. De manière globale, les variations temporelles observées pour les HAP sont fortement corrélées aux variations des émissions anthropiques. Cependant, les variations détaillées sont difficiles à interpréter et pourraient être influencées par divers paramètres. Le Plutonium est présent dans l'environnement par suite des essais nucléaires atmosphériques des années 1960, de la production des armes nucléaires et des rejets par l'industrie nucléaire au cours des 50 dernières années. Le profil de variations du Plutonium dans la neige et la glace du Colle Gnifetti met en évidence les trois périodes principales d'essais nucléaires atmosphériques. Le rapport isotopique 206Pb/207Pb est compris entre 1.18 et 1.20 pour la glace datant d'avant 1700, en accord avec la composition des roches locale. Bien que les retombées de Plomb au Colle Gnifetti après les années 1900 soient presque entièrement dues à des apports anthropiques, on n'observe pas de variations importantes du rapport isotopique jusqu'en 1975. Ceci est lié au fait que la composition isotopique moyenne du Plomb dans l'essence et le pétrole utilisés était très semblable à la composition isotopique des roches et des sols locaux. Après 1975, on observe une décroissance brutale et forte du rapport isotopique 206Pb/207Pb, jusqu'à des valeurs proches de 1.11 en 1979-1980. Cette décroissance brutale est liée à une expérience réalisée entre 1975 et 1980 dans la région du Piémont au Nord-Ouest de l'Italie (Isotopic Lead Experiment).
A new melting device for on-line decontamination and continuous analysis of alpine firn/ice cores has been designed, built and tested. Melt water from the inner part of each ice core section was pumped to an ICP-QMS and a conductivity micro-cell for continuous measurements of trace elements concentrations and conductivity, respectively. Discrete samples were also collected for trace elements, Pb isotopes and 239Pu determinations by ICP-SFMS and ICP-OES. Melt water from the outer section was extracted on-line by solid-phase cartridges for semi-continuous Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) analysis. Pronounced seasonal variations were observed for all elements, both crustal (Mg, Al) and anthropogenically enriched (Pb). To understand short-time variations, air mass back trajectories are an important parameter which must be considered. Also the knowledge of the temperature inversion dynamics and the boundary layer features is extremely important because they play a key role in the transport and dispersion of aerosol and gases from low-altitude emission sources. The largest emissions of Pb through history occurred during the 19th and 20th centuries and especially between the 1950s and 1970s. To determine if changes observed in Colle Gnifetti core faithfully reflect changes in emissions from nearby European countries, we have compared snow/ice data with emissions data present in the literature. For example, from 1800 AD to the first decade of 20th century Pb concentrations progressively increased, reaching a maximum in the 1920s. During the 1920s Pb concentrations suddenly halved and remained low for the next two decades. After the Second World War, Pb depositions increased dramatically with the introduction of Pb additives in gasoline, peaking in the mid-1970s. From 1975, Pb concentrations in Colle Gnifetti ice began to decrease in accordance with the first environmental policies in Europe which started to limit pollutant emissions. Before 1875 PAHs levels were very low: the pre-1750's PAHs concentrations were assumed to be the background level. ΣPAHs in the 1945-1955 ten-year period were 10 times greater than background values with ΣPAHs* greater by about 40-50 times. From 1900, PAHs concentrations increased exponentially, reaching a maximum in 1920. In the 1920s, after the First World War economic stagnation in Europe depressed industrial activities which were converting to civilan production. From the mid-1930s PAHs rapidly doubled reaching their maximum concentrations from 1940 to 1950. The heaviest ΣPAHs* concentrations decreased by a factor 5 from 1950 to 1975 while for total ΣPAHs the concentrations halved. From 1975 to 2003 ΣPAHs rose again and nearly returned to 1910s values. Although the general PAHs trends are strongly correlated with anthropogenic emission variation, the fine shape of the profile is less clear and could be influenced by several parameters. Plutonium is present in the environment as a consequence of the atmospheric nuclear testing carried out in the 1960s, the production of nuclear weapons and nuclear industry releases over the past 50 years. The shape of 239Pu profile reflects three main periods of atmospheric nuclear weapons testing. The 206Pb/207Pb ratio for the pre-1700 background period ranged between 1.18 and 1.20, in agreement with the composition of local rocks. Although Pb deposition on Colle Gnifetti after 1900 was almost totally due to anthropogenic emissions, the 206Pb/207Pb ratio does not decline intensely until 1975. This is due to the average Pb isotopic composition of industrial emissions and gasoline additives used which was very similar to the crustal composition in local rocks and soil. After 1975, a sudden and intense 206Pb/207Pb ratio depletion is recorded. This value reached a minimum of 1.11 in 1979-1980. This behaviour is characteristic of the ILE experiment (Isotopic Lead Experiment) - a large scale isotopic tracer experiment using Pb isotopes that was carried out between 1975 and 1980 in the Piedmont region of northwest Italy centred on Turin. ; Nous avons conçu, construit et testé un nouveau système pour la décontamination en ligne et l'analyse en continu de carottes de neige ou de glace des Alpes. L'eau de fusion obtenue à partir de la partie centrale des carottes est directement introduite dans un spectromètre de masse à quadrupole (ICP-QMS) et un conductimètre, pour la détermination en continu de différents éléments présents à l'état de traces et de la conductivité. Des échantillons sont également prélevés en discontinu pour la détermination de divers éléments présents à l'état de traces, des isotopes du Plomb et du Plutonium par spectrométrie de masse à secteur magnétique (ICP-SFMS) et par ICP-OES. L'eau de fusion obtenue à partir de la partie externe des carottes est quant à elle utilisée pour la détermination en semi-continu des Hydrocarbures Aromatiques Polycycliques (HAPs), avec extraction en ligne à l'aide de cartouches en phase solide. D'importantes variations saisonnières des concentrations sont observées pour tous les éléments, aussi bien les éléments qui proviennent de manière prédominante de la croûte terrestre (Mg, Al) que les éléments enrichis par suite d'apports anthropiques (Pb). Pour comprendre ces variations à court terme, il est important de se référer aux rétro-trajectoires des masses d'air. D'autres paramètres importants sont la dynamique des inversions de températures et les caractéristiques de la couche limite. Ils jouent en effet un rôle majeur dans le transport et la dispersion des aérosols et des gaz à partir des sources d'émissions situées à basse altitude. Les émissions les plus importantes de Plomb au cours de l'histoire ont eu lieu pendant les 19e et 20e siècles, et plus particulièrement des années 1950 aux années 1970. Pour déterminer si les variations observées dans la carotte du Colle Gnifetti reflètent fidèlement les variations des émissions dans les pays européens voisins, nous avons comparé les données obtenues pour la neige et la glace avec les données d'émission disponibles. De 1800 jusqu'à la première décennie du 20e siècle, les concentrations de Plomb ont augmenté de manière très marquée, atteignant un maximum dans les années 1920. Pendant les années 1920, les concentrations de Plomb décroissent rapidement d'un facteur deux, et restent à ce niveau pendant les deux décennies suivantes. Après la fin de la 2e guerre mondiale, les flux de retombées de Plomb augmentent de manière très importante par suite de l'utilisation des additifs au Plomb dans l'essence, et atteignent un maximum au milieu des années 1970. A partir de 1975, les concentrations de Plomb mesurées dans la neige et la glace du Colle Gnifetti commencent à décroître par suite des règlementations adoptées en Europe pour limiter les émissions de polluants. Avant 1875, les concentrations de HAP étaient très basses: les concentrations observées dans la glace datant d'avant les années 1750 représentent très probablement le niveau de bruit de fond de ces composés. Les concentrations cumulées des HAP au cours de la décennie 1945-1955 sont supérieures d'un facteur dix aux valeurs de bruit de fond, alors que les concentrations cumulées de HAP* sont environ 40 à 50 fois plus élevées. A partir des années 1900, les concentrations de HAP augmentent de façon très importante, atteignant un maximum vers 1920. Pendant les années 1920, après la première guerre mondiale, la récession économique en Europe conduit à une chute des activités industrielles. A partir du milieu des années 1930, les concentrations de HAP doublent rapidement, atteignant un maximum pendant les années 1940. La concentration cumulée des HAP* les plus lourds décroit ensuite d'un facteur cinq de 1950 à 1975 alors que la concentration cumulée des HAP décroit d'un facteur deux. De 1975 à 2003, la concentration totale des HAP augmente à nouveau, approchant les valeurs des années 1910. De manière globale, les variations temporelles observées pour les HAP sont fortement corrélées aux variations des émissions anthropiques. Cependant, les variations détaillées sont difficiles à interpréter et pourraient être influencées par divers paramètres. Le Plutonium est présent dans l'environnement par suite des essais nucléaires atmosphériques des années 1960, de la production des armes nucléaires et des rejets par l'industrie nucléaire au cours des 50 dernières années. Le profil de variations du Plutonium dans la neige et la glace du Colle Gnifetti met en évidence les trois périodes principales d'essais nucléaires atmosphériques. Le rapport isotopique 206Pb/207Pb est compris entre 1.18 et 1.20 pour la glace datant d'avant 1700, en accord avec la composition des roches locale. Bien que les retombées de Plomb au Colle Gnifetti après les années 1900 soient presque entièrement dues à des apports anthropiques, on n'observe pas de variations importantes du rapport isotopique jusqu'en 1975. Ceci est lié au fait que la composition isotopique moyenne du Plomb dans l'essence et le pétrole utilisés était très semblable à la composition isotopique des roches et des sols locaux. Après 1975, on observe une décroissance brutale et forte du rapport isotopique 206Pb/207Pb, jusqu'à des valeurs proches de 1.11 en 1979-1980. Cette décroissance brutale est liée à une expérience réalisée entre 1975 et 1980 dans la région du Piémont au Nord-Ouest de l'Italie (Isotopic Lead Experiment).
Поворот от социалистического многонационального государства к капиталистическому национальному и последовавшие кардинальные изменения во всех сферах жизнедеятельности общества заставили жителей Эстонии независимо от их национальной принадлежности пройти через мучительный процесс адаптации к новым условиям. Для большей части ее русскоязычных жителей этот процесс был осложнен изменением их правового статуса, новыми требованиями к языковой компетентности, распространенным в эстонском обществе недоверием к России и русским, а также ощущением своей «оставленности» метрополией. Первые три обстоятельства дали основания к тому, чтобы в российском политическом дискурсе русскоязычное население бывших советских республик стало рассматриваться как «гонимое», «дискриминируемое», «ущемленное». Тем не менее лишь небольшая часть этого населения сделала выбор в пользу отъезда из Эстонии, остальные пошли по пути адаптации, которая имела свои особенности у различных возрастных, региональных и статусных групп. Результатом этого процесса стала значительная фрагментация русскоязычного населения с точки зрения социального статуса, материального обеспечения, образования, ценностей, взглядов. Однако есть и то, что до сих пор объединяет русскоговорящих это в первую очередь ощущение ценности родного языка и своей «русскости», а также наличие общего информационного пространства в виде российских телеканалов. Об особенностях адаптации, о формировании различных групп среди русскоязычных, о том, что отличает их от эстонцев и что их объединяет, пойдет речь в данной статье. ; This article is a review of a wide range of studies of the Russian-speaking community of Estonia, performed by various Western, Estonian and Russian scholars in 1990-2000. Its aim is to represent the Russian-speakers to the Russian reader as a part of Estonian population, which differs from the titular ethnos by their native language, partly legal status, consumed sources of information as well as to represent them as media audience and to examine their collective identities. The last 2 issues are presented on the material of the study «Me, the World and the Media», which is carried out by the group of sociologists of the Department of Media and Communication of Tartu University since 2002. The first chapter of the article is adescription of legal and cultural background, conditioning the development of the Russian-speaking community in Estonia and definitely influencing such issues, analyzed further, as their collective identities. First hand here is briefly motivated the selection of terms applied. For example, the Russian-speakers are called a community, but not a diaspora, as this term is overpoliticized, being employed by the Russian media and politicians. The latter describe the Russian-speaking communities outside of Russia as more connected with Russia than with states of their staying. The next sub-chapter first briefly lists the studies of the Russian-speaking communities in Estonia and in the Baltics, the main scholars in this area and the main topics of these studies. Further one can find the description of the situation with the legal status of non-Estonians, conditions and tempo of naturalization, difference in rights between citizens and non-citizens with permanent boarding permission and processes of migration in 1990-2000ies. I also bring in data, concerning the Estonian language fluency of the Russian-speakers and connection between citizenship and the language proficiency. Here is also mentioned one of the important issues concerning the language sphere, revealed by the study «Me, the World and the Media». This is growth of the importance of the Russian language for the Russian-speakers and increase of their beliefe into potential of Russian as a language of international communication. Further here is described the connection between the language proficiency and citizenship,as total fluency in Estonian language is acrucial condition for obtaining the citizenship of Estonia.The language problem is also connected with the issue of integration of the Russian-speaking community into the Estonian society, as the official integration policy was for years reduced to teaching Russians the Estonian language, while such aspects as interrelation between different Laws defining life of the minorities, mechanisms of participation of ethnic minorities in the life of the state and society, preservation of the language and culture of ethnic minorities, problems of quality of life of minorities were excluded from the Estonian official and public discourse. The second chapter describes the Russian-speakers as media audience. Here Estonians and non-Estonians are compared as media audiences, there are described trends in watching TV, listening radio, reading press and using Internet. The main result of this chapter is adescription of 7 specific groups of mediaconsumers among Russian-speakers. First are so called "Visual Globalists": young people of 15-19 years old, oriented Estonian and foreign visual media channels (TV, Internet, radio, foreign magazines), who practically don't read print press. The next are "All-consuming Globalists": mainly people of 20-29 years old, living in Tallinn and suburbs, with high education level and income, who consume all media channels, but make the main audience of English and Finnish channels. The third group is "the Participants of an Estonian Informational Field": these are young people of 15-19 years old and working people of 45-54 years old, also people, living in small villages in Estonian environment, who watch Estonian TV, listen to Estonian radio and to some degree consume Estonian magazines. The fourth group consists of people, oriented the Russian media: they mainly live in North-Eastern Estonia and not only watch the Russian TV, as 90% of all Russian-speakers do, but also listen to the Russian radio, read the Russian newspapers. These people also consume their local newspapers, very little Russian newspapers, published in Tallinn and practically dont consume any media, functioning in Estonian language. The fifth are "success oriented" people with average income and education, who are the most heavy consumers of all local media. The sixth group is conditionally called "Elite": these are the most well off Russian speakers with high level of education, who consume mainly the "global" media and «quality» Estonian media and least trust the local Russian-language media, although consume them too. The last group are "The least informed", who are the most poor, the least educated, less consume any sort of media, prefer the cheapest or free sources of information (local newspapers, radio), more trust rumors and official sources, than media. The third chapter describes the plural identities of the Russian-speakers living in Estonia, concentrating on their ethnic and global identities. First here is briefly described the history of studies of identities of the Baltic and Estonian Russians. The majority of authors quoted have agreed about the plurality of these identities, about forming of a specific local identity, different from one of Russians in Russia, about weak connection between Russians in Estonia and the new Russian state. Further is quoted the study of T. Vihalemm and A. Masso, who have exposed and described 3 types of identities of Russians in Estonia: the local, the ethnic and the global. The last sub-chapter examines the content of the category 'Euro-Russians ", widely used nowadays in scientific and political discourse. First hand here is defined the difference between general hybridity of the identity and culture of Russians in Estonia as a diasporic community, and "European " orientation of a certain group of Russian-speakers. This group makes about 25% of Russian-speakers, consists of younger people of 15-44 years old and is characterized by higher incomes, good knowledge and regular usage of English and Estonian languages, wide contacts with Western, but also former Soviet countries. They also estimate positively entering EU by Estonia and changes, which took place during the last 15 years. As to people with ethnic orientation, it came out that the importance of ethnicity is constantly growing and ethnicity has actually become a universal category, very important for 51% of Russian-speakers and important to some degree additionally for 34% of Russian-speakers. This orientation is equally important for people with various incomes, age, citizenship, education, place of living. The intensiveness of contacts with Western countries as well as with FSU Republics also does not influence this orientation. The only clear tendency could be observed concerning the attitude to entering EU by Estonia and changes during the last 15 years: the more positive is estimation of these processes, the stronger is ethnic orientation. So I concluded that Europeanness is not an antipode of Russianness,but they supplement each other, In turn, the Russianness stopped being a sinonim of poverty and deprivation, its content is changing. At the last paragraphs of the article I try to give one of the possible interpretation of the complicated way of Russian-speakers to this state of self-sufficiency, when they do not rely any external actors but found specific ways of survival, where the plural identity plays a role of one of the important mechanisms of adaptation.
La tesis doctoral se refiere al proceso fundacional escasamente conocido por encontrarse sus fuentes primarias en los archivos de Londres y París de la población menorquina anteriormente denominada Georgetown, hoy Es Castell, planificada por el ingeniero militar escocés Patrick Mackellar en el puerto de Mahón durante la segunda dominación británica de la isla (1763-1782). Se trata de una labor de investigación que está estructurada en tres partes. En la primera, se realiza una aproximación al urbanismo de origen militar desarrollado por Gran Bretaña a lo largo de los siglos XVII y XVIII, coincidiendo con el auge de la artillería bélica. En este sentido es demostrable la influencia, en el plano teórico, de la supremacía militar de Francia y sobre todo, de la polifacética labor de Vauban reflejada, entre otras cuestiones, en los Manuales de Fortificación de obligatorio estudio durante la formación de los ingenieros militares británicos. Hasta el siglo XVIII, los ingenieros agrupados en torno a la Board Ordnance tuvieron escasas ocasiones de crear nuevas ciudades, fundamentalmente por dos razones. La primera, que Inglaterra no inició su expansión colonial hasta la resolución de sus problemas internos que finalizaron con la anexión de Irlanda y Escocia. La segunda, que su condición insular la obligó a basar la defensa de sus territorios en el desarrollo de una poderosa flota armada. Sin embargo, el modelo colonial inglés, basado en el protagonismo de las compañías comerciales, propicia la intervención de los ingenieros militares en las labores de planificación y verificación de los nuevos asentamientos del norte de Irlanda, la costa de Coromandel, el este norteamericano y las Antillas. La segunda línea de investigación incursiona en la vida del planificador de Georgetown, destacando su experiencia bélica en los frentes americanos durante la Guerra de los Siete Años (1756-1763). Gracias a su participación en las campañas militares, Patrick Mackellar conoce en primera persona las características del urbanismo practicado por Inglaterra y Francia en los territorios de ultramar, y se dota de un importante bagaje cultural que demostrará cuando, en su definitivo destino como Ingeniero-Jefe en Menorca, acomete la empresa de planificar y diseñar una nueva ciudad. La tercera línea de investigación se centra en el proceso fundacional de Georgetown. La operación basada en razones defensivas consistió en demoler un asentamiento surgido a los pies de la principal fortaleza de la Isla, y trasladar la morada de sus casi cuatro mil pobladores a una enclave prudentemente alejado de la fortificación. Llamada Vila Jordi por sus primeros moradores, Georgetown resultó un excelente ejemplo de pragmatismo urbanístico. La plaza central o génesis del asentamiento, se ubicó sobre una pequeña meseta portuaria que ya había sido elegida por un ingeniero militar galo durante la dominación francesa de la isla y se aprovechó el trazado de una antigua vía de comunicación territorial como eje longitudinal del nuevo conjunto urbano. Igualmente, el reparto de suelo se realizó en función del tamaño de las parcelas existentes en el pueblo anterior. Sin embargo, la atención a las gentes y a una geografía del lugar marcada por la costa portuaria, no impidió a Mackellar el desarrollo de un conjunto urbano de calles rectas, paralelas y jerarquizadas trazadas a partir de un espacio central conformado por las edificaciones propias de una ciudadela militar barroca. Tras una comparación formal con otras poblaciones estudiadas, el desarrollo de la tesis analiza, finalmente, los elementos principales de la población, tales como la anchura y distancia de las calles, los edificios cuarteleros y otras construcciones notables, la tipología residencial y la historia de la población en los dos últimos siglos. Como conclusión, el autor considera que el proyecto de Mackellar para Georgetown combina acertadamente las bases empíricas que lo sustentan con una variante del prototipo urbanístico aplicado en la colonización de Nueva Escocia como garantía de la satisfacción de las exigencias de orden y regularidad propias de la planificación militar y del urbanismo dieciochesco. Nacida entre la agonía del Antiguo Régimen y el estallido de las revoluciones americana y francesa, hija del Barroco y madre del urbanismo decimonónico, esta operación urbanística financiada por la corona inglesa fue el fruto de un compromiso, un proyecto de transición. ; The doctoral thesis refers to the foundation process quite unknown, as the first sources are in the archives of London and Paris of the Minorca's town before named Georgetown, nowadays known as Es Castell, planned by the Scottish military Engineer Patrick Mackellar in Mahon's harbour during the second british domination on the island (1763-1782). It is a research work and is structured in 3 parts. First part, it's an approximation to a source of military urbanism developed by Great Britain during the XVII and XVIII centuries, coinciding with the increase of war artillery. This is shown by the influence in the theoretical survey, of France's military supremacy and above all, the versatile labour of Vauban revealed, apart from other issues, by the Guides of Fortifications which were of compulsory study, for the british military engineers during their training. Until the XVIII century, the engineers round about the Board Ordnance had few occasions to create new towns, basically for two reasons. The first, is that England didn't begin its colonial expansion until it had solved its own internal problems, which came to an end with the annexation of Ireland and Scotland. The second, that it's insular status obliged it to base its defence of its territories in the development of a powerful navy. Nevertheless, the english colonial model, based on the commercial companies playing the main part, helped the intervention of the military engineers in the work of verifying and planning the new settlement in North Ireland, the Coromandel Coast, the east part of North America and the Antilles. The second line of research attacked the life of the planner of Georgetown, emphasising his war experience on the american front during the Seven-Year War (1756-1763). Thanks to his partaking in the military campaigns, Patrick Mackellar found out himself the characteristics of English and French development overseas, and he endowed himself with an important cultural knowledge which he revealed when, in his last post as Chief Engineer in Minorca, he undertook the designing and planning of a new town. The third research is centred in the foundational process of Georgetown. The transaction based on defensive reasons consisted in demolishing a settlement at the foot of the main fort of the island, and moves the homes of its almost 4.000 inhabitants to a more prudential area, away from the fort. Named Villa Jordi by its first inhabitants, Georgetown was an excellent example of city planning pragmatism. The central square or genesis of the settlement, was built on a small portside plateau which had already been chosen by a french military engineer during the France's domination of the island and, an old communicating land route, was made use of as an essential longitudinal part of the new urban unit. In the same manner the distribution of the ground was made according to the size of the existing plots in the old village. Nevertheless, the attention to the people and the geographical situation, marked by the port coastland, didn't stop Mackellar developing an urban unit with straight roads, parallel hierarchical layout from a central space, almost exactly like the buildings of a baroque military fortress. After a formal comparison with other populations under study, finally the thesis development analyses the principal elements of the population, like the length and the distance of the streets, the barrack buildings and other notable constructions, the residential types and the history of the population over the last two centuries. Concluding, the author considers that Mackellar's project for Georgetown, succeeds in combining the empirical bases that maintains it with a variation of the urban prototype applied in the colonization of New Scotland as a guarantee of satisfaction for the demand and regularity of a military planning as well as eighteenth century urbanism. Born between the agony of the Old Regime and the outburst of the american and French revolutions, daughter of the Baroque and mother of nineteenth century development, this town planning exploitation financed by the English Crown, was the result of a commitment, a design of the transitional period. ; Postprint (published version)
La tesis doctoral se refiere al proceso fundacional escasamente conocido por encontrarse sus fuentes primarias en los archivos de Londres y París de la población menorquina anteriormente denominada Georgetown, hoy Es Castell, planificada por el ingeniero militar escocés Patrick Mackellar en el puerto de Mahón durante la segunda dominación británica de la isla (1763-1782). Se trata de una labor de investigación que está estructurada en tres partes. En la primera, se realiza una aproximación al urbanismo de origen militar desarrollado por Gran Bretaña a lo largo de los siglos XVII y XVIII, coincidiendo con el auge de la artillería bélica. En este sentido es demostrable la influencia, en el plano teórico, de la supremacía militar de Francia y sobre todo, de la polifacética labor de Vauban reflejada, entre otras cuestiones, en los Manuales de Fortificación de obligatorio estudio durante la formación de los ingenieros militares británicos. Hasta el siglo XVIII, los ingenieros agrupados en torno a la Board Ordnance tuvieron escasas ocasiones de crear nuevas ciudades, fundamentalmente por dos razones. La primera, que Inglaterra no inició su expansión colonial hasta la resolución de sus problemas internos que finalizaron con la anexión de Irlanda y Escocia. La segunda, que su condición insular la obligó a basar la defensa de sus territorios en el desarrollo de una poderosa flota armada. Sin embargo, el modelo colonial inglés, basado en el protagonismo de las compañías comerciales, propicia la intervención de los ingenieros militares en las labores de planificación y verificación de los nuevos asentamientos del norte de Irlanda, la costa de Coromandel, el este norteamericano y las Antillas. La segunda línea de investigación incursiona en la vida del planificador de Georgetown, destacando su experiencia bélica en los frentes americanos durante la Guerra de los Siete Años (1756-1763). Gracias a su participación en las campañas militares, Patrick Mackellar conoce en primera persona las características del urbanismo practicado por Inglaterra y Francia en los territorios de ultramar, y se dota de un importante bagaje cultural que demostrará cuando, en su definitivo destino como Ingeniero-Jefe en Menorca, acomete la empresa de planificar y diseñar una nueva ciudad. La tercera línea de investigación se centra en el proceso fundacional de Georgetown. La operación basada en razones defensivas consistió en demoler un asentamiento surgido a los pies de la principal fortaleza de la Isla, y trasladar la morada de sus casi cuatro mil pobladores a una enclave prudentemente alejado de la fortificación. Llamada Vila Jordi por sus primeros moradores, Georgetown resultó un excelente ejemplo de pragmatismo urbanístico. La plaza central o génesis del asentamiento, se ubicó sobre una pequeña meseta portuaria que ya había sido elegida por un ingeniero militar galo durante la dominación francesa de la isla y se aprovechó el trazado de una antigua vía de comunicación territorial como eje longitudinal del nuevo conjunto urbano. Igualmente, el reparto de suelo se realizó en función del tamaño de las parcelas existentes en el pueblo anterior. Sin embargo, la atención a las gentes y a una geografía del lugar marcada por la costa portuaria, no impidió a Mackellar el desarrollo de un conjunto urbano de calles rectas, paralelas y jerarquizadas trazadas a partir de un espacio central conformado por las edificaciones propias de una ciudadela militar barroca. Tras una comparación formal con otras poblaciones estudiadas, el desarrollo de la tesis analiza, finalmente, los elementos principales de la población, tales como la anchura y distancia de las calles, los edificios cuarteleros y otras construcciones notables, la tipología residencial y la historia de la población en los dos últimos siglos. Como conclusión, el autor considera que el proyecto de Mackellar para Georgetown combina acertadamente las bases empíricas que lo sustentan con una variante del prototipo urbanístico aplicado en la colonización de Nueva Escocia como garantía de la satisfacción de las exigencias de orden y regularidad propias de la planificación militar y del urbanismo dieciochesco. Nacida entre la agonía del Antiguo Régimen y el estallido de las revoluciones americana y francesa, hija del Barroco y madre del urbanismo decimonónico, esta operación urbanística financiada por la corona inglesa fue el fruto de un compromiso, un proyecto de transición. ; The doctoral thesis refers to the foundation process quite unknown, as the first sources are in the archives of London and Paris of the Minorca's town before named Georgetown, nowadays known as Es Castell, planned by the Scottish military Engineer Patrick Mackellar in Mahon's harbour during the second british domination on the island (1763-1782). It is a research work and is structured in 3 parts. First part, it's an approximation to a source of military urbanism developed by Great Britain during the XVII and XVIII centuries, coinciding with the increase of war artillery. This is shown by the influence in the theoretical survey, of France's military supremacy and above all, the versatile labour of Vauban revealed, apart from other issues, by the Guides of Fortifications which were of compulsory study, for the british military engineers during their training. Until the XVIII century, the engineers round about the Board Ordnance had few occasions to create new towns, basically for two reasons. The first, is that England didn't begin its colonial expansion until it had solved its own internal problems, which came to an end with the annexation of Ireland and Scotland. The second, that it's insular status obliged it to base its defence of its territories in the development of a powerful navy. Nevertheless, the english colonial model, based on the commercial companies playing the main part, helped the intervention of the military engineers in the work of verifying and planning the new settlement in North Ireland, the Coromandel Coast, the east part of North America and the Antilles. The second line of research attacked the life of the planner of Georgetown, emphasising his war experience on the american front during the Seven-Year War (1756-1763). Thanks to his partaking in the military campaigns, Patrick Mackellar found out himself the characteristics of English and French development overseas, and he endowed himself with an important cultural knowledge which he revealed when, in his last post as Chief Engineer in Minorca, he undertook the designing and planning of a new town. The third research is centred in the foundational process of Georgetown. The transaction based on defensive reasons consisted in demolishing a settlement at the foot of the main fort of the island, and moves the homes of its almost 4.000 inhabitants to a more prudential area, away from the fort. Named Villa Jordi by its first inhabitants, Georgetown was an excellent example of city planning pragmatism. The central square or genesis of the settlement, was built on a small portside plateau which had already been chosen by a french military engineer during the France's domination of the island and, an old communicating land route, was made use of as an essential longitudinal part of the new urban unit. In the same manner the distribution of the ground was made according to the size of the existing plots in the old village. Nevertheless, the attention to the people and the geographical situation, marked by the port coastland, didn't stop Mackellar developing an urban unit with straight roads, parallel hierarchical layout from a central space, almost exactly like the buildings of a baroque military fortress. After a formal comparison with other populations under study, finally the thesis development analyses the principal elements of the population, like the length and the distance of the streets, the barrack buildings and other notable constructions, the residential types and the history of the population over the last two centuries. Concluding, the author considers that Mackellar's project for Georgetown, succeeds in combining the empirical bases that maintains it with a variation of the urban prototype applied in the colonization of New Scotland as a guarantee of satisfaction for the demand and regularity of a military planning as well as eighteenth century urbanism. Born between the agony of the Old Regime and the outburst of the american and French revolutions, daughter of the Baroque and mother of nineteenth century development, this town planning exploitation financed by the English Crown, was the result of a commitment, a design of the transitional period. ; Postprint (published version)
[spa] Los lenguajes de especialidad han sido tratados, en los últimos años, desde un punto de vista filológico. No obstante, su análisis se ha planteado principalmente desde disciplinas terminológicas, con el objetivo de delimitar y unificar en el presente el corpus léxico de una rama especifica del saber. En algunas otras ocasiones, su estudio se ha centrado en su posible caracterización teórica, en relación con el lenguaje común o con otros lenguajes. Ambas perspectivas, entendidas como intentos por delimitar cuantitativa y cualitativamente determinadas parcelas del léxico, no han incidido en demasía en dos aspectos fundamentales. En primer lugar, en el trazado de un itinerario histórico-lingüístico de la adopción y desarrollo de un grupo de términos comunes a una ciencia, a una técnica o a una profesión, con los textos en la mano; en segundo lugar, en la necesidad de establecer las relaciones que existen entre lengua, cultura y sociedad en los momentos de aparición y evolución de un lenguaje de especialidad. Por tanto, esta vertiente une el lenguaje con la historia de las ciencias y de las técnicas, sin restringir en ningún momento la explicación de los hechos lingüísticos al ámbito filológico. Este es el objetivo de la presente tesis doctoral: analizar y exponer exhaustivamente el proceso de introducción y desarrollo del léxico del ferrocarril en el español, teniendo en cuenta los documentos originales, la historia de los términos y el transcurrir paralelo de los mismos respecto a la evolución técnico-científica de nuestro país en materia ferroviaria. En cuanto a la estructura del estudio, éste se organiza en tres grandes apartados. El primero, tras una breve presentación, incluye los capitulas dos, tres y cuatro, que suponen una introducción alterna en distintos estadios. El capitulo dos se desdobla en una sucinta exposición de los antecedentes españoles en el tratamiento de los lenguajes de especialidad y en una serie de reflexiones teóricas de carácter metodológico sobre los mismos. En especial, en torno a la dificultad que existe, desde un punto de vista semántico, para establecer criterios que expliquen los procesos significativos y de cambio de sentido, o la organización del léxico por campos. Centrado ya en el léxico ferroviario, el capitulo tres ofrece, por una parte, un repaso de los estudios anteriores dedicados a este campo. En concreto, se dan referencias de las escasas aportaciones producidas en relación con la lengua española, así como de los estudios publicados durante el siglo XX sobre el léxico del ferrocarril en el inglés, el alemán y el francés. Por otra parte, se ubica la terminología ferroviaria española en la historia de los orígenes del nuevo medio de transporte en España. El capítulo cuatro es un extenso análisis de las fuentes consultadas para la documentación de los términos a partir de 1829, techa de los primeros testimonios escritos relativos al ferrocarril. Las obras corresponden a seis ámbitos diferenciados: 1) tratados y manuales técnicos, que en los primeros momentos correspondieron a traducciones de textos franceses; 2) documentación técnico-administrativa, en forma de prospectos, proyectos, memorias, instrucciones y manuales de divulgación; 3) obras legislativas, estatutos y reglamentos (con diferencia el tipo de fuente menos productivo); 4) prensa especializada, tanto específicamente ferroviaria como técnica en general; 5) textos literarios, de gran interés por lo que respecta a las primeras décadas; y 6) obras lexicográficas. El segundo gran apartado de la tesis corresponde a los capitulas cinco y seis, cuerpo fundamental del estudio. En el capitulo cinco, la introducción y el desarrollo del léxico del ferrocarril en la lengua española han sido analizados a través de siete periodos que van desde 1829 hasta 1910. Se ha intentado que los criterios seguidos para la delimitación de cada periodo se vean reflejados en su encabezamiento. De este modo, el itinerario se inicia con el titulo "Los primeros términos (1829-1835)" al que, tras un silencio en consonancia con la propia historia de España, siguen los siguientes cortes: "Testimonios literarios (1840-1842)", "Un nuevo arranque (1844-1846)" -coincidente con los proyectos que dieron lugar a los primeros kilómetros españoles de vía férrea-, "Primeras Incorporaciones lexicográficas (1846-1850)", "La consolidación del léxico ferroviario (1851-1862)", "La lexicografía ferroviaria (1863-1887)" y, finalmente, "El cambio de siglo (1888-1910)." El seguimiento del léxico del ferrocarril en todos los periodos se ha basado en una estructura de árbol de campo, que incluye los siguientes subcampos: Denominación del medio, Material fijo, Material móvil, Dependencias y construcciones, Personal, Circulación y servicios, y Señalización y seguridad. A su vez, el Material fijo, el Material móvil y las Dependencias y construcciones se han subdivido en diversos subcampos, con el fin de acercar la realidad del ferrocarril a un tipo de estructura cognitiva. El diseño ha facilitado el plan de vaciado de las fuentes y el establecimiento de relaciones internas entre los términos. Además, como puede observarse en el índice, esta organización posibilita una lectura distinta de la lineal. Se trata de una lectura transversal que permite el seguimiento de cada subcampo con una solución de continuidad entre los distintos periodos cronológicos. De este modo, por ejemplo, el subcampo correspondiente a "Dependencias y construcciones" puede hallarse en cada periodo bajo el subapartado cuatro. El seguimiento de todos los subapartados que figuran bajo esta numeración en !os sucesivos cortes adquiere una unidad propia en torno al subcampo y no obliga al lector a pasar por el resto de subcampos. En el capitulo seis, dos apéndices completan el estudio: el aludido anteriormente en relación a la "Evolución del léxico ferroviario español (Siglo XX"), donde a la misma estructura nocional ya comentada se unen unas paginas dedicadas a las siglas, y un segundo apéndice dedicado al léxico ferroviario hispanoamericano. Sobre la estructura de la tesis, resta aludir a un tercer apartado que concluye el estudio y que está formado por los capítulos siete, ocho y nueve. A ellos corresponden, respectivamente, las conclusiones, un índice de términos citados y las referencias bibliográficas utilizadas, bien como fuentes, bien como obras de consulta. Estos capítulos ofrecen una información de gran utilidad, añadida a la que, por supuesto, puede derivarse del uso de todo el texto en general. Hay que insistir en el valor que el índice de términos tiene en el conjunto de la tesis, ya que su disposición permite seguir los pasos de cada voz a lo largo de la obra y, por tanto, determinar su evolución en el tiempo de forma documentada. Además, la lematización del índice hace que, en los casos de estructuras complejas, cada uno de los lemas que las forman posea una entrada propia. Con ello se ha pretendido facilitar las remisiones internas y dar un rigor filológico a su contenido. El índice conviene así el trabajo en una especie de diccionario histórico del léxico ferroviario. ; [eng] The languages of specific themes have been treated, in the last years, from a philological point of view. Nevertheless, their analysis has been expounded mainly from terminological disciplines with the objective of defining and unify the corpus lexical of a specific branch of the knowledge presently. In some other occasions, Their study has been centred in their possible theoretical characterization, in connection with the common language or with other languages. Both perspectives there aren't fall into two fundamental looks. In first place, in the tracing of a historical-linguistic itinerary of the adoption of a group of common terms to a science, to a technique or to a profession, with the texts in the hand; in second place, in the necessity of establishing the relationships that exist between language, culture and society in the moments of apparition and evolution of a language of specialty. This is the objective of this doctoral thesis: analyzing the process of introduction and development from the lexicon of the railroad in the Spanish language, keeping in mind the original documents, the history of the terms and their lapse parallel to the technician-scientific Spanish evolution in rail matter. As for the structure of the study, this is organized in three big sections. The first supposes an introduction to the topic with metodological character. In the second section, the apparition of the lexicon of the railroad in the Spanish language has been analyzed through seven periods that go from 1829 up to 1910, with two appendixes corresponding to the XX century and to the Hispanic-American railway lexicon. The pursuit in all the periods has based an opinion on a lexical structure of tree of field. The third section pertains to the conclusions, an index of cited terms and the bibliographical references. The index of terms turns into the work in a kind of a historical dictionary of the railway lexicon.
Broadside describing the course of study offered at the Pennsylvania Literary, Scientific, and Military Institute in Bristol, Pennsylvania, signed by Alden Partridge in Norwich, Vermont, on 27 June 1842. Also includes information about tuition, qualifications for admission, lectures, dress, and rules and regulations. ; Printed in Norwich, Vermont? Alden Partridge established the Pennsylvania Literary, Scientific and Military Institute in Bristol, PA, in 1842. The school closed in 1846 and moved to Harrisburg, PA, in 1847. ; THE PENNSYLVANIA Literary, Scientific, and Military Institute, At Bristol, Bucks County, Pennsylvania. The Institution is located on the banks of the Delaware river, two miles from Bristol and seventeen from Philadelphia, with which city there is a daily communication by steamboat and railroad. The situation is one of the most healthy and pleasant in the United States, easy of access from every section of the Union, and surrounded by a rich and beautiful agricultural country. The sons of those parents who may have conscientious scruples relative to bearing arms, will be excused from attending the military duties, if their parents specially request it Captain Partridge would respectfully inform the public that the above mentioned institution will be opened for the reception of students under his direction and superintendence, on Monday the 5th of September, 1842, in the spacious edifice known by the name of Bristol College, near Bristol, Bucks county, Pennsylvania. The course of education will be extensive, and well calculated to prepare young men for the correct and efficient discharge of the various duties of life, whether occupying public or private, civil or military stations. The following branches of literature, science and instruction will be embraced in the course of education, viz:—The Latin, Greek, French, Spanish and English languages, Arithmetic, construction and use of Logarithms, Algebra, Geometry, Planometry, Stereometry, Trigonometry, Conic Sections, Surveying, both Theoretical and Practical, Mensuration of Heights and Distances, Civil and Military Engineering, Topographical Drawing, Mechanics, Hydrostactics, Hydraulics, Pneumatics, Optics, Electricity, Magnetism, Elements of Chemistry, Astronomy, Geography, History, Ethics, Rheto-ric, Logic, Laws of Nations, Natural and Political Law, Mental Philosophy, Permanent and Field Fortifications, Artillery, the attack and defence of fortified places, Castrametation, Tactics, both Ancient and Modern, Practical and Military Instruction, embracing the Schools of the Soldier, Company and Battalion,—also, the turning off, mounting and relieving Guards and Sentinels—the Constitution of the United States, and the Science of Government generally; Political Economy, the use of the Barometer, with its application to measuring the Altitudes of Mountains and other Eminences, Ornamental Penmanship, Music and Fencing. The Military Exercises will be attended to at those hours of the day which are usually passed by students in idleness, or useless amusements, for which they will constitute a healthful and pleasing substitute. They do not interfere in the least with regular study, but on the contrary, by inducing habits of order and regularity, and promoting vigorous health, they aid essentially mental improvement. The regular expenses for the Academic year, of forty-eight (48) weeks, will be as follows, viz: For tuition in any or all of the regular branches of instruction, and board, $154 00 For fuel, lights, use of arms, and accoutrements, 6 00 Amount per annum, $160 00 Washing is not included in the above, as many parents and guardians may wish to regulate it themselves. Arrangements, however, will be made to have the washing done either at or in the vicinity of the institution, on the most reasonable terms, for all those who may wish to have it so done. Arrangements will also be made for furnishing, on reasonable terms, at the institution, books, stationery, uniform clothing, and all other necessary articles, to all those students whose parents and guardians may wish to have them thus furnished. Each student will be required to be furnished on joining the institution, with a single mattrass and pillow, with the necessary bedding, two chairs, a medium sized table, with drawer, or a writing desk, with a small book case at the back, four napkins, a pitcher and two tumblers, &c.; sleeping berths will be provided at the institution at a very moderate price, they will cost but little. All the furniture to be simple and cheap- Tables or desks made of pine and varnished, will answer every purpose. QUALIFICATIONS FOR ADMISSION. Candidates for admission must be of unexceptionable moral character,—be able to read and spell the English language correctly— write a fair legible hand—understand well the ground rules of arithmetic, and also the elements of English grammar. As a general rule none will be admitted under eleven years of age. TERMS OF PAYMENT. The Quarterly bills for the regular expenses (amounting to forty dollars for 12 weeks,) must be paid in advance. The bills for articles furnished at the institution, may be paid in advance, or at the expiration of the quarter, at the option of the parent or guardian; the bills of all banks current, at par, in Philadelphia, and also drafts on Philadelphia, Baltimore, New York, and Boston, will be received in payment of all bills. VACATIONS. There will be one annual vacation, which will commence on the first Monday of September, and continue 4 weeks, SCIENTIFIC AND MILITARY LECTURES. Capt. Partridge will deliver an annual course of Lectures at the Institution, on the several branches of Military Science, on Political Economy, the Constitution of the United States, the Science of Government, &c., &c., which will be free for all the members of the Institution. To those who are not members, but may wish to attend the course, the following charges will be made, viz: To each General and Field Officer of Volunteers and Militia, combined with practical instruction, (if desired,) $'4 00 To each Company Officer, do do, 3 00 To each non-commissioned Officer and Private, 2 00 To gentlemen, not connected with the Military, 5 00 EXTRA BRANCHES. The French and Spanish Languages, Music, Fencing, and Ornamental Penmanship, will be considered extra branches, for which those who attend to them, will be charged for each branch to which he attends, four dollars for thirty-six lessons. EXAMINATIONS. There will be two public examinations each year. The last to be during the week preceding vacation. TIMES OF ADMISSION. The best time for joining the Institution, will be at the expiration of the vacation. Stu-dents will, however, be admitted at any time of the year. DRESS. The students will be required to wear a neat, but plain uniform dress—the same that was formerly worn at Middletown, and is now worn at the Norwich University. The price of the coat will vary from ten to fourteen dollars, according to quality. Blue vests and pantaloons for winter, and white for summer. The whole dress is less expensive than that worn by students generally. PROMISCUOUS REGULATIONS. 1st. The students will be styled Cadets. 2d. Each Cadet who does not wish to complete the full course of instruction, can attend to such branches only as will best qualify him for any particular occupation or profession he may intend to pursue. 3d. Each Cadet will be allowed to progress in his studies as rapidly as possible, consistent with a thorough understanding of the same. By this a good student will be enabled to save much time and expense in the acquirement of any given amount of knowledge. 4th. The discipline will be strict, but correct—in principle, military—in practice, pa-rental. 5th. Good morals, a strict regard for the great principles of religion, and a patriotic attachment to our free institutions, will be strongly and constantly inculcated into the minds of all the Cadets. 6th. The Instruction in every department, will be thorough and practical. The Cadets will be frequently taken out on practical scientific, as well as Military excursions, which will conduce equally to health and improvement. 7th, Habits of industry and economy will be strongly urged and enforced upon all. No unnecessary expenditures will be permitted. 8th. The Institution will be conducted on broad and liberal principles, and all the members, from whatever section they may come, will enjoy equal advantages and equal privileges. A. PARTRIDGE. Norwich, Vt., June 27th, 1842. At a meeting of Citizens and Military, held at Reading on the 20th of May, it was among other things resolved, that it is expedient to establish Independent Military and Literary Academies, on the principles of those of Norwich, Vt., and Norfolk, Va., in Pennsylvania. The following gentlemen were appointed a Committee to assist in carrying out the views of the meeting: Gen. John Davis, of Bucks co.; Gen. C. Schimer, of Northampton co.; Adj. Gen. Diller, Philadelphia; Gen. W. High, Reading; Col. Purdy, Bucks; Col. R. M. Lee, Philadelphia; Col. Kenderton Smith, Philadelphia; Col. W. P. Smith, Philadelphia; Col. Jas. Page, Philadelphia; Col. George Wynekoop, Pottsville; Maj. W. H. Keim, Reading; Capt. J. Archambault, Philadelphia; Capt. Z. Mathews, Norristown; Capt. Boas, Allentown; Lieut. R. K. Scott, Philadelphia; J. 8. Hober, Montgomery; J. S. Bryan, Bucks; W. T. Rogers, Bucks; Daniel Fuller, Esq. No. 92 Arch street, Philadelphia.
Gli eurobond non sono un tema nuovo. Sono presenti nella letteratura economica, meno in quella giuridica, da oltre trent'anni, con denominazioni che spesso mutano a seconda delle formulazioni proposte. Rientrano in quella categoria di idee che hanno valore non solo sotto il profilo della tecnica finanziaria o della finanza pubblica, ma anche perché rappresentano un primo passo verso la realizzazione di un'unione politica dell'Europa. I favorevoli vedono in questo tipo di proposte non solo una risposta alla crisi attraverso il finanziamento degli investimenti pubblici, ma anche la costruzione di una politica fiscale europea da affiancare a quella monetaria della Banca centrale europea. Gli scettici pongono, invece, l'accento sui tempi troppo lunghi che tali proposte richiederebbero per essere attuate e sul consenso non unanime che esse riscuotono da parte dei Paesi dell'Eurozona. L'introduzione degli eurobond presenta, infatti, ostacoli legali e distributivi. Quelli legali hanno a che fare, in particolare, con l'articolo 125 del Trattato sul Funzionamento dell'Unione europea (TFUE), che dispone il divieto di salvataggio da parte dell'Unione a favore di un Paese membro in difficoltà e, in particolare, vieta a ciascuno Stato membro di rispondere o di subentrare nei debiti di altri Stati membri (cosiddetta "clausola di no bail out"). Gli ostacoli distributivi sono legati alle modalità di partecipazione dei Paesi membri alle emissioni congiunte dei titoli del debito europeo in termini di risorse finanziarie e ai timori dei Paesi virtuosi del Nord Europa di dover fornire un contributo maggiore rispetto ai Paesi meno virtuosi del Sud Europa. La tesi affronta, innanzitutto, il tema della fragilità della costruzione europea, che dipende essenzialmente dall'aver creato – contrariamente a quanto avvenuto nella storia dei popoli – "una moneta senza Stato". Questa circostanza ha condotto, alla fine del 2009, alla crisi dell'euro e dei debiti sovrani. Per rimediare a tale fragilità istituzionale, bisognerebbe por mano a una serie di riforme come il rafforzamento del ruolo della Banca centrale europea come prestatore di ultima istanza, il completamento dell'unione bancaria, l'approfondimento dell'unione del mercato dei capitali, l'allargamento del bilancio europeo e l'accentramento delle politiche fiscali nazionali. Tra queste riforme rientra anche quella di dar vita all'emissione congiunta di debito sovrano a livello di Eurozona, o, in alternativa, a schemi che non prevedono la mutualizzazione del debito. Al riguardo, la ricerca prende in esame l'esistenza di eventuali basi giuridiche per emettere un debito federale dell'Unione europea, distinto dal debito degli Stati membri o, in alternativa, per procedere alla mutualizzazione dei debiti degli Stati membri. La tesi passa, poi, in rassegna le varie proposte avanzate in tema di eurobond, classificandole in due gruppi principali, a seconda che prevedano o meno la mutualizzazione del debito. Nell'ambito delle proposte che si basano sulla mutualizzazione del debito rientrano gli eurobond in senso stretto, gli union bond, gli stability bond, le obbligazioni blu e rosse. Tali proposte, in quanto fondate sulla mutualizzazione del debito, non sono compatibili con l'articolo 125 del TFUE e richiederebbero pertanto la sua modifica. Nel secondo gruppo di proposte – che non contemplano la mutualizzazione del debito e pertanto non richiedono la modifica del TFUE – rientrano il programma PADRE (Politically Acceptable Debt Restructuring in Europe), il Fondo di ammortamento del debito a livello europeo (European Redemption Fund), gli European Safe Bond - ESB (acronimo inglese di "Titoli europei sicuri"), i Sovereign Bond Backed Securities - SBBS (acronimo inglese di "Titoli garantiti da obbligazioni sovrane"). La ricerca esplora i possibili approcci alla prosecuzione del progetto europeo: la via della riduzione del rischio (risk-reduction), la via della condivisione del rischio (risk-sharing), la via della sintesi tra riduzione e condivisione del rischio. Quest'ultima via appare a chi scrive come l'unica politicamente percorribile. La stessa unione monetaria si è realizzata come combinazione tra i due approcci: il processo di convergenza delle finanze pubbliche (risk reduction) ha condotto alla creazione di un'unica banca centrale con il compito di mettere in atto un'unica politica monetaria e del cambio (risk sharing). Vi è però la necessità per l'Italia di fare la propria parte invertendo la traiettoria del rapporto debito-Pil attraverso un serio e rigoroso piano pluriennale di rientro dal debito (risk reduction), per acquisire, agli occhi dei principali partner europei, quella credibilità necessaria per convincerli a dar vita a un vero e proprio debito federale europeo (risk sharing). Gli eurobond non sono l'unico mezzo per raggiungere la finalità di una unificazione politica dell'Europa ma hanno il pregio di mettere insieme l'approccio funzionalista dei passi graduali con quello federalista della meta finale. Analogamente a quanto avvenuto nella storia di alcuni popoli (in particolare negli Stati Uniti d'America) in cui il processo di unificazione dei debiti ha segnato la nascita dello Stato, anche nel vecchio continente l'europeizzazione del debito degli Stati membri, al di là della valenza in termini di finanza pubblica, potrebbe assurgere a un vero e proprio atto "costitutivo" di un futuro Stato federale europeo. Sotto il profilo metodologico, la ricerca è stata condotta attraverso la strumentazione propria dell'analisi economica del diritto, nella consapevolezza che il mercato – vale a dire il meccanismo economico che orienta il comportamento di individui e gruppi – da solo non è sufficiente ma ha bisogno di regole per poter funzionare. Anzi, se ben regolato, il mercato può essere fattore di sviluppo e di benessere. Questo ragionamento vale anche per il mercato comune e per la moneta unica europea, che da soli non bastano più. Come si è tentato di mostrare in questo lavoro, anche l'Eurozona, per poter sopravvivere e progredire, ha bisogno di un adeguamento delle proprie istituzioni che passa anche attraverso l'emissione congiunta di debito sovrano. Coerentemente con tale impostazione, l'indagine cerca di avere un approccio critico al tema degli eurobond, tentando di analizzarne i singoli aspetti con indipendenza di giudizio. La stesura dei capitoli e dei singoli paragrafi è stata preceduta da un lavoro di documentazione e consultazione di testi, riviste specializzate e articoli. Le conoscenze teoriche acquisite e le idee maturate sono state verificate sul campo, grazie ad un confronto diretto con i dirigenti che, nell'ambito del Dipartimento del Tesoro del Ministero dell'Economia e delle Finanze, hanno la responsabilità dell'emissione e della gestione del debito pubblico italiano. Chi scrive lavora presso la direzione del Debito pubblico del Dipartimento del Tesoro; cionondimeno, le opinioni che qui esprime sono personali e non rappresentano o impegnano in alcun modo l'amministrazione di appartenenza. Alla luce delle considerazioni svolte, si ritiene che davvero gli eurobond possano spingere l'Eurozona verso una maggiore integrazione politico-istituzionale. L'analisi economica e giuridica può dare il proprio contributo alla comprensione della questione, ma la scelta dei passi da compiere in concreto spetta alle leadership politiche europee in quanto investite del consenso popolare. Il ricercatore può esporre gli effetti che derivano dall'adozione di una particolare misura o di uno specifico strumento. Oltre non può andare. ; Eurobonds are not a new topic. They have been present in the economic literature, less in the legal literature, for thirty years, with denominations which change according to the proposed formulations. They are relevant not only in terms of financial economics or public finance, but also because they represent a first step towards the realization of a political union of Europe. Those in favor look at eurobonds not only as a response to the crisis through the financing of public investments, but also as a tool to build up a European fiscal policy in addition to the monetary policy of the European Central Bank. On the contrary, the skeptics underline the fact that such proposals would require too mach time to be implemented and the fact that they have short consent in the Eurozone countries. The introduction of eurobonds presents legal and distributive barriers. The legal barriers are linked to the Article 125 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU), which provides for so-colled "no bail out clause" ("A Member State shall not be liable for or assume the commitments of central governments, regional, local or other public authorities, other bodies governed by public law, or public under¬ takings of another Member State"). The distributive obstacles, on the other hand, are linked to the way in which Member States could participate in joint issuance of European debt securities. In particular, the virtuous countries of Northern Europe are afraid that they would pay a greater share than the less virtuous countries of the Southern Europe. First of all, the thesis analyzes the fragility of the European institutions, which depends essentially on having created – contrary to what has happened in the history of peoples – "a currency without a State". In the end of 2009, this fragility led Europe to the crisis of euro and sovereign debts. To face this fragility, some institutional reforms should be carried out, such as the strengthening of the role of the European Central Bank as a lender of last resort, the completion of the banking union, the deepening of the capital market, the enlargement of the European budget and the centralization of national fiscal policies. These reformes also include the joint issuance of sovereign debts of Eurozone Member States. In this regard, the research examines the existence of possible legal bases for issuing a federal debt of the European Union, different from the debt of the Member States or, alternatively, for joint issuing the debt securities of the Member States. Secondly, the thesis examines the various proposals of eurobonds, classifying them in two main groups. The first group, based on the joint issuance of debt, includes eurobonds in the strict sense, union bonds, stability bonds, blue and red bonds. These proposals, being based on the joint issuance of debt, are contrary to Article 125 of the TFEU and therefore would require its modification. The second group of proposals – which do not contemplate the joint issuance of debt and therefore do not require the modification of the TFEU – include the PADRE program (Politically Acceptable Debt Restructuring in Europe), the European Redemption Debt Fund, the European Safe Bonds, the Sovereign Bond Backed Securities. Thirdly, the research explores the possible approaches to the continuation of the European project: the risk-reduction path, the risk-sharing path, the synthesis between risk reduction and risk sharing. This third path seems to be the only politically feasible. As we know, also the monetary union was realized as a combination of the two approaches: the process of convergence of public finances (risk reduction) led to the creation of a single central bank with the task of managing a single monetary policy (risk sharing). However, Italy has to reverse the trend of the debt-to-GDP ratio through a serious and rigorous long-term debt reduction plan (risk reduction), in order to convince the main European partners to issue European federal debt (risk sharing). Eurobonds are not the only tool to achieve the goal of a political unification of Europe but they have the merit of putting together the functionalist approach based on the gradual steps with the federalist approach based on the final goal. Similarly to what has happened in the history of some peoples, such as the United States of America, where the process of unification of debt of the single States has marked the birth of the federal State, even in Europe the consolidation of debt of the Member States might be a constitutive act of the United States of Europe. Methodologically, the research is based on the economic analysis of law. According to this view, market – the economic mechanism which guides the behavior of individuals and groups – is not enough but needs good regulation. Indeed, if it is well regulated, market may be a factor of development and welfare. This way of thinking is also valid for the European single market and for the euro, which are no longer enough. As we have tried to show in this work, also the Eurozone institutions need a deep reform – including the joint issuance of sovereign debt – for their surviving and progress. This work tries to have a critical approach to the topic of eurobonds. The theoretical knowledge and ideas have been checked thanks to a direct dialogue with managers who, within the Treasury Department of the Ministry of the Economy and Finance, are responsible for issuance and management of the Italian public debt. The author of this research works in the Public Debt Directorate at Treasury Department; nevertheless his opinions are personal and do not represent the Treasury Department. For these considerations, eurobonds might really push the Eurozone towards a greater political and institutional integration. The economic and legal analysis may give its contribution to the debate, but the actual choices are up to the European policy-makers.
AbstractProspective educators who completed a course about social work with disabilities were participants in a study that investigated whether attitudes toward individuals with mental retardation (MR) would be enhanced by the information provided in the course. The quasi‐experimental design of the study involved a control group together with a pretest and a posttest, and several demographic and experiential variables. The study used a version of the Mental Retardation Attitude Inventory‐Revised that Kandari and Salih (in press) adapted for the Kuwaiti culture. Results revealed that the course did not influence students' attitudes toward individuals with MR. The authors discussed the findings in relation to determining the changes needed in the course's curriculum and evaluating the information provided for prospective educators in order for them to support the integration of individuals with MR into mainstream society.Throughout history, society's attitude towards individuals with Mental Retardation (MR) has been predominantly negative. Society has created an 'out‐group' of people who may be seen as less than human because they are disadvantaged in terms of some abilities and characteristics such as intelligence, self‐consciousness, and the ability to have human relationship that the majority of its citizens possess. The history of segregation of individuals with MR has reinforced this notion by adopting the term 'handicap' or 'disability,' which signifies the presence of an inherent difference between them and other people. Such segregation can negate the fact that one is a human being; depriving him\her of enjoying the benefits afforded to those without disabilities (Philip, 1992).Smith (1981) provides an example of the danger of society's beliefs about individuals with MR as being less than human. He brings to attention that fetuses with Downs syndrome are usually aborted because, when they are born, they would not meet certain minimum requirements for being human. They would be severely mentally retarded and uneducable, and would thus be a burden on their families and society. The danger of such beliefs is that individuals with MR may begin to internalize these inaccurate assumptions and thus tend to fulfill the society's expectations (Phillip, 1992).Over the last few decades, a strong movement in special education and related human services fields toward 'normalization' has given people with MR more opportunities to participate in various activities with people without disabilities. Changes in the provision of services to persons with disabilities have focused on increased inclusion in educational, employment, and social arenas (Antonak & Livneh, 1988). However, barriers, including the attitudes of educators, employers, co‐workers, and others, still stand between persons with MR and full inclusion (Geskie & Salesk, 1988).In Kuwait, the law of the disabled (13\96) assures the right of persons with disabilities to be included in different settings (e.g., schools, workplace, social activities, and wider community). Although Kuwaiti government has shown growing interest in the integration of individuals with MR, the chances of these individuals to integrate into mainstream society would depend on the attitudes of others (e.g. students, prospective educators, teachers, co‐workers, social workers, professionals) toward them. These attitudes, as found in many Western studies (e.g. Antonak & Harth, 1994; Gordon, Tantillo, Feldman & Perrone, 2004) are for the most part negative, which may contribute to negative outcomes on the part of individuals with MR (Byon, 2000, Special Olympics, 2003). For example, Parent, Hill and Wehman (1989) found that non‐disabled co‐workers focused on the disabled personal characteristics rather than specific job competencies. The impact of these negative attitudes may have significant consequences for both social and vocational lives of persons with MR. Mest (1988) have found that negative attitude leads to self‐isolation of persons with MR. Rusch, Hughes, Johnson and Minch (1991) found that stigma negatively affected social relationships between workers with MR and their peers without MR.As literature has shown, the provision of educational and social opportunities for individuals with disabilities can be legislated, but acceptance from other people cannot be ensured. Experts agree that complete integration and acceptance of individuals with disabilities might happen following long‐term changes in attitudes (Beattie, Anderson & Antonak, 1997). According to Langer's (1989) theory of 'mindfulness', changing people's attitude depends on providing enough information relevant to the problem of interest. People change their understanding of concepts based on their becoming mindful of them. Taba (1966) suggests that concepts' formation involves three stages: (1) Identifying information relevant to a problem, (2) grouping information on the basis of some similarity, and (3) developing categories and labels for the groups (Taba, 1966). With regard to MR, people might change their attitudes if they are encouraged to identify the construct of MR and then group subsequent information with enough details to form groups of categories without simply stereotyping. This is because people usually stereotype others and judge them without enough information and reflection (Langer, 1989).Thus, only continued mindfulness toward individuals with MR can eliminate stereotypical thinking and lead to their acceptance as fellow human beings in various settings. Gordon, Feldman, Tantillo, and Perrone (2004) suggested that greater awareness of disability issues results in improving social attitudes about disabilities and helps in removing attitudinal barriers. Henry, Keys, Balcazar, and Jopp (1996) also found evidence that training in inclusion philosophy increases awareness associated with positive inclusion's attitudes among staff members who work in mental disability settings, when compared to general population.There is some evidence showing that as they gain more information about individuals with MR and their conditions, their attitudes become more positive (Lawrence, Glidden & M‐Jobe, 2006; Sadek & Sadek, 2000). Conaster and Block (2001) found that instructors who taught aquatics classes to students with disabilities felt able to handle their academic coursework and experiences during the academic year. Teachers who felt competent had also more favorable beliefs and positive attitudes toward individuals with disabilities. In a related finding, Irish physical educators showed significant positive attitudes related to their previous experiences in teaching students with mild‐moderate MR (Meegan & Macphail, 2006). Folsom‐Meek and Rizzo (2002) claimed that educational preparation helps to enhance attitudes toward working with individuals with disabilities. Castoria (1986) found that understanding of the intent and concept of mainstreaming, and adequate‐to‐good training emerged as positive factors that influenced elementary and junior high school teachers' attitudes toward youngsters with special‐needs.Based on the above arguments, perceptions and attitudes of prospective educators can be enhanced by the provision of appropriate coursework related to disabilities. Otherwise, prospective educators would continue, like many people, to believe that individuals with MR are not capable of dealing with the everyday facets of life (Hunt, 2004). More seriously, educators may feel uncomfortable dealing with students with MR who happen to enroll in their classes. A study of community attitudes in one state of Australia found that up to 86% of respondents reported feeling 'uncomfortable' when interacting with individuals with disabilities (Enhance Management, 1999). Another study (European Commission, 2001) found that 40% of Europeans reported feeling 'uneasy' in the presence of people with disabilities.The coursework would thus help to increase prospective educators' willingness to work with individuals with MR, interact with them, and support their integration into society (Horne, 1985). Lack of interest and negative attitudes on the part of prospective educators may directly influence their abilities to interact with individuals with MR in a disability‐related job (Schlachter & Duckitt, 2002). Hatton, Emerson, Rivers, Mason, Swarbrick and Mason (2001) claimed that lack of interest in MR by staff members (e.g., social workers, counselors) usually discourages them from dealing with individuals with MR, and may result in their leaving the job. Although researchers (e.g. Hatton, Emerson, Rivers, Mason, Swarbrick and Mason, 2001; Larson and Lakin, 1999) found that low salary and high job stress can lead staff members to leave their jobs, Osborne and Williams (1982) indicated that lack of interest in MR was the major reason of leaving the job among social workers.Providing coursework related to disabilities increases prospective educators' awareness of disability. Gaining this awareness, they can identify and counter inequality of opportunities for individuals with MR, inaccessibility of resources, and other environmental influences that add to their powerlessness. Prospective educators usually play an active role in social change and in changing public opinion. The awareness of the disability would help them to change society's response to persons with MR, as it is affected less by public policy and more by the prevailing societal attitudes. Myers, Ager, Kerr, and Myles (1998) suggested that increasing people's awareness of individuals with disabilities would present them as having worth and value as human beings no matter how they may differ from what society considered the "norm".Prospective educators need to become aware of handicapist language, stereotypes, and prejudices that exist in literature so that they might better promote understanding and appreciation of people with disabilities. A course dealing with disabilities would be helpful for educators to encourage understanding by accurately and respectfully portraying well‐adjusted and productive individuals with MR, due to the fact that most literature presents and reinforces prejudicial and stereotypical images of characters with MR (Catlett, Martin, and Craig, 1993; Marsh, 2003).As part of the graduation requirements, Kuwait University requires prospective educators in the Social Work Department to take courses that focus on provision of educational, social and health services to special needs groups, such as the Social Work With Disabilities (SWWD) course which has two broad goals: (a) To increase prospective educators' knowledge of individuals with disabilities, and (b) to improve prospective educators' skills to deal with individuals with disabilities in the jobsites. These goals are accomplished through a combination of presenting information, guest speakers and direct contact with the instructor.Although the course deals with different types of disabilities (learning disabilities, MR, behavior and emotional disorders, and physical disability), the present study focuses on MR and students' attitudes toward them. In a study of Ahmad (2004) in Kuwait, findings showed that 40% of respondents in 15 workplaces related to mental disabilities reported a shortage of Kuwaiti professionals (social workers, counselors, psychologists) who work with the individuals with MR, and 46.7% of them reported lack of volunteers who are in direct contact with those individuals.Most research on attitudes toward MR in educational settings has focused on assessing attitudes of individuals (e.g., Lyons & Hayes, 1993; Corrigan, Green, Lundin, Kubiak, & Penn, 2001), with little attention given to effective strategies to promote positive attitudes toward individuals with MR. The assessment of attitude of prospective educators and whether it is affected by the SWWD course is important for several reasons. First, as educators, we have the opportunity to evaluate the course with regard to an important learning outcome. This evaluation could lead to a deeper analysis of the students' learning needs, and modification of the course's performance objectives, instructional materials, instructional strategies, and assessment strategies (Miller, 1996).Second, knowing whether the course has an effect on changing students' attitude would thus help professionals and social service providers to know whether educators would have the potential to contribute to or hinder the independence of persons with MR (Antonak & Livneh, 1988). Third, as the service model in Kuwait begins to emphasize the role of persons with MR in designing and requesting services that foster independency, the role of prospective educators in this process is likely to be affected by their attitudes as an intervening variable or variable that might indirectly influences behavior (Miller, 1996). Negative attitudes, as an intervening variable, might not directly cause negative behavior toward individuals with MR, but is likely to affect behavior in an indirect way, and hence affect the opportunity for inclusion in the lives of persons with MR. Attitude can motivate behavior in either a dynamic or directive manner (Miller, 1996).The broad question of the present study was: Would teaching the SWWD course improve prospective educators' attitudes toward individuals with MR? The present study investigated this question by assessing the attitudes of prospective educators (experimental group) toward individuals with MR before and after studying the course. The study also assessed the attitudes of another group of students (control group) who were, at the same time, taking another course. The present study anticipated that the attitudes of prospective educators toward individuals with MR would become positively different, as they gain more information about MR during the course of study. We thus hypothesized that taking the SWWD would improve attitude of a prospective educator toward people with MR.
Profundizar en el concepto de aula supone desvelar el papel que este contexto desempeña en el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje. El aula es el punto de mira de la institución educativa, descrita como el lugar deseable en el que se produce conocimiento. Hemos de decir que de su concepto se extraen diferentes "lentes" para entender los procesos que ocurren en ella, así como las características que mejor la definen. El aula, como espado en el que se ha de reconocer, valorar y respetar a todos los escolares, supone prestar atención a lo que se enseña y al modo de enseñarlo, a la forma de "llegar" al alumnado. Al mismo tiempo, ha de atender a la estructura espacial y material, a la configuración de los tiempos y al tipo de relaciones personales mantenidas. El aula, como espacio de intercambio e interacción entre todos los agentes implicados en la educación (familia, estudiantes, profesorado, asociaciones.), ha de plantear estrategias y acciones donde todos se sientan miembros y partícipes de ese escenario, de ahí, que el aula es algo más que el espacio físico. Por tanto, al definirla en base a criterios de interacción, de relaciones sociales, nos está abriendo el camino hacia la construcción de un aula como espacio de diálogo, democrático y social. Espacio, en definitiva, abierto al mundo, a la realidad social y cultural de un determinado contexto. Por tanto, la finalidad de la tesis doctoral se centra en analizar y comprender las variables que intervienen en ¡a acción educativa en el aula, desde un enfoque interactivo y sistemático, encaminado a la formulación de propuestas que favorezcan la mejora de la cíase, mediante planteamientos innovadores, acordes y adaptados a una sociedad que evoluciona avivadamente, así como a las demandas que la infancia de hoy reclama La estructura del trabajo se presenta siguiendo el esquema clásico para las investigaciones del corpus educativo. La primera parte de la Tesis Doctora!, Marco Teórico, ha desempeñado la función de establecer las bases teórico- conceptuales sobre las que se asienta la Tesis Doctoral, y el Estudio Empírico (Capítulos 1-5). La segunda parte profundiza en el estudio empírico (Capítulos 6-12), en el que se presenta la investigación realizada en torno al análisis que intervienen en la acción educativa, desde una perspectiva integrada. En el primer capítulo, denominado, ¿Qué es eso que llamamos aula? Análisis desde el punto de vista conceptual. Tiene como finalidad abordar el campo semántico-etimológico del concepto "aula". Desde este marco referencial, seleccionamos y señalamos algunas acepciones que nos aportan diversos autores a io largo de las últimas décadas. Remarcamos las características más significativas de cada una de ellas, estableciendo, a su vez, comparaciones que nos guíen hacia una clasificación conceptual sujeta a diversas categorías: desde el aula como espacio físico, como grupo humano, como un lugar donde el estudiante aprende a ser y a vivir, entre otros. En último lugar, y en base a las diferentes aportaciones analizadas, indicaremos qué es para nosotros el "aula". El segundo capítulo, Desafíos y Encrucijadas en el contexto del aula en la sociedad actual, selecciona e identifica algunos de los desafíos y encrucijadas que, a nuestro juicio, contribuyen al debate de los nuevos enfoques a adoptar con el fin de transformar y mejorar la acción educativa en el aula, en la sociedad actual. Entre los retos que registramos destacan la revalorización del trabajo coiaborativo entre profesionales desde la perspectiva del liderazgo compartido o distribuido, las competencias clave y saberes fundamentales en la educación del siglo XXI (icurrículum integrado), el impacto de las TIC en el ámbito escolar, otorgando un carácter significativo al papel del estudiante y del docente, a las características que subyacen en los nuevos entornos comunicativos y las estrategias y herramientas que permiten formar personas cada vez más autónomas para el aprendizaje permanente en colaboración. Por otra parte, nos centramos en un nuevo concepto de infancia, en la participación de la comunidad educativa y, finalmente, la diversidad en el aula desde la filosofía de la inclusión escolar (voz de los estudiantes). El tercer capítulo hace referencia a la perspectiva del cambio educativo y su incidencia en las aulas: dónde el cambio no llega, dónde el cambio se vive y se siente. Analizamos, en este capítulo, la perspectiva del cambio educativo y su incidencia en las aulas. Desde un marco general, profundizamos en el significado de la gramática del cambio educativo, sentando las bases para esclarecer su conceptualización, así como algunas consideraciones relevantes a tener en cuenta. A tenor de las transformaciones emergentes en una sociedad compleja, se necesitan nuevas respuestas en la práctica educativa, así optamos por reflexionar y cuestionar los elementos que favorecen otra educación posible y necesaria, desde las últimas investigaciones acaecidas en el panorama educativo, presentando algunas experiencias de éxito a nivel nacional e internacional. En la otra cara de la moneda, vislumbrarnos la visión más estática del cambio y la mejora educativa, profundizando en las barreras que frenan y obstaculizan la sostenibilidad de ias experiencias innovadoras. Para, finalmente, detenernos en uno de los principales agentes del cambio para la mejora de la clase, los docentes. Estrategias como la Formación en Centros y las Comunidades Profesionales de Aprendizaje constituyen una vía y camino adecuado para el diagnóstico, análisis, reflexión, valoración de las necesidades y reorientación de las prácticas profesionales que inciden de manera directa en la posibilidad del cambio educacional desde el propio centro. En el cuarto capítulo, describiendo los elementos que conforman un paisaje llamado aula: "estructura académica". Nos detenemos en la estructura académica como elemento relevante y significativo para el análisis de la acción educativa. En él abordamos dos cuestiones clave: ¿qué enseñar? y ¿cómo enseñar? de manera interrelacionada. En primer lugar, nos planteamos la revisión/estudio del Currículum desde un enfoque o perspectiva integrada. Desechamos la ¡dea de la enseñanza de unos contenidos inconexos y alejados de las transformaciones emergentes en la sociedad, transmitidos oralmente y presentados en compartimentos estancos, apostando por la integración curricular en torno a una "perspectiva democrática". Se requiere que el currículum se plasme en un texto que contemple la complejidad de los fines de la educación y desarrollar una acción holística capaz de despertar en los escolares procesos que sean propicios para alcanzar esa finalidad. Desde esta idea presentamos algunas experiencias educativas que plantean el abordaje de los contenidos de modo innovador; entre ellos se encuentran: partir de lo que sabe el escolar, globalización curricular, fomentar el trabajo en equipo o aprendizaje cooperativo, la creación de espacios de diálogo, la inclusión de talleres, rincones y grupos interactivos. En segundo lugar, damos respuesta a la segunda cuestión, ¿cómo enseñar?, o lo que es lo mismo, profundizamos en la dinámica de enseñanza. La revisión de la literatura se concentra en estudiar las actividades de enseñanza-aprendizaje y, finalmente, en la evaluación formativa. El último capítulo que da forma al cuerpo teórico, lleva por nombre ¿Cómo nos organizamos? Configuración del espacio, del tiempo escolar y la planificación de los recursos en las aulas. En primer lugar, realizamos un balance normativo-legislativo que versará sobre la importancia adquirida a lo largo de la historia de la educación la configuración de los espacios en los centros escolares, como un elemento y eje fundamental en el aprendizaje del alumnado, posteriormente, indagaremos en su relevancia para la educación, así como el marco semántico- conceptual por el cual movernos, sin olvidarnos de algunas recomendaciones para una organización espacial integrada en los retos y desafíos de la educación del siglo XXI, en la línea de conseguir el cambio educativo. En segundo lugar, abordamos su organización, en base a un breve análisis en torno a los materiales curriculares. Partiremos de su definición, marcaremos sus fundones dentro del proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje, posteriormente, justificaremos su importancia, para finalizar con algunos criterios para el empleo de los materiales en el aula. En último lugar, profundizaremos en la problemática del tiempo escolar, una variable muy presente en la vida de las personas y que de algún modo nos incita a plantear otra forma de organizar el mismo. Tras el análisis bibliográfico, fase del trabajo en la que se ha incidido en las variables que intervienen en la dinámica del aula, con una exploración de su campo semántico, así como en cuestiones que atañen al concepto de cambio educativo, con el análisis de experiencias de innovación singulares en el panorama nacional e internacional, cuya mejora de la acción educativa es una realidad, entre otros asuntos, proseguimos al planteamiento de este capítulo: Diseño General de la Investigación: Estudio Integrado. En esta investigación se ha perseguido alcanzar los propósitos mediante la puesta en práctica de un estudio combinado-integrado de las dos metodologías, cuantitativa y cualitativa. La obtención de datos y de información a través de la combinación de ambas metodologías ha permitido fomentar la riqueza de los resultados. Inicialmente, en este capítulo profundizamos en las razones y el origen de la investigación, seguidamente, detallamos los problemas, la finalidad, así como los objetivos del estudio, sintetizados y organizados en una tabla de categorías. A su vez, incidimos en la opción metodológica escogida que otorga sentido al estudio integrado, combinando los paradigmas cuantitativo y cualitativo, en los tres estudios que componen el mismo. El primero de ellos, el extensivo, analiza las concepciones que diversos docentes de la provincia de Huelva tienen sobre las diferentes categorías que forman parte del cuestionario administrado. El segundo, nos centramos y sumergimos en la cotidianeidad del aula de dos centros educativos. A través de dos estudios de caso conocemos cómo funciona el aula desde planteamientos que se pueden considerar como innovadores. Finalmente, el último estudio, denominado biográfico, nos permite observar, mediante la voz de dos docentes, cómo viven y sienten el aula, remitiéndonos a la narración de sus propias historias de vida. Estos estudios se abordan paralelamente en capítulos posteriores, desde aquí tan sólo señalamos algunas cuestiones teóricas clave que nos permiten comprender cada uno de ellos. Finalmente, deparamos en los principios (triangulación, enfoque progresivo, confidencialidad y revisión por los interesados) que acompañan al estudio y en las cuestiones éticas para ei desarrollo de ¡a investigación, desde un enfoque general y particular para cada uno de los estudios. El siguiente capítulo, se centra en la descripción del Diseño General delEstudio Extensivo. Para su diseño, en primer lugar, recogemos el marco conceptual y terminológico del cuestionario. Asimismo, una vez consideradas sus características más representativas, especificamos la población y la muestra del estudio extensivo. En tercer lugar, ahondamos en el proceso de elaboración del cuestionario, ligado a este apartado, aunque en diferentes secciones, nos encontramos los pasos esenciales para su elaboración: formato y estructura del cuestionario, elección de las preguntas del cuestionario y descripción de las preguntas del cuestionario. Ya construido el instrumento, el siguiente paso consiste en la presentación y administración del cuestionario. En este espacio, especificamos el proceso que seguimos desde su elaboración hasta la recogida de los cuestionarios en los centros educativos. Finalmente, concluimos con el análisis y tratamiento de la información; a la par que con unas consideraciones finales. El corazón de nuestra investigación palpita con la necesidad de encontrar estímulos y mecanismos que nos permitan conocerlo y describirlo para seguir su propio biorritmo. La razón de ser del estudio intensivo radica en comprender una determinada realidad social, cultural, educativa, sumergirnos y abrir los entresijos del microcosmos educativo. La acción educativa sólo es posible estudiarla si tenemos acceso a su campo y, por ello, recurrimos al estudio de casos, un método con raíces asentadas dentro del corpus de la investigación educativa. El capítulo del Diseño Genera! del Estudio Intensivo, se inicia con una revisión conceptual del estudio de casos dentro del enfoque de investigación cualitativa, conduciéndonos, de una forma exhaustiva, a la justificación metodológica de nuestro estudio. En segundo lugar, describimos el proceso seguido en el estudio de casos, con el desarrollo de cada una de sus fases. Basándonos en las aportaciones de Martínez Bonafé (1988:46), determinamos que las fases de nuestro estudio fueran: (a) fase inicia! o preactiva, en la que especificamos los criterios de elección de los casos y el papel de la investigadora, (b) fase interactiva, en la que describimos cómo se llevó a cabo el acceso al campo y el proceso de negociación, así como la estructura conceptual del estudio y ios instrumentos de recogida de información, (c) fase fina! o postactiva, en la que señalamos cómo se realizó el análisis de los datos y la redacción y elaboración del informe final. Finalmente, el capítulo concluye con un epílogo en el que se señalan los aspectos más representativos del estudio. Probablemente el interés por develar aspectos no visibles que atañen a la práctica educativa en el aula, nos suscitó la posibilidad de anexar en nuestro estudio las Historias de vida para conocer, investigar y analizar diferentes categorías de las experiencias de vida de las personas, hechos, acontecimientos, así como períodos históricos, que han asumido un importante peso en la trayectoria escolar, formativa y personal, de las docentes participantes en el estudio. En este capítulo, dedicado al Diseño Genera! del Estudio Subjetivo, tratamos de aproximarnos de manera epidérmica, en primer lugar a cuestiones que atañen a lo puramente conceptual, una aproximación a la investigación biográfico-narrativa y, como técnica insignia a la Historia de vida (campo semántico, relevancia en el campo de la educación a través de historias de maestros y de maestras, entre otras). En segundo lugar, exponemos la selección y representación de las mismas en nuestra investigación, otorgando espacio a las consideraciones teórico-metodológicas, marcando el trabajo de campo que se llevó a cabo (desde la recogida de evidencias y datos biográficos, centrándonos en la entrevista biográfica, así como en otras cuestiones de suma importancia). Rnalmente, dibujamos el rostro de la protagonista para marcar el inicio y la antesala de su propia Historia de vida como eje para entender su práctica cotidiana en el aula, incluyendo la construcción de Biogramas y la detección de incidentes críticos que ilustran un antes y un después en la forma de ser docente. Los capítulos siguientes se destinan al análisis de los resultados de los tres estudios que componen la investigación. Así, el capítulo noveno describe los resultados del Estudio Extensivo, de carácter exploratorio y enfocado a indagar en las concepciones de los docentes respecto a las variables que forman parte de la acción educativa. El capítulo décimo, describe el segundo estudio de la investigación, consistente en dos estudios de caso en la etapa de Educación Infantil y Educación Primaria de docentes que promueven una enseñanza alternativa e innovadora. Finalmente, el capítulo onceavo, muestra los resultados del tercer estudio, dedicado a la reconstrucción de la Historia de Vida de la docente del caso 1, como forma de comprender como mayor profundidad la acción educativa desde la exploración de la trayectoria personal y profesional de la docente. Cada capítulo finaliza con una serie de conclusiones parciales respecto al análisis abordado y en torno a las categorías y propósitos de ia investigación. Seguidamente, el capítulo doce, recoge las conclusiones de la investigación, además de detallar los límites y las perspectivas de investigación. ; To deepen the concept of classroom supposed to reveal the role that context plays in the teaching-learning process. The classroom is the focus of the school, described as a desirable place in which knowledge is produced. We must say that from its concept are extracted different "lenses" to understand the processes occurring in it, and the characteristics that best define it.The classroom, as a space wherescholastic must be recognized, valued and respected, presume to pay attention to what is taught and how to teach it. At the same time, it must meet the spatial structure and material, the time distribution and the type of relationships maintained. The classroom as a forum for exchange and interaction between all those involved in education (family, students, faculty, associations .), must propose strategies and actions where all feel members and participants of that scenario, hence, the classroom is more than a physical space. Therefore, when it is defined based on criteria of interaction, social relations, we are paving the way for the construction of a classroom as a space for dialogue, democratic and social. The aim of the thesis is to analyze and understand the variables involved in the educational activities in the classroom, from an interactive and systematic approach, focused in formulating proposals that promote the improvement of the class, through innovative approaches, suitable and adapted to a changing society as well as to the claims that children today claim. The structure of the work is presented following the classic pattern for the educational research corpus. The first part of the doctoral thesis, Theoretical Framework, has played the role of setting up theoretical concepts on which the doctoral thesis is based and also the empirical study (Chapters 1-5). The second part explores the empirical study (Chapters 6-12), where the research about the analysis involved in educational activities, an integrated perspective is presented. In the first chapter, entitled, What is this thing called class? Analysis from the conceptual point of view,it aims to address the semantic and etymological field of the "class" concept. From this frame of reference, we select and point out some meanings that give us many authors over the last few decades. We emphasize the most significant of each characteristics, by providing, in turn, comparisons to guide us toward a conceptual classification linked to several categories: from the classroom as a physical space , as a human group , as a place where students learn to be and to live among others. Finally, and based on the different contributions analyzed, we will indicate what is for us the "classroom". The second chapter, Challenges and Crossroads in the classroom context in today's society, selects and identifies some of the challenges and crossroads, that, in our view, contribute to the discussion of new approaches to adopt in order to transform and improve the action education in the classroom, in today's society. Among the challenges we include,stand out the reevaluation of collaborative work among professionals from the perspective of shared or distributed leadership, the key skills and fundamental knowledge in the XXI century education (curriculum integrated), the impact of ICT in schools, giving a significant character to the role of students and teachers, the characteristics underlying the new communication environments and strategies and tools thatallow to preparepeople able to self-learn in collaboration with others. Moreover, we focus on a new concept of childhood, in the participation of the educational community and, finally, in the diversity in the classroom from the philosophy of the school inclusion (voiced by students). The third chapter refers to the perspective of educational change and its impact in the classroom: where the change does not arrive, where the change is lived and felt. We analyze in this chapter the perspective of educational change and its impact in the classroom. From a general framework, we deepen in the meaning of the grammar of educational change, laying the groundwork to clarify its conceptualization, as well as some important considerations to keep in mind. Under the emerging transformations in a complex society, new answers in educational practice are needed, so we chose to reflect and question the elements favoring another possible and necessary education from the latest research occurred in the educational landscape, presenting some experiences success at national and international level. On the other side of the coin, we catch sight of the static vision of change and educational improvement, deepening the barriers that hinder and hamper the sustainability of innovative experiences. To finally stop at one of the main agents of the change to improve the class, the teachers. Strategies such as Training Centers and Professional Learning Communities are a way and proper way for diagnosis, analysis, reflection, needs assessment and reorientation of professional practices that have a direct impact on the ability of educational change from the own center. In the fourth chapter, describing the elements of a landscapecalled class: "academic structure". We stop at the academic structure as relevant and meaningful for the analysis of educational action item. In it we address two key issues: what to teach? And how to teach? in an interrelated way. First, we consider the revision / study of the curriculum from an integrated perspective. We reject the idea of a disjointed teaching content and away from emerging transformations in society, orally transmitted and presented in silos, betting on the curricular integration around a "democratic perspective". It requires that the curriculum is translated into a text that addresses the complexity of the purposes of education and to develop a holistic action capable of awakening in school processes that are conducive to achieve that purpose. From this idea we present some educational experiences that address the content in innovative ways; among them they are: Starting point should be the knowledge of the scholastic, curriculum globalization, promoting teamwork and cooperative learning, creating spaces for dialogue, including workshops, nooks and interactive groups. Secondly, we respond to the second question, how to teach? or what is the same, we delve into the dynamics of teaching. The review of the literature focuses on studying the teaching-learning activities and, finally, in the formative evaluation. The last chapter that forms the theoretical body, is called How do we organize? Layout of the space and time of the school and the resources planning in the classroom. First, we perform a regulatory-legislative balance that will focus on the importance gained over the history of education settings spaces in schools, and as a cornerstone element in student learning, then we will investigate its relevance for education and semantic- conceptual framework by which to move, not forgetting some recommendations for one special organization integrated in the challenges of education in the XXI century, in the line to get the educational change. Secondly, we address its organization, based on a brief analysis on the curricular materials. We will depart from its definition, we will mark their functions within the teaching-learning process, later we willjustify its importance, ending with some criteria for the use of materials in the classroom. Lastly, we will delve into the issue of school time, a variable present in the lives of people and that somehow encourages us to propose another way of organizing it. After the bibliographical analysis, phase of work which has stressed the variables involved in the dynamics of the classroom, with an exploration of the semantic field as well as on matters pertaining to the concept of educational change, with the analysis of experiences in singular innovation in the national and international scene, which improvement of educational action is a reality, among other issues, we continue to approach this chapter: Genera! Research Design: Integrated Study. In this research it has been pursued to achieve the purposes by the implementation of one study, integrated-combined of the two methodologies, quantitative and qualitative. Obtaining data and information through the combination of the two methodologies has helped to foster the wealth of results. Initially, in this chapter we delve into the reasons and the origin of the research, then, we detail the problems, the purpose and objectives of the study, summarized and organized in a table of categories. At the same time, we stress the methodological option chosen that gives meaning to the integrated study, combining quantitative and qualitative paradigms, in all three studies that comprise it. The first one, the extensive one analyzes the conceptions that various teachers in the province of Huelva have on the different categories that are part of the administered questionnaire. Second, we focus and dive into the everyday classroom of two schools. Through two case studies classroom we know how it works from approaches that can be considered as innovative. Finally, the last study, called biographical, allows us to see, through the voices of two teachers, how they live and feel the classroom, by referring to the narrative of their own life stories. These studies are discussed in parallel in later chapters, we note here only some key theoretical issues that help us to understand each one. Finally, we came across on the principles (triangulation, progressive approach, confidentiality and review by the envolved) accompanying the study and ethical issues for the development of research, from a general and particular for each of the studies focus. The next chapter focuses on the description of Design General of extensive study. For its design, first, we collect the conceptual framework and terminology of the questionnaire. Also, once are considered the most representative features, we specify the population and sample of the extensive study. Third, we delve into the process of developing the questionnaire, linked to this section, although in different sections, we find the essential steps for processing: format and structure of the questionnaire, choice of the questionnaire and describing questions of the questionnaire. Oncethe instrument is built, the following step is the filing and administration of the questionnaire. In this area, we specify the process we follow from development to the collection of the questionnaires in schools. Finally, we conclude with the analysis and processing of information; on par with some final considerations. Chapter General Intensive Design Studio, begins with a conceptual review of case studies within the qualitative research approach, leading, in a comprehensive way, the methodological justification of our study. Second, we describe the process followed in the case study, with the development of each of its phases. Based on input from Bonafé Martinez (1988:46), we determined that the phases of our study were: (a) initial or pre-active phase, which specify the criteria for selection of cases and the role of the researcher, (b) interactive phase in which we describe how you carried out the access to the field and the negotiation process and the conceptual structure of the study and the instruments for collecting information, (c) final stage or postactive, in which we noted how the data analysis and drafting and the final report was made. Finally, the chapter concludes with an epilogue in which the most representative aspects of the study are indicated. Probably the interest in revealing visible aspects regarding educational practice in the classroom, raised the possibility of annexing in our study life stories to know, investigate and analyze different categories of the life experiences of people, facts, events and historical periods, that have assumed an important role in the school, training and personal career of the teachers participating in the study. In this chapter, dedicated to Genera! Subjective Design Studio, we try to approach epidermal way, firstly to matters pertaining to the purely conceptual, an approach to the biographical-narrative research and technical badge as a life history (semantic field, relevant in the field of education through stories of teachers and teachers, among others). Secondly, we present the selection and representation of these in our research, giving space to the theoretical and methodological considerations, marking the fieldwork that took place (from the collection of evidence and biographical data, focusing on the biographical interview as well as other critical issues). Finally, we draw the face of the protagonist to mark the beginning and the prelude to his own life story as a hub to understand their daily practice in the classroom, including the construction of Biograms and detection of critical incidents that illustrate a before and after in the way of being a teacher. The following chapters are devoted to the analysis of the results of the three studies that make up the research. Thus, the ninth chapter describes the results of the extensive study, exploratory and focused to investigate the teachers' conceptions about the variables that are part of the educational action. The tenth chapter describes the second research study consisting of two case studies in pre-primary and primary education teachers that promote alternative and innovative teaching. Finally, the eleventh chapter shows the results of the third study, devoted to the reconstruction of the Life History of the teaching of case 1, as a way to further understand how the educational action through the exploration of personal and professional trajectory of the teacher. Each chapter ends with a series of partial conclusions regarding the analysis and addressed around categories and research purposes. Next, chapter twelve, contains the findings of the investigation, as well as detailing the limits and research perspectives.
Introduction I examined how one may establish directorial and choreographic proficiency in the contemporary society of American musical theatre. I did so by completing an examination of five personal observations in my craft. These observations included: (1) Directorship and choreography of Welcome to Vegas, an original jukebox musical; (2) Mentorship on Theatre UCF's Nine as Assistant Director and Co-Choreographer; (3) Research on the methodologies of various directors and choreographers; (4) Directorship and choreography of Welcome to Broadway, an original jukebox musical; and (5) Assistant to the Program Director of Broadway Theatre Project. I evaluated parallels of my directing and choreography methodologies with those of noted directors and choreographers in the entertainment industry. These industry professionals include famed choreographer Ernest O. Flatt, Ron Field, Hermes Pan, Joe Layton, and Lee Theodore, acclaimed directors Harold Clurman, Dr. Louis E. Catron, and Jon Jory, and prolific director-choreographers Patricia Birch, Donald Saddler, Bob Avian, Bob Fosse, Tommy Tune, and Michael Bennett, as well as Professor Weaver. I have worked for people who believe that experience alone is enough to make one a successful director, choreographer, or director-choreographer. My experience working with and observations of professional directors, choreographers, and director-choreographers, however, has proven that it takes more than experience alone in order to succeed. I predicted the process of establishing my own directorial and choreographic proficiency will stem from a combination of inspiration, mentorship, trial and error, and experience. Background A director coordinates and mounts theatrical productions while unifying the script, design elements, and cast to serve the world of the play. By dictionary definition, a director is, "�a person who supervises the production of a show for stage or screen with responsibility for action and rehearsals" (Webster 414). Underneath the producer, the director serves as the apex of the production. As compared to directors, choreographers fill a more visually aesthetic capacity in musical theatre. A choreographer is "�a person who designs or arranges the movement of a dance" (Webster 259). The choreographer acts in lieu of the director wherever there is music and step sequence. This is the case with exception being given to the director-choreographer. In an interview with Svetlana McLee Grody, Donald Saddler, original member of the American Ballet Theatre, expressed, ".director choreographer really give a musical a whole concept, a patina of style. Their contribution is a good 40 - 50 percent of the success of the show" (Grody and Lister 16). Experiences I will explicitly reflect on four profound career proceedings. Each will be as an effort to learn to become a better director-choreographer. These observations will chronicle an insightful phase of my learning process. Welcome to Vegas Welcome to Vegas is an original jukebox musical I authored, produced, directed, and choreographed. It was intended that the production would be a cathartic experience for the audience, allowing them to escape from the confines of everyday life by entering the humorous, loquacious, and musical world of the play. The story chronicles the triumphs and misadventures of a struggling young man in New York. When this waiter-by-day, singer-by-night becomes the opening act of a famous Vegas lounge singer, he embarks on an outrageous and witty journey across America in his Pontiac GTO. The musical's book was written while I attended my first semester at the University of Central Florida. The absurd vignette-style scenes were inspired by the sketch comedy of The Carol Burnett Show and the staging of Ernest O. Flatt. The production rehearsed four days per week for nine weeks and utilized a cast of 17 performers who ranged in age from 6 to 67. During production numbers, I drew strongly on the choreographic and visual inspiration of Bob Fosse, utilizing knocked-knees, sickled feet, 1960s movement influence, and a significant use of props, white gloves, fishnet tights, and bowler hats. I used this choreographic and visual concept to create a fervent contrast to the set and costumes, which emulated the visual aesthetics of Stan Lee's comic books. Nine With music and lyrics by Maury Yeston and a script by Arthur Kopit, Nine is a dark musical based on Federico Fellini's 8 1/2 and catalogues ".the last days of a director's once brilliant career" (Kopit 66). As the Assistant Director and Co-Choreographer, I was mentored by and worked directly under Professor Earl Weaver, Artistic Director of Theatre UCF. Upon entering my apprenticeship, I anticipated an authoritarian relationship where I would serve as a supervisory assistant, without exploiting my creative skills. To my pleasant revelation, I served as an intimate and integral component of the production's artistic process, conceptualizing choreography, staging three numbers, and giving notes, in addition to the duties of a managerial assistant. I created a choreographic vision for my work by fusing the styles of the Parisian Folies Bergere with American burlesque, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Golden Age movie musicals, and, of course, Bob Fosse's sensual silkiness. I did this while attempting to blend with and compliment Professor Weaver's choreographic style that resided within his world of the production. Welcome to Broadway Welcome to Broadway is an original jukebox musical I authored, produced, directed, and choreographed. My directorial style was greatly influenced by Professor Weaver, after observing his methodologies on Nine. My choreographic style strongly had been inspired by Bob Fosse and Michael Bennett. The production opened and ran for a nearly sold out engagement. My intention for the show was to encapsulate all the magic of the MGM Golden Age movie musicals into 105 minutes, featuring a cast of 25 entertainers, ranging in skill from first production to Equity veteran. My script was highly inspired by the cliche romanticism of Hollywood hits, such as Casablanca, Royal Wedding, Holiday Inn, The Public Enemy, and White Christmas. The story picks up where Welcome to Vegas left off. Michael, the formerly struggling young artist, has now made a name for himself, has inherited a production company, and is about to open his first show on Broadway when things begin to go awry. A jealous, washed-up producer has concocted an outrageous scheme to get rid of Michael on opening night. Chaos ensues behind the scenes, while the show must go on in front of the curtain. My scenic vision was to capture the auspicious spectacle of Footlight Parade, Mary Poppins, and Singing in the Rain. In post-show reflection, I realized my production displayed some similarities to Susan Stroman's succinct comedic timing and physical humor and Hal Prince's fast, moment-to-moment pace, leading me to believe that, perhaps, I had been subconsciously influenced by their works. Broadway Theatre Project Broadway Theatre Project celebrating its 26th anniversary as a summer intensive that Playbill.com refers to as ".the world's most prestigious musical theatre arts education program for high school and college students" (Broadway Theatre Project web). Entering my third year with the project, I serve as the Assistant to the Program Director and Director of Public Relations. My contribution is both administrative and creative, as I work directly under Program Director/Music Director David Sabella-Mills, Co-Artistic Director Darren Gibson, and President/Co-Artistic Director Debra McWaters. Gibson has established himself as a performer and dance captain working with Broadway veteran Ann Reinking on the national and European tours of Fosse. In addition, he has staged ballets for the Richmond Ballet, the Boston Ballet, and the American Ballet Theatre. He is currently Education Director for TexARTS. Gibson is an excellent mentor because he has a wealth of knowledge he is willing to share with me. For instance, he has taught me that in order to be an outstanding choreographer, one must look deeper than merely studying other musicals; one must study how/by whom the choreographers of those musicals were initially inspired. By heeding his counsel, I will be able to go from modifying and/or re-teaching others' choreography to establishing my own choreography. McWaters has had an enviable career directing and choreographing on stages around the world, including Broadway. For 15 years, she served as Assistant then Associate Choreographer for Reinking on Chicago, Fosse, and The Visit. She is an excellent mentor for me because not only is she a disciple of Fosse's, but she has afforded me the opportunity to serve as her Assistant to the Choreographer for three numbers, including staging the original choreography to "Yellow Shoes." This will allow me to analyze and understand the inner workings of a true artistic genius who is seasoned in the craft I wish to pursue. Industry Professionals Additionally, I will research the styles, methodologies, and philosophies of numerous established industry professionals, including: Ernest O. Flatt Ernest O. Flatt was "a dancer, choreographer and director who won four Emmy Awards for his work in television" (Obituary: Ernest O. Flatt). He made his silver-screen debut as a dancer in Dancing in the Dark and his television debut as choreographer in Your Hit Parade. He danced with Gene Kelly in Singin' in the Rain, choreographed the movie Anything Goes, and his dancers were fixtures on The Judy Garland Show, The Entertainers, and The Steve Lawrence Show. Flatt's most lasting television work was for The Carol Burnett Show, on which he served as the choreographer for eleven years (Grody and Lister 24). Despite the fact that Flatt is primarily recognized as a television choreographer, I am compelled to study his work because I admire his style. Although it is reminiscent of years gone by, particularly with partnering, his work is still entertaining and holds value for contemporary theatre as classic musicals are being revived. Studying his work in-depth will serve to enhance my style by showing me how to vary my choreography so the dance numbers do not all look similar. In addition, Flatt believed that allowing the ensemble or solo performer to contribute too much was stifling to his creativity (Grody and Lister 32). On previous productions, I have fallen into this pitfall. Further study of his work will enable me to subscribe to his focus and not be so influenced by what dancers are comfortable doing, as opposed to what they can do in order to expand their personal growth and my growth as a choreographer. Harold Clurman One of the three founders of New York City's Group Theatre, Harold Clurman directed more than 40 productions and was nominated for several Tony Awards. In addition, he was a widely-feared theatre critic for over 30 years; he helped to shape American theatre by writing about it. I will specifically study On Directing, one of Clurman's seven published works on the art of directing. Elia Kazan, who is commonly referred to as one of the most honored and influential directors in Broadway and Hollywood history, has called this particular book "the most influential book on direction ever written" (Clurman Preface). I would be compelled to study Clurman based on Kazan's recommendation alone; however, I am even more motivated to do so because I am discovering that I closely practice his stated philosophy on directing, "Direction is a job, a craft, a profession, and at best, an art. The director must be an organizer, a teacher, a politician, a psychic detective, a lay analyst, a technician, a creative being�All of which means he must be a "great lover" of the art" (Clurman 14). By examining the work of a man who is credited with helping to shape American theatre and whose philosophy so closely matches mine, I desire to formally establish my methodology as a director. Jon Jory Jon Jory learned to act first-hand from his parents, who were successful Hollywood actors of the 1940's and 50's, earning his Actors' Equity card as a young child. He grew to prominence as a director in the early 60's and, since then, he has mounted over 1,300 professional productions. I will specifically study Jory's Tips: Ideas for Directors. Jory says that he worked "making the same mistakes for years that a tip or two by a peer or veteran could have shortcutted" (xiii). His goal with this book is to help directors improve their craft more quickly by passing along the tips he has learned over the years. I am compelled to study Jory because of his willingness to share his tips on what has made him a successful director for approximately one-half of a century spanning nine countries. In addition, he headed the Actor's Theatre of Louisville, Kentucky, for more than 31 years, which he helped to build into one of America's most respected regional theatre companies, earning him a special Tony Award for Achievement in Regional Theatre (Jory xv). Since one of my professional goals is to become an Artistic Director at a regional theatre, Jory is a perfect selection for my research. Bob Fosse Deeply inspired by Fred Astaire and coping with his own psychological and physical abnormalities, Bob Fosse created the most unique and stylized iconic movements and vocabularies in musical theatre history. His most lasting works included Chicago, Damn Yankees, Cabaret, Sweet Charity, and Pippin. Fosse is an eight-time Tony Award-winning consummate artist. Ben Vereen says, "To have worked with Bob Fosse is to have had your hand directly on the pulse of life. To have applied this world-recognizable style into your repertory is to truly know how to dance forever" (McWaters Foreward). I have had the good fortune of learning his distinct techniques from some of his disciples while studying at Broadway Theatre Project. I am compelled to study Fosse because he was a renowned producer, director, choreographer, playwright, screenwriter, dancer, and actor--all of which are aspirations of mine. According to Vereen, Fosse was often called "demanding," "strenuous," and a "task master," yet he was highly respected by his dancers (McWaters Foreword). Fosse's ability to earn respect while demanding perfection is a quality I hope to learn and emulate with further study of his work. Tommy Tune Tommy Tune, nicknamed Broadway's tallest tapper, is considered one of Broadway's most accomplished director-choreographers. He is a 10-time Tony Award winner. "Tommy is the first person in theatrical history to have won a Tony Award in four different categories: Best Featured Actor, Choreography, Best Actor, and Direction" (Grody and Lister 142). At the June, 2015 Tony Awards ceremony, he received a Lifetime Achievement Honor. I am compelled to study Tune's methodology because he is considered a living legend; he has been a big time showman for over 50 years. In addition, I am compelled to study Tune's philosophy because he speaks to me with respect to security as an artist. Tune says, "There is no such thing as security. You must always be willing to expect the unexpected because the journey is never what you expect it to be. So be prepared to be surprised" (Grody and Lister 149). I must learn to trust this philosophy as I face not only the uncertainty of life beyond graduation from the University of Central Florida, but also as I face each door that opens in my future. Michael Bennett Michael Bennett's fascination with West Side Story was the impetus for Bennett to become a director-choreographer of the standing of Jerome Robbins (Grody and Lister 114). As a director, choreographer, writer, and actor, Michael Bennett is a seven-time Tony Award winner. His choreographic works were highly athletic and engrossed in technique. He is best known for his work on Promises, Promises; Follies; Company; and A Chorus Line, and he was fortunate to have had the opportunity to be inspired by such greats as Bob Fosse, Michael Kidd, Ron Field, Lee Theodore, and Danny Daniels (Grody and Lister 114). I am compelled to study Bennett because our early backgrounds are similar: neither of us had dance lessons until we were in our teens, and neither of us could read music, although we both listened to a great deal of it. I am inspired to learn/practice Bennett's methodologies for overcoming these challenges, such as his recommendations to see every musical possible in order to see how good directors-choreographers work and to prepare for a show as far as possible ahead of time (Grody and Lister 101). In addition, I am compelled to study Bennett's technique of compensation when he could not choreograph a number as conceptualized due to the limited skill of the dancer(s) with whom he was working at the time (Grody and Lister 103). Studying and applying these methods and techniques when faced with challenges will enable me to be a better director-choreographer. Deduction It is essential for me to delve into extensive research of directorial and choreographic concepts and pedagogy because I strongly desire to learn the means by which one establishes proficiency as a Director-Choreographer artist. It will help me to answer such questions as: How does one begin to direct/choreograph a piece? How knowledgeable does one need to be with respect to music? How knowledgeable does one need to be with respect to different forms of dance? What affects one most with respect to choreographing a number? Is there value in working with assistants? Since my study will include not only my own personal experiences and observations, but also those of renowned professionals, it will enable me to formally establish my own unique style of directing and choreographing. ; 2015-12-01 ; B.A. ; Arts and Humanities, Dept. of Theatre ; Bachelors ; This record was generated from author submitted information.
Organisaties worden voortdurend geconfronteerd met kritische gebeurtenissen die hun maatschappelijke legitimiteit kunnen aantasten. Wanneer ondernemingen publiekelijk worden geassocieerd met activiteiten als vervuiling, discriminatie van bepaalde groepen medewerkers, omkoping, monopolistische prijszetting, of het in gevaar brengen van de veiligheid van consumenten, lopen zij het risico uit hun maatschappelijke functie ontheven te worden. Organisaties hoeven dergelijke bedreigingen echter niet passief te ondergaan. Managers blijken vaak in staat communicatieve en strategische reacties te ontwikkelen, die hun organisaties beschermen tegen publiekelijke beschuldigingen en die het positieve imago veilig kunnen stellen. Wanneer managers dergelijke geisoleerde ad hoc reacties op externe bedreigingen trachten om te zetten in een meer geintegreerde en pro-actieve bedrijfsvoering, kunnen we spreken van een issues management strategie. In dit boek tracht ik aan te tonen dat dergelijke issues management strategieen een positieve bijdrage kunnen leveren aan zowel de financiele prestaties van ondernemingen als aan hun bedrijfsreputatie. Ik heb mij in mijn onderzoek gericht op het issue van genetische modificatie. Meer in het bijzonder heb ik onderzocht hoe de verschillende ondernemingen in de Nederlandse voedingsmiddelenketen zijn omgegaan met de maatschappelijke druk rond de introductie van consumentenproducten die vervaardigd zijn op basis van genetisch gemodificeerde soja of mais. Om tenminste drie samenhangende redenen is de introductie van dergelijke producten maatschappelijk gezien een heet hangijzer. In de eerste plaats gaat het om heel veel verschillende producten. Meer dan zestig procent van alle voorverpakte levensmiddelen die te koop zijn in de supermarkt bevat op dit moment al genetisch gemodificeerde ingredienten. Genetische modificatie is alleen al daarom niet langer een technologie van de toekomst, maar in letterlijke zin een hedendaagse technologie. Naast de schaal van de introductie speelt in de tweede plaats ook mee dat er een aantal potentiele gevaren aan de nieuwe technologie kleven, alsmede een aantal ethische bezwaren. Niemand kan op dit moment voorspellen wat in de komende decennia de invloed van genetische modificatie zal zijn op het economische, sociale, en ecologische landschap van grote delen van de wereld. Een derde reden is dat de consument nooit is gevraagd naar zijn mening omtrent moderne biotechnologie. De beslissing om deze nieuwe technologie te gaan commercialiseren is genomen in de bestuurskamers van een kleine groep hoofdzakelijk Noord-Amerikaanse ondernemingen, en niet door de politieke vertegenwoordigers van alle consumenten die nu dagelijks met gentechnologie geconfronteerd worden. Voor de Nederlandse levensmiddelenbranche is moderne biotechnologie een zeer duidelijke bedreiging. Nederland kent een relatief groot aantal handelsondernemingen en voedselproducenten, alsmede een aantal grote internationaal opererende retailers. Voor al deze ondernemingen geldt dat zij aan de ene kant te maken hebben met biotechnologiebedrijven, zaadhandelaren en agrarische ondernemingen die het hen onmogelijk maken om in grote hoeveelheden ongemodificeerde ingredienten aan te schaffen, terwijl zij aan de andere kant geconfronteerd worden met consumenten die veelal afwijzend staan tegenover moderne biotechnologie. Juist voor deze groep ondernemingen is issues management dan ook een kerntaak. Zonder een adequaat management van kritische afhankelijkheden en gebeurtenissen lopen deze ondernemingen het risico imagoschade op te lopen en hun winstgevendheid te zien afnemen. Een groot probleem, zowel voor managers als onderzoekers, is echter dat er in de literatuur een veelheid aan issues management technieken beschreven wordt. Het is daarom voor de praktiserende manager zeker niet in een oogopslag duidelijk wat op een bepaald moment de meest geeigende issues management techniek is voor zijn of haar bedrijf. Tegelijkertijd is het ook voor de onderzoeker niet gemakkelijk om vast te stellen welke issues management technieken de bedrijven die hij of zij onderzoekt nu eigenlijk gebruiken. Voor dit proefschrift heb ik daarom allereerst onderzocht welke issues management technieken Nederlandse ondernemingen nu eigenlijk gebruiken bij hun pogingen om de introductie van moderne biotechnologie in goede banen te leiden. Ik heb dat gedaan door middel van een zogenaamde gevalsstudie of case studie. Een dergelijke studie is een kwalitatief onderzoek, waarbij het accent veeleer ligt op het bouwen dan op het testen van theorie. Als belangrijkste databronnen heb ik voor deze studie gebruik gemaakt interviews, archiefmateriaal, ronde tafelgesprekken, audiovisueel materiaal, en achtergrondinformatie uit kranten en tijdschriften. De case studie toonde aan dat Nederlandse ondernemingen gebruik maken van een tweetal complementaire issues management strategieen. In de eerste plaats maken zij gebruik van wat men een extraverte issues management strategie zou kunnen noemen. De ondernemingen in mijn onderzoekssteekproef hebben van begin af aan geprobeerd om de meningen van kritische externe partijen, de zogenaamde stakeholders, mee te nemen in hun besluitvorming. Deze strategie wordt ook wel stakeholder integratie genoemd. De verschillende manifestaties van dit fenomeen worden besproken in het vierde hoofdstuk van dit boek. In de tweede plaats maken ondernemingen ook gebruik van meer introverte issues management benaderingen. Het accent ligt dan veel meer op de codificatie van issues management-gerelateerde ervaringen, om zo waardevolle vaardigheden te creeren die in een later stadium weer toegepast kunnen worden op nieuwe issues. De verschillende verschijningsvormen die deze issues management vaardigheden kunnen aannemen worden beschreven in het vijfde hoofdstuk van deze dissertatie. Het identificeren van issues management technieken is een belangrijk begin wanneer men wil vaststellen wat de toegevoegde waarde van issues management is. Een tweede stap in dit proces is echter het identificeren van indicatoren waarin die toegevoegde waarde uitgedrukt zou kunnen worden. In dit proefschrift beschrijf ik een viertal van dergelijke indicatoren. In de eerste plaats beschrijf ik een tweetal indicatoren waarin de toegevoegde waarde van issues management in financiele zin tot uitdrukking zou moeten komen. De eerste indicator heb ik economische meeropbrengsten genoemd, terwijl ik de tweede heb aangeduid met strategische meeropbrengsten. In het eerste geval gaat het om korte termijn pecuniaire winsten, terwijl het in het tweede geval gaat om verbeteringen in de concurrentiepositie van een onderneming op de lange termijn. Tevens beschrijf ik een tweetal indicatoren die betrekking hebben op de reputatie van ondernemingen. In de eerste plaats gebruik ik de algemene ondernemingsreputatie, een brede evaluatie van het prestige van een onderneming ten opzichte van haar directe concurrenten. In de tweede plaats maak ik gebruik van de ondernemingsreputatie op het gebied van moderne biotechnologie, een veel specifiekere evaluatie van het externe prestige van een onderneming. De twee issues management technieken alsmede de vier prestatie- indicatoren heb ik vervolgens geoperationaliseerd in de vorm van een vragenlijst (zie Appendix A). In het kader van een tweede studie - een kwantitatief survey - heb ik deze vragenlijst opgestuurd naar alle ondernemingen (551) die in Nederland betrokken zijn bij de introductie van moderne biotechnologie (hetzij in actieve dan wel in passieve zin). Uiteindelijk heb ik bruikbare resultaten mogen ontvangen van 212 ondernemingen (38%). Door middel van diverse kwantitatieve analyses heb ik vervolgens met deze tweede studie kunnen aantonen dat de twee voornoemde issues management technieken (stakeholder integratie en het bouwen van waardevolle vaardigheden) inderdaad bijdragen aan de prestaties van ondernemingen (zie hoofdstukken zes en zeven). Ondernemingen hebben zowel in financiele termen als in termen van reputatie baat bij het inzetten van issues management technieken. Het onderzoek toont echter aan dat de meer extraverte stakeholder integratie benadering een grotere invloed heeft op de reputatie van de onderneming, terwijl de meer introverte vaardigheden benadering een grotere invloed heeft op de financiele prestaties van de onderneming. De conclusie van dit proefschrift is dan ook dat de inzet van issues management technieken weldegelijk gevolgen heeft voor de prestaties van ondernemingen. ; This book consists of four interrelated parts. Part I consists of three chapters (one, two, and three), and constitutes the empirical and theoretical introduction of this thesis. The purpose of the first (current) chapter is to introduce the two research questions that guided the design and execution of this project. The second chapter, which consists of two parts, sketches the empirical context of the research by introducing the genetic modification case study. In the first part I introduce the methodology I have used to conduct this case study. I head off with a discussion on the design of the study, which is followed by a treatment of the data collection and analysis procedures, and by an explanation of the procedures followed for establishing reliability and validity. In the second part I provide a brief general description of the case study, using both an event history (a chronological representation of the facts of the case) and a narrative account of the major occurrences characterizing the introduction of genetically modified ingredients on the Dutch market. The third chapter of this text provides an integrative theoretical framework of strategic issues management. The chapter starts with a review of two important streams of issues management research. I begin by introducing the externally oriented public affairs/corporate communication approach, and subsequently proceed with the more internally oriented organizational behavior approach to issues management. For both of these approaches it will be explained (a) how they see the strategic issue construct, and (b) how they view the strategic issues management process. I continue by introducing an integrative theoretical framework of strategic issues management, which draws upon and attempts to integrate both of the aforementioned research streams. The framework results in a number of theoretical hypotheses explaining (a) what types of issues management activities commercial organizations may use to manage those forthcoming developments that threaten to impinge upon their ability to meet their objectives, and (b) how the adoption of such activities can be linked to the attainment of a more favorable competitive position. In effect, this framework has guided and supported all further theory-building efforts that are reported in this book. Part II of this book consists of chapters four and five. This second part reports the findings of the first empirical study of this volume, the in-depth case study of the issues management practices of the firms in the Dutch fats and oils industry with respect to the highly salient issue of genetic modification. More precisely, this part addresses the first research question of this project by providing an elaborate explanation of the two issues management strategies that were uncovered with the help of the qualitative study. Chapter four discusses the issues management strategy of stakeholder integration (the development of trust- based, cooperative relationships with a broad range of external stakeholders [Hart, 1995; Sharma & Vredenburg, 1998]). Two conceptual dimensions (locus and modus of stakeholder integration) are used to develop a typology of four different integration types. Subsequently, these four types are illustrated with case study evidence, and linked to four corresponding competitive benefits. Chapter five is devoted to a discussion on capability development (the integration of individuals' specialist knowledge into higher-order organizational knowledge resources [Grant, 1996]), the second issues management strategy that was revealed with the help of the case study of the Dutch fats and oils sector. Again, two conceptual dimensions (allowed response time and public activism)areusedtodevelopa straightforward two-by-two typology of issues management capabilities, which are also illustrated with evidence from the case study. A subsequent discussion of the capability building process explains how the organizations in the case study sample went about building such competitively valuable resources. Part III of this book consists of chapters six and seven. It reports the findings of the survey study that was performed to provide an answer to the second research question raised in the present chapter. In chapter six I discuss the methods I followed while conducting the survey research. I will start by presenting a brief overview of the properties of the research sample, and proceed by reporting the procedures for purification of the six psychometric scales that were used to measure the central constructs of the study. Chapter seven discusses the results of the survey study. The chapter heads off with a recapitulation of the research model as it was presented in the third chapter of this text. It proceeds by presenting the results of four hierarchical regression analyses that were used for testing the research hypotheses developed in chapter three (using the four previously selected performance indicators [economic benefits, strategic benefits, corporate reputation, and biotechnology reputation] as the respective dependent variables). The regression procedure consists of two steps. In the first step, it is determined whether the amount of additional variance that is being explained by adding the two explanatory variables (stakeholder integration and capability development) to a regression model that only contains the control variables (i.e., corporate size and industry) differs significantly from zero. As a second step, the individual coefficients of the explanatory variables in the full model (which includes both the predictor and the control variables) are inspected to see whether the individual issues management activities add to a firm's competitive advantage or not. Effectively, this latter step represents the actual testing of the integrated framework of issues management. Part IV finally, consists of chapter eight only. This chapter presents the overall conclusions of this book, drawing upon both the case study and the survey research. First, the findings of these two studies are discussed in terms of the research questions that were introduced in the first paragraph of this introduction. Secondly, I discuss the limitations of the chosen approach; particularly those pertaining to the measures in use and the research setting I have selected. Before finishing this book with some brief concluding remarks, I will present a concise agenda for future research.
