Lean body mass, consisting mostly of skeletal muscle, is important for healthy aging. We performed a genome-wide association study for whole body (20 cohorts of European ancestry with n = 38,292) and appendicular (arms and legs) lean body mass (n = 28,330) measured using dual energy X-ray absorptiometry or bioelectrical impedance analysis, adjusted for sex, age, height, and fat mass. Twenty-one single-nucleotide polymorphisms were significantly associated with lean body mass either genome wide (p < 5 x 10(-8)) or suggestively genome wide (p < 2.3 x 10(-6)). Replication in 63,475 (47,227 of European ancestry) individuals from 33 cohorts for whole body lean body mass and in 45,090 (42,360 of European ancestry) subjects from 25 cohorts for appendicular lean body mass was successful for five single-nucleotide polymorphisms in/ near HSD17B11, VCAN, ADAMTSL3, IRS1, and FTO for total lean body mass and for three single-nucleotide polymorphisms in/ near VCAN, ADAMTSL3, and IRS1 for appendicular lean body mass. Our findings provide new insight into the genetics of lean body mass. ; NIH [N01 AG 12100, U01 HL72515, U01 GM074518, R01 HL088119, R01 AR046838, U01 HL084756, N01-AG-12100, U24AG051129]; NIA Intramural Research Program, Hjartavernd (the Icelandic Heart Association); Althingi (the Icelandic Parliament); Mid-Atlantic Nutrition and Obesity Research Center of Maryland [P30 DK072488]; NIH/NIAMS [F32AR059469]; American Heart Association [10SDG2690004]; NHLBI [N01-HC-85079, N01-HC-85080, N01-HC-85081, N01-HC-85082, N01-HC-85083, N01-HC-85084, N01-HC-85085, N01-HC-85086, N01-HC-35129, N01 HC-15103, N01 HC-55222, N01-HC-75150, N01-HC-45133, N01-HC-85239, HL080295, HL087652, HL105756, HL103612, HL120393, HL130114]; NINDS; NIA [AG-023629, AG-15928, AG-20098, AG-027058, 1R01AG032098-01A1]; National Center for Research Resources [UL1RR033176]; CTSI [UL1TR000124]; National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Disease grant [DK063491]; Southern California Diabetes Endocrinology Research Center; GlaxoSmithKline; Faculty of Biology and Medicine of Lausanne; Swiss National Science Foundation [33CSCO-122661, 33CS30-139468, 33CS30-148401]; deCODE Genetics, ehf; Cancer Research United Kingdom; Medical Research Council; EU [LSHM-CT-2003-503041]; Wellcome Trust [WT098051, WT089062, WT098017]; Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO); Erasmus MC; Centre for Medical Systems Biology (CMSB); European Community's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7), ENGAGE Consortium [HEALTH-F4-2007-201413]; Wellcome Trust; Support for Science Funding programme; CamStrad; Danish Council for Independent Research [DFF-1333-00124, DFF-1331-00730B]; US National Institute for Arthritis, Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases; National Institute on Aging [U24AG051129, R01 AR 41398, R01AR057118]; FP7-PEOPLE-Marie Curie Career Integration Grants (CIG); National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute's Framingham Heart Study [N01-HC-25195]; Affymetrix, Inc. [N02-HL-6-4278]; Robert Dawson Evans Endowment of the Department of Medicine at Boston University School of Medicine; Boston Medical Center; Genome Quebec; Genome Canada; Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR); Swedish Research Council; Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research; ALF/LUA research grant in Gothenburg; Lundberg Foundation; Emil and Vera Cornell Foundation; Torsten and Ragnar Soderberg's Foundation; Petrus and Augusta Hedlunds Foundation; Vastra Gotaland Foundation; Goteborg Medical Society; German Bundesministerium fuer Forschung und Technology [01 AK 803 A-H, 01 IG 07015G]; National Institutes of Aging; National Institutes of Health [HHSN268200782096C, R01 AG 041517, M01 RR-00750]; Intramural Research Program of the NIH, National Library of Medicine. Kora; Helmholtz Center Munich, German Research Center for Environmental Health; German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF); State of Bavaria; German National Genome Research Network [NGFN-2, NGFNPlus: 01GS0823]; Munich Center of Health Sciences (MC Health) as part of LMUinnovativ; British Heart Foundation; Kidney Research UK; National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) programme grant; Netherlands Consortium for Healthy Aging (NCHA) [050-060-810]; Erasmus Medical Center; Erasmus University, Rotterdam; Netherlands Organization for the Health Research and Development (ZonMw); Research Institute for Diseases in the Elderly (RIDE); Ministry of Education, Culture and Science; Ministry for Health, Welfare and Sports; European Commission (DG XII); Municipality of Rotterdam; National Institute on Aging grants [R01AG17917, R01AG15819, R01AG24480]; Illinois Department of Public Health; Rush Clinical Translational Science Consortium; Arthritis Research UK; Chronic Disease Research Foundation; National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) comprehensive Biomedical Research Centre award; Israel Science Foundation [994/10]; NIA Intramural Research Program; Hjartavernd (the Icelandic Heart Association); German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) [16SV5536K, 16SV5537, 16SV5538, 16SV5837, 01UW0808]; Max Planck Institute for Human Development (MPIB); Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics (MPIMG); Charite University Medicine; German Institute for Economic Research (DIW); University of Lubeck in Lubeck, Germany; Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development (ZonMw) the Hague [6130.0031]; NZO (Dutch Dairy Association), Zoetermeer; Orthica, Almere; NCHA (Netherlands Consortium Healthy Ageing) Leiden/Rotterdam; Ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation, the Hague [KB-15-004-003]; Wageningen University, Wageningen; VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam; Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam; Healthway Health Promotion Foundation of Western Australia; Australasian Menopause Society; Australian National Health and Medical Research Council [254627, 303169, 572604]; National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia Career Development Fellowship; Karen Elise Jensen foundation; NIH from NHLBI [R01-HL-117078, R01-HL-087700, R01-HL-088215]; NIH from NIDDK [R01-DK-089256, R01-DK-075681]; Academy of Finland Center of Excellence in Complex Disease Genetics [213506, 129680]; Academy of Finland [251217, 136895, 141005, 139635, 129494, 269517]; Finnish foundation for Cardiovascular Research; Sigrid Juselius Foundation; Yrjo Jahnsson Foundation; Finnish Diabetes Research Society; Samfundet Folkhalsann; Novo Nordisk Foundation; Liv och Halsa; Finska Lakaresallskapet; Signe and Ane Gyllenberg Foundation; University of Helsinki; European Science Foundation (EUROSTRESS); Ministry of Education; Ahokas Foundation; Emil Aaltonen Foundation; Juho Vainio Foundation; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/Association of Schools of Public Health [S043, S1734, S3486]; NIAMS Multipurpose Arthritis and Musculoskeletal Disease Center grant [5-P60-AR30701]; NIAMS Multidisciplinary Clinical Research Center grant [5 P60 AR49465-03]; Research Program - Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [2001-347-6111-221, 2002-347-6111-221, 2009-E71007-00, 2010-E71004-00]; Helmholtz Center Munich; German Research Center for Environmental Health; British Heart Foundation Grant [SP/04/002]; Academy of Finland; Finnish Diabetes Research Foundation; Finnish Cardiovascular Research Foundation; Strategic Research Funding from the University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio; EVO grant from the Kuopio University Hospital [5263]; Swedish Research Council [2006-3832, K2009-53X-14691-07-3, K2010-77PK-21362-01-2, 2008-2202, 2005-8214]; Greta and Johan Kock Foundation; A. Pahlsson Foundation; A. Osterlund Foundation; Malmo University Hospital Research Foundation; Research and Development Council of Region Skane, Sweden; Swedish Medical Society; National Institutes of Health; National Institute on Aging (NIA); National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS); National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS); NIH Roadmap for Medical Research [U01 AG027810, U01 AG042124, U01 AG042139, U01 AG042140, U01 AG042143, U01 AG042145, U01 AG042168, U01 AR066160, UL1 TR000128]; National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS) [RC2ARO58973]; FAS [2007-2125]; Chief Scientist Office of the Scottish Government [CZB/4/276, CZB/4/710]; Royal Society; MRC Human Genetics Unit; Arthritis Research UK [17539]; European Union framework program 6 EUROSPAN project [LSHG-CT-2006-018947]; ALF/LUA research grants from Uppsala university hospital, Uppsala, Sweden; European Union Grant [QLG1-CT-2001-01252]; AstraZeneca; SHIP, part of the Community Medicine Research Network of the University of Greifswald, Germany; Federal Ministry of Education and Research [01ZZ9603, 01ZZ0103, 01ZZ0403]; Ministry of Cultural Affairs; Social Ministry of the Federal State of Mecklenburg-West Pomerania; network "Greifswald Approach to Individualized Medicine (GANI_MED)" - Federal Ministry of Education and Research [03IS2061A]; Siemens Healthcare, Erlangen, Germany; National Institute on Aging (NIA) [R01 AG005407, R01 AR35582, R01 AR35583, R01 AR35584, R01 AG005394, R01 AG027574, R01 AG027576]; Wallenberg foundation; Medical Research Council (UK); Republic of Croatia Ministry of Science, Education and Sports [108-1080315-0302]; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, US Department of Health and Human Services [N01WH22110, 24152, 32100-2, 32105-6, 32108-9, 32111-13, 32115, 32118-32119, 32122, 42107-26, 42129-32, 44221]; US National Institutes of Health grants [1-ZIA-HG000024, U01DK062370, R00DK099240]; American Diabetes Association Pathway to Stop Diabetes Grant [1-14-INI-07]; Academy of Finland Grants [271961, 272741, 258753]; Intramural Research Program of the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, NIH, USA; National Heart Lung and Blood Institute of the National Institutes of Health [HL57453]; [HHSN268201200036C] ; This item from the UA Faculty Publications collection is made available by the University of Arizona with support from the University of Arizona Libraries. 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How did bilateral relations between Italy and Ethiopia-Eritrea evolved after the colonial period? What was the impact of the Italian economic presence on the economy of Ethiopia and Eritrea in the post-colonial period? Why since the end of the World War II has been existing in Ethiopia a widespread pro-Italian judgment despite the colonial past? The purpose of this research is to answer to such questions. Description of the research Chapter 1 is dedicated to the evolution of the bilateral relations between Italy and Ethiopia between 1947 and 1955. The Treaty of Peace, signed in Paris on February 10, 1947, imposed to Italy, among the other provisions, the recognition of the independence of Ethiopia, the renouncement of claims to colonies including Eritrea and the payment of war reparations to Ethiopia. These issues took time to be actually solved. Especially with regard to the future of Eritrea the tensions between Italy and Ethiopia flared up despite the fact that diplomatic relations were resumed at the beginning of 1952. In addition there were complex negotiations on the amount of the war reparations to be paid. Finally, the artworks carried away from Ethiopia during the occupation period were returned with delay and in several tranches between 1954 and 2005. As a general consideration, the whole picture of the bilateral relations between 1947 and the beginning of the '70s shows the alternation of long periods of strong tension with shorter ones of détente. Chapter 2 and 3 outline the main characteristics and the evolution of the Italian economic presence in Ethiopia and in Eritrea between 1941 and 1974. The first years after 1941 were extremely troubled. Many Italians were expelled from the two countries, many were confined to concentration camps, and in Ethiopia many became clandestines in order not to be forced to leave the country. In the late '40s, Italians in Eritrea became the target of terrorist actions by the shifta. Many Italians were killed and several companies managed by them were destroyed or seriously damaged. Italians went through other serious difficulties in the early '70s when the growing guerrilla made Eritrea highly insecure. Despite these difficulties Italians kept on carrying out their activities that flourished in the '50s and the '60s but were decimated by the nationalizations of the Derg during the first half of the '70s. Main Results With regard to the bilateral relations Italian diplomatic documents show the will of both parties to reach an agreement on the post war issues. However it was a very tough negotiation, as expected. In contrast to the belief expressed in some relevant and well-known works, i.e. Del Boca's one, the complexity of such a negotiation seems to be due more to the Ethiopian tactics than to the alleged Italian purpose to delay the final settlement. Furthermore it is crystal clear that one of the top priority of the Italian Government in negotiating was to protect the Italian communities in Ethiopia and Eritrea. This result is in contrast with what affirmed by Del Boca in particular, who stressed a sort of lack of interest of Italy in the co-nationals resident in the two countries. Chapter 2 and 3 shows that the efforts of Italians workers and entrepreneurs in Ethiopia and Eritrea after the end of the occupation are worthy of note and memory. Such efforts testify to an extraordinary commitment. Italians arrived in Ethiopia and Eritrea with dreams and hopes that many were finally able to see come true. Some of their stories are uniquely interesting. Emperor Haile Selassie undoubtedly played a significant role in fostering the rapid development of Italian economic activities and in shaping fruitful and cooperative relations between Italians and Ethiopians. He protected the Italians because he was deeply convinced of the important economic role that Italians would still have been able to play in Ethiopia, not only in the early post-occupation period, but also for the future of the country. Italian economic presence was strong in quantity and quality both in Ethiopia and Eritrea. However it is quite clear that throughout the period between 1941 and 1974 the incidence of Italian economic activities was significantly higher in Eritrea than Ethiopia. Italian firms were modern and efficient, and they were the backbone of the economy of Eritrea. The higher impact of our entrepreneurs in Eritrea was due to the longer stay of Eritrea itself under the Italian Government, which resulted in a much larger Italian community in Eritrea than in Ethiopia, both in absolute and relative terms. Almost the entire industrial and advanced agricultural sectors in Eritrea was in hands of the Italians. Provided that at the beginning of the '50s, the 80% of manufacturing plants of the Ethio-Eritrean Federation was based in Eritrea, it must concluded that the incidence of the Italian companies in the whole industrial sector was huge. In addition, except for the Italian activities, there were only a few other companies, especially in the agricultural and commercial sectors, managed by Eritreans or expatriates of other communities. In agriculture, where traditional ways and means of cultivation and a subsistence production still prevailed, the big agricultural and agro-processing companies run by the Italians were extraordinarily efficient. The Italians used modern techniques and machinery. They diversified their production. They also built dams, irrigation systems and major infrastructure projects for the reclamation of land to production. Even before the 50's and increasingly in the following decades, the Italian agricultural firms were able to export to neighboring markets, after meeting domestic demand. For the rest, the Eritrean economy was based on subsistence and largely unproductive agriculture. Italian activities strongly contributed to the national economy. In the economy of the Empire, characterized by a very low incidence of industrial development and the export of a few agricultural products (coffee, hides, oilseeds), the production for export made by Italian companies represented a unique economic opportunity for the entire country. The contribution of Italian economic activities was more evident in Eritrea than in Ethiopia. According to many sources, if Eritrean exports and imports would have been precisely accounted for - that is without considering the value of the goods that passed through Eritrea, but whose final destination was Ethiopia - Eritrea's trade deficit would have been significantly reduced or even zeroed out. Furthermore, the presence of flourishing Italian companies had positive repercussions also on the Eritrean state budget thanks to the tax 5 income they produced. By the way, the rates applied to Italian companies were much higher than those applied to local ones. The Italian business elite was also able to translate in images the social renewal processes of the 50's and the 60's. The buildings designed by Arturo Mezzedimi were perhaps the most evident symbols of such ability. Such buildings represented the avant-garde architecture of those years. Another building contractor, Mario Buschi, very active throughout the Empire, highly contributed to shape the modern image of Addis Ababa. The statistics shows that from 1957 to 1974 Italy was, together with USA, the main commercial partner of the Ethiopian Empire. Even in the period 1941-1951, during which official diplomatic relations between Italy and Ethiopia were absent, the bilateral trade was relevant and in particular Italy was in those years the first importer from Ethiopia. These exceptional results were due indeed to Italian resident community that with its economic activities highly contributed to nurture commercial flows from and to Italy. The good relations between the Italians who remained after 1941 and the Ethiopians played a decisive role in rapidly archiving the memory of the Italians as colonizers. Indeed such relationship was generally dominated by a constructive spirit of cooperation and probably fueled by some deep affinity of character between our two peoples. They were the Italians that contributed to maintain a good image of Italy in Ethiopia even during the absence of official diplomatic relations or at times of misunderstandings and difficulties in the dialogue between the two governments. In decades of coexistence the Italians and Ethiopians have been able to establish a fruitful dialogue, marked by mutual understanding, esteem and respect. Workplaces were the main venue where such a dialogue has taken its shape. The author spent 4 years in Ethiopia, from 2008 to 2012, as head of the commercial section of the Italian Embassy. This experience allowed her to learn parts of the history of the Italian community in Ethiopia and in Eritrea between 1941 and 1974 directly from the present generations of Italian businessmen resident in Ethiopia. The author also had the opportunity to consult Italians' personal archives in which she could find documents and books that are not anymore on the market and difficult to find in libraries. Her personal experience and knowledge of the country and the people added depth to this work that is however based almost exclusively on written sources.
Die Untersuchung "Die Freimaurer im Alten Preußen 1738 - 1806" ging aus einem von Prof. Dr. Helmut Reinalter geleiteten und vom Fonds zur Förderung der wissenschaftlichen Forschung (FWF) in Wien geförderten und finanzierten Forschungsprojekt der Forschungsstelle Demokratische Bewegungen an der Geistesgeschichtlichen Fakultät der Universität Innsbruck in Zusammenarbeit mit der Wissenschaftlichen Kommission zur Erforschung der Freimaurerei hervor. Ausgewertet wurden hauptsächlich die im Geheimen Staatsarchiv Preußischer Kulturbesitz Berlin-Dahlem aufbewahrten Freimaurerbestände der Altpreußischen Logen, ferner die Freimaurerbestände des Österreichischen Staatsarchivs, Haus-,Hof- und Staatsarchiv Wien, sowie weiterer Archive und Bibliotheken, außerdem die masonische und die relevante regionalgeschichtliche, sozialgeschichtliche und biographische Literatur. Das Handbuch erfasst den Zeitraum 1741 - 1806 im östlichen Brandenburg-Preußen in den Grenzen vor der Zweiten Polnischen Teilung 1793, somit Vor- und Hinterpommern (ohne Schwedisch-Pommern), das Königreich Preußen (Ostpreußen), das 1740/41 eroberte Schlesien sowie das 1772 durch die Erste Polnische Teilung einverleibte Preußen königlich-polnischen Anteils (Westpreußen); Pommern und Schlesien lagen im Heiligen Römischen Reich Deutscher Nation, Ost- und Westpreußen, außerhalb. Die Freimaurerlogen werden nach gleichen Kiterien behandelt: ihre Geschichte im historischen und regionalen Zusammenhang, die Mitglieder un die Sozialstruktur, die gesellschaftliche, soziale und kulturelle Tätigkeit sowie die Wirkung in die bürgerliche Gesellschaft. Die maurerisch und biographisch kommentierten Mitgliederlisten verzeichnen erstmals die Gesamtheit der Freimaurer im Untersuchungsgebiet. Damit wird auch ein Beitrag zur Prosopographie und zur Familiengeschichte geleistet. Die Freimaurerlogen waren eine eigene Form der Sozietäten des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts mit ähnlicher Organisation, jedoch auf breiter sozialer Basis, mit in Stufen (Graden) aufwärts steigenden, ethisch-moralischem Programm der Menschenbildung und der Einweihung in ein sogenanntes freimaurerisches Geheimnis. Die unpolitischen, überkonfessionellen Logen waren ab 1740 in Preußen staatlich legitimierte Vereine, die sich ohne polizeiliche Eingriffe ungestört entwickeln konnten. Das Allgemeine Landrecht der Preußischen Staaten definierte sie als geschlossene Gesellschaften. Im Untersuchungszeitraum wurden in 31 Städten und auf fünf Adelssitzen 56 Logen (einschließlich vier Feldlogen) konstituiert. Sie organisierten einschließlich der 61 Mitglieder der Feldlogen und der etwa 350 Dienenden Brüder rund 5.375 Freimaurer, mehr als ein Drittel aller in Brandenburg-Preußen ermittelten Freimaurer. Freimaurer waren in wachsender Zahl Angehörige der mit dem Aufstieg Preußens verbundenen sozialen Schichten und Gruppen - Adelige und Bürger, an den aufgeklärten Universitäten ausgebildete Verwaltungsbeamte, Theologen und Pädagogen, geistig und sozial engagierte Offiziere, zunftfreie Finanz-, Handels- und Manufakturunternehmer, Buchdrucker und -händler, Ärzte Chirurgen und Apotheker sowie Künstler. Angehörige der Unterschichten wurden nur als Dienende Brüder aufgenommen. Frauen waren nicht sozietätsfähig. Zwischen Pommern, Preußen und Schlesien zeigten sich bei grundsätzlicher Gemeinsamkeit erhebliche Unterschiede. In Pommern entstanden bis 1806 in acht Städten 15 Logen. Die soziale Basis war außer in der Handels-, Gewerbe- und Garnisonstadt Stettin sowie in Stargard dünn, die Logen waren daher labil. Es sind etwa 960 Freimaurer (außerdem 81 Dienende Brüder) hauptsächlich in Vor- und im westlichen Hinterpommern ermittelt, überwiegend adlige Offiziere und bürgerliche Verwaltungsbeamte; nur Stettin wies eine größere soziale Breite auf. In Ostpreußen entstanden in sechs Städten und auf einem Adelssitz zwölf Logen. Es sind etwa 1.465 Freimaurer, außerdem 86 Dienende Brüder ermittelt, von ihnen zwei Drittel in Königsberg, der Stadt Immanuel Kants. In Westpreußen wurden alle Logen nach 1772 gegründet bis auf eine, in sechs Städten insgesamt acht Logen. Es sind rund 750 Freimaurer ermittelt, außerdem 37 Dienende Brüder. Die Freimaurerei war außer in Elbing und Marienburg nur wenig in der alteingesessenen Bevölkerung verwurzelt. Die Angehörigen des neuen preußischen Staatsapparates stellten nahezu drei Viertel aller Mitglieder. Wie viele Polen Freimaurer waren, ist schwer zu sagen. Schlesien unterschied sich u.a. konfessionell von Pommern und Ost- und Westpreußen. Rom lehnte die Freimaurerei strikt ab, mußte jedoch die preußische religiöse Toleranzpolitik beachten. In Schlesien entstanden einschließlich der Feldlogen in elf Städten und auf vier Adelssitzen 17 Logen. Wie eng die Verbindungen in das Habsburgerreich anfangs noch waren, zeigt die Gründung der Wiene Loge Aux trois canons 1742 durch Breslauer Freimaurer. Bis auf Neisse lagen alle Logensitze im überwiegend protestantischen Nieder- und Mittelschlesien. Es sind etwa 1.835 Freimaurer sowie 144 Dienende Brüder ermittelt, mehr als in Preußen oder Pommern. Die Analyse der Mitgliedschaft zeigt eine starke soziale Verwurzelung der Freimaurerei im schlesischen Adel, in den Behörden, wegen der starken preußischen Militärpräsenz im Militär sowie im Unternehmertum (Hirschberg, Schmiedeberg). Generell stieg der Mitgliederanteil gebürtiger Schlesier mit wachsender Akzeptanz der Freimaurerei in der Provinz. Diese Darstellung versteht sich als Beitrag zur Gesellschafts- und Kulturgeschichte Pommerns, Preußens und Schlesiens. Die Freimaurerei gewann zunehmend gesellschaftliches Gewicht. Viele Freimaurer waren in Verwaltung, Heer, Wirtschaft, Bildung und Kultur verantwortlich tätig. Die Freimaurer leisteten einen wesentlichen Beitrag zur Emanzipation des Bürgertums sowie zum bürgerlichen Vereins- und Parteiensystem. ; The research "The Freemasons in Ancient Prussia 1738 – 1806" is the result of a research project of the Research Centre for Democratic Movements at the Faculty of Humanities of the University of Innsbruck in cooperation with the Scientific Commission for the Research of Freemansory, headed by Prof. Dr. Helmut and financed by the Fund for the promotion of scientific research (FWF) in Vienna. The main sources for this research were in the Masonic papers and documents of the ancient Prussian lodges, preserved at the Geheimes Staatsarchiv Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin-Dahlem, the sources of the Austrian State Archive, Department Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv, Vienna, a series of other archives and libraries, the Masonic literature as well as the relevant literature on regional, social and biographical history. The reference book includes the period 1741 – 1806 in eastern Brandenburg-Prussia within the boundaries before the Second division of Poland in 1793, i.e. Pomeriana (excluding Swedish Pomerania), the Kingdom of Prussia (East Prussia), Silesia conquered by Prussia in 1740/41, and West Prussia, which was annected to Prussia after the First division of Poland in 1772. Pomerania and Silesia were parts of of the Holy Roman Empire, whereas East and West Prussia were situated beyond its boundaries. The Masonic lodges have been analyzed according to analoque criteria: their development in historical and regional context, their membership and social structure, societal, social and cultural activities as well as their influential role in civic society. For the first time, Masonic and biographically commented lists cover the entire membership of the analyzed region. Thus the book is also a contribution to a prosopographical and family history. The Masonic lodges were a specific form of a associations of the 17th and 18th centuries with a similar organizational structure, but on a broader social basis. They followed a system of successive steps (grades) with an ethical and moral programme of forming the human character with the aim of the introduction into a so-called Masonic secret. Since 1740 the apolitical lodges, bringing together different confessions, were associations legitimated by the Prussian state, which could freely develop without intervention by the police. The "Common Law of the Prussian States" defined them as closed societies. Within the analyzed period 56 lodges (four field lodges included) constituated themeselves in 31 towns and on five landed properties of noble Masonic members. They organized 5,375 members, the 61 members of the field lodges and the 350 Serving Brothers included, i.e. more than one third of all registered freemansons in Brandenburg-Prussia. Increasingly the freemasons were members of the social strata and groups, connected with the advancement of the Prussian state: they were members of the nobility and citizens, servants of the administration, theologians and teachers, who had been educated at enlightened universities, officers who engaged spiritually and socially, manufacturers and bankers, printers and booksellers, doctors and chemists, and artists. Members of the substrata were accepted only as Serving Brothers, and women were not acknowledged as members of the lodges at all. Although the provinces Pomerania, Prussia and Silesia had common features in general, they showed significant differences, nevertheless. In Pommerania until 1806 15 lodges were founded in eight cities. With the exeption of Stettin, a centre of trade and craft with a garrrison, as well as Stargard, the social basis was thin, that is why the lodges were unstable. About 960 freemasons have been registered in West and Middle Pomerania, mainly noble officers and civil servants, and 81 Serving Brothers. Only Stettin had a broader social basis. In East Prussia twelve lodges were founded in six towns and at one landed property of a noble member. About 1,465 freemasons have been registered as well as 86 Serving Brothers, two thirds of them in the town of Königsberg, where Immanuel Kant lived. In West Prussia all lodges but one had been founded after 1772 – eight lodges in six towns. There have been registered 750 freemasons and 37 Serving Brothers. With the exception of the towns of Elbing and Marienburg, the freemasonry had very few members from the resident population. Almost three quarters of the membership came from the new Prussian administration. It is difficult to say, how many Poles were freemasons. Among other features, Silesia differed confessionally from Pomerania and East and West Prussia. The Papal Church strictly rejected the freemasonry, but had to adhere to the Prussian policy of tolerance of the different religions. In Silesia 17 lodges were founded in eleven towns and at four landed properties, the field lodges included. In 1742 freemasons from Breslau founded the lodge Aux trois canons in Vienna, which shows the continued close ties with the Habsburg Empire. With the exception of the town Neisse all lodges were situated in Lower and Middle Silesia, which were predominantly protestant. For this region about 1.835 freemasons as well as 144 Serving Brothers have been registered, which is more than in Prussia or in Pomerania. An analysis for the membership shows that the freemasonry had its main social roots in the Silesian nobility, the administration, in the military as well as in the entrepreneurship, especially in the towns of Hirschberg and Schmiedeberg. All in all, the percentag of members born in Silesia rose with the growing acceptance of the freemasonry in the province. This exposition is meant as a contribution to the social and cultural history of the provinces of Pomerania, Prussia and Silesia. There the freemasonry won in social significance. Many freemasons were in prominent positions in the administration, the economy, in the educational and cultural fields. Thus they were able to significantly influence the emancipation of the civic society and to further the development of the system of civic associations and parties.
This report aims to extract lessons on slum upgrading and involuntary resettlement policies and practices learned from the process of addressing the Badia East case, which involved complex interactions between affected people, NGOs, the Bank and Lagos State Government. In doing so, this report will discuss the Local Government Support Programme (LMDGP) as a complex and rich case study from which to extract lessons on involuntary resettlement, land, housing and slum upgrading, as well as overall urban development issues, although it is by no means meant to be an evaluation of the LMDGP project itself nor of process that followed the submission of a request for inspection to the Inspection Panel. Rather, it intends to provide an in-depth analysis of, and make recommendations on urban land and housing issues and the modalities of urban sector engagement in mega-cities like Lagos with inefficient land markets. The report was based on an extensive desk-review of relevant documents on urban issues in Nigeria and Lagos and on the LMDGP; interviews conducted in Lagos and Abuja during the period of January 18-31, 2015 with a range of stakeholders; and a series of case-studies on relevant international experiences in the areas of slum upgrading, involuntary resettlement, land and housing.
The findings from the study suggest that international pressure for more effective Right to Information (RTI) implementation only goes so far. The development of RTI laws with the encouragement, assistance, or insistence of the international community was a prominent theme throughout the case studies, particularly for EU countries during their accession process. But implementation is a less straightforward task, with many interlocking, moving parts, and international support comes in ad hoc fashion as the process unfolds. A strong implication from these findings is that a national coordinating strategy may be valuable for implementation. This kind of strategy document should take the interdependence of the drivers of effectiveness into account when drafting policies and rules for practice, and can serve as a guiding document when deciding on foreign funding priorities.
Welcome to the second issue of IASSIST Quarterly for the year 2023 - IQ vol. 47(2).
I am very happy with the 'International' in IASSIST. It is important to learn from outside your own center. In this issue we have a focus on the United States and some African countries with a special focus on South Africa. The first article investigates LibGuides across the many states of the United States. The second article is centered on one of the data resources often found in the LibGuides pages, but the data itself is about all of the United States. In the third article we shift to the African continent and the described project has a base in South Africa with a connection to the United Kingdom - still part of Europe although not of the EU - and with research being conducted in several African countries. We can't promise to cover the whole world in each IQ issue – but this issue is quite international.
The first article is 'Taking count: A computational analysis of data resources on academic LibGuides in the U.S.'. Cody Hennesy, Alicia Kubas and Jenny McBurney have undertaken the task of collecting links to data and statistical resources from over 10,000 LibGuide pages at 123 R1 research institutions in the United States. The LibGuides platform has become the universal resource discovery platform in academic libraries in the U.S. LibGuides not only support researchers, they also help librarians in orientation among the many resources. The authors reach the conclusion that freely available resources from U.S. government agencies are the most widely used. Resources requiring paid licenses or memberships (like ICPSR) are also frequent. The analysis suggest traditional licensed statistical resources are more likely to be shared than complex microdata resources. Data cleaning of the nearly 200,000 links from the 10,000 guide pages was an essential part of the analysis. The authors cite the data scientist joke that 90% of the work is data cleaning, and they find that the actual number for the cleaning and normalization in this analysis was even larger, performed through Python and OpenRefine. The data process included accessing the LibGuide pages based on the keywords of 'data' and 'statistic' and then extracting the content links. The links were then cleaned, filtered and further normalized. The data cleaning showed a high degree of inconsistency and dead links, leading the authors to suggest a more centralized management of data resources. The most frequently found links to resources are through ICPSR and data.gov, and a table with the 20 most common resources shows that even the most uncommon resource among these 20 are included in more than 73% of the institutions. This demonstrates a high consistency across the institutions. However, the authors remark that they believe that the very few institutions that didn't include a link to the popular data.gov would benefit from having information about this resource available for their researchers. Cody Hennesy and Jenny McBurney are the Journalism & Digital Media Librarian and a Social Sciences Librarian at the University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, and Alicia Kubas is a librarian at the U.S. Government Publishing Office.
The second article concerns metadata from IPUMS projects at the Institute for Social Research and Data Innovation (ISRDI) at the University of Minnesota (note, these are among the central sources of data LibGuides, mentioned several times in the first article). The authors are Diana L. Magnuson, curator and historian at the Institute for Social Research and Data Innovation, and Wendy L. Thomas, now retired curator from the same institution. The title is 'Expanding our perspective: building a sustainable metadata culture'. The article describes the learning obtained by ISRDI through the submission of an application for certification to the Core Trust Seal (CTS). When applying for certification the institution must document that it follows the standards and guidelines for the certification. In the case of the CTS - as in many other cases of certification - the building of a portfolio of documentation of procedures makes the applicant more self-aware of its history, as well as of the routines delivering the final products. The conclusion is also that the certification process has led to a better internal understanding at the ISRDI that can support future development as well as preserve the work done. IPUMS has over the last thirty years created the world's largest accessible database of census microdata starting with the 1880 Historical Census Project that has been extended in both time directions and now covering more than a hundred years. Naturally, processing of data has changed over the years and keeping track of the documentation proved difficult. The decision to use digital object identifiers (DOIs) led to a persistency and uniqueness that supported the users. This also had internal benefits as references and publications were more easily trackable and the preservation work more accurate and complete for each product version. Among the figures of the article, you will find the workflow using the open archival information system (OAIS) model as well as the IPUMS business process model.
The third article concerns the dilemma of personal data protection versus the benefit of using data for life improvement. The title of the submission is 'Data management instruments to protect the personal information of children and adolescents in sub-Saharan Africa' and concerns health research in this group. On the one hand the researchers naturally must follow the data regulations as they appear in the Protection of Personal Information (POPI) Act in South Africa and the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in the European Union, and with special attention to high-risk and vulnerable groups such as children and adolescents. On the other hand, these vulnerable groups are also at risk from a health viewpoint, especially from infectious diseases like infantile paralysis, measles and pneumococci. Research and data collected from children has contributed to the development of vaccines, which has led to a dramatic reduction in child mortality and improvements in the quality of life. The project described is a large-scale one that involves many countries and many researchers, making governance and data management crucial to achieving data availability and data security. The article discusses the strategies and instruments used, and addresses the many considerations from both ethical sides and when building a data management plan and decisions on sharing data. The authors behind the article are Lucas Hertzog, Jenny Chen-Charles, Camille Wittesaele, Kristen de Graaf, Raylene Titus, Jane Kelly, Nontokozo Langwenya, Lauren Baerecke, Boladé Hamed Banougnin, Wylene Saal, John Southall, Lucie Cluver, and Elona Toska. Many of these are affiliated to the Centre for Social Science Research at the University of Cape Town in South Africa and some are connected to the University of Oxford. It is important to mention that in addition to the central participation from South Africa and the UK, the project is based on partnerships with researchers in Zambia, Malawi, Nigeria, Lesotho, Tanzania, and Kenya.
Submissions of papers for the IASSIST Quarterly are always very welcome. We welcome input from IASSIST conferences or other conferences and workshops, from local presentations or papers especially written for the IQ. When you are preparing such a presentation, give a thought to turning your one-time presentation into a lasting contribution. Doing that after the event also gives you the opportunity of improving your work after feedback. We encourage you to login or create an author profile at https://www.iassistquarterly.com (our Open Journal System application). We permit authors to have 'deep links' into the IQ as well as deposition of the paper in your local repository. Chairing a conference session or workshop with the purpose of aggregating and integrating papers for a special issue IQ is also much appreciated as the information reaches many more people than the limited number of session participants and will be readily available on the IASSIST Quarterly website at https://www.iassistquarterly.com. Should you be interested in compiling a special issue for the IQ as guest editor(s) you can also contact the IQ. Take a look at the instructions, layout, and contact at:
https://www.iassistquarterly.com/index.php/iassist/about/submissions
On a personal note, I have since 1997 been the editor of the IASSIST Quarterly. All good things must end. New people will take over and improve the journal. I find there have been many improvements in the IQ during my tenure. Special thanks to my good friends Walter and Jane for their work on the journal. For many years, Walter Piovesan helped with layout and production, and he established contact with the Open Journal System staff before retiring from the IQ editorial team. Jane Roberts turned my Danglish into English in my IQ editorials. I am very happy to quit now, especially because you IASSISTers will have very competent replacements in Michele Hayslett and Ofira Schwartz. They have already for long worked behind the scenes at IQ, and have also edited the recent special issue on Systemic Racism. The IQ is in good hands.
Karsten Boye Rasmussen - June 2023
학위논문 (석사) -- 서울대학교 대학원 : 사범대학 체육교육과,글로벌스포츠매니지먼트전공, 2020. 8. Yongho Lee. ; 국문초록 신체활동과 완성의 실천권(스포츠)은 인간이 창조된 이래의 기본적 인권이다. 패럴림픽 스포츠는 특히 용기, 결단력, 평등, 영감을 보편적으로 유지시키고 최소의 비용으로 높은 영향력을 행사한다. 장애인스포츠 개발은 불가피하게 정책의호의성 정도와 지방당국, 중앙정부 및 다른 개발파트너들의 역동성에 의존한다. 카메룬에서의 법적프레임 워크의 평가는 2004년과 2018년에 통과되고 지방개발과 통치가 그들의 핵심추진력이라는 지방분권법을 밝히게되었다. 본 연구의 제목은 패럴림픽 스포츠발전에 대한시의회(MC)의 역할과 카메룬의 지속가능한 개발(SD)에 미치는 영향이다. 본연구의 목표는 카메룬에서 2016-18년 기간 동안의 정책, 조직구성, 인적자원개발전략, 장애인스포츠시설 소유 및 관리, 장애인스포츠 개발 예산할당, 장애인스포츠 및 기타경기 조직 등을 탐구함으로써 장애인스포츠발전에 대한 MC들의 역할 및 공헌을 알리는것이다. 본 연구는 카메룬에서의 장애인스포츠 개발과정은 정책, 제도적틀, 인적자원, 그리고 모든 이해당사자들이 장애인스포츠 개발을 완전히 실행할 수 있는 재정준비상태에 달려있다고 주장한다. 기존 연구에 따르면 카메룬의 스포츠는 기술, 사회-경제, 문화, 특히 정부의 주도적 영향과 종종 축구에 주어지는 우선 순위의 다수에 직면해있다(Joanne Clarke & John Ojo, 2017). 이것이 유엔기구가 2015년 회원국들에 대한 결의안 A/RES/70/1을 채택하고, 세계적으로 인간 삶의 질을 개선하기 위한 청사진으로 17개의 SDG (Sustainable Développent Goals) Agenda 2030을 채택한 이유를 설명한다(UN, 2018) 상기 고려사항을 기반으로 장애인 스포츠에 대한 관심이 커지고 있으며, 최근 몇년 동안 정부가 더 이상 그 다양성과 범위에서 스포츠 발전을 위한 모든 것을 단일적이고 공평하게 제공할 수 없다는 사실을 인지하였다. 이에 따라 본 연구는 카메룬 스포츠 산업의 지속가능한 개발을 위한 수단으로서 2016, 2018년 기간 동안 장애인 스포츠의 개발에 대한 시의회들의 역할과 카메룬의 지속가능한 발전에 미치는 영향에 초점을 맞추었다. 본 연구는 이와 같은 목표를 달성하기 위하여 제1장에서는 서론, 제2장 문헌검토, 제3장 방법론, 제4장 결과, 제5장 논의와 제안으로구성하였다. 연구는 다음과 같은 데이터 수집과 분석으로 진행했다. 대상으로 두 시의회를 고려했으며 첫번째는 Yaoundé VI Etoug-Ebe, 두번째는 Yaoundé III Efoulan으로 선택하였다. 연구방법으로 자료수집은 문헌검토, 설문 및 인터뷰를 시행하였다. 총 50명의 응답자를 대상으로 설문을 실시하였고, 총 40명의 응답을 데이터를 이용하였으며 온라인 인터뷰는 총 12명을 대상으로 실시하였다. 데이터 수집의 과정을 용이하게 하기위해, 설문지는 시의회 정책, 예산할당, 경기조직, 스포츠시설의 소유와관리, 운동선수와 직원의 전환, 고정관념과 같은 주제들에 초점을 맞추었다. 수집된 데이터 분석 결과는 다음과같다: 시의회들은 장애인스포츠 개발을 촉진하기 위해 효과적인 정책이 필요하고, 스포츠교육과 스포츠의 실천과 학습을 용이하게 하기 위한 스포츠시설을 소유하고 관리할 필요가 있으며, 인적자원의 개발이 필요한 것으로 나타났다. 또한시의회들은이와같은지속가능한개발을촉진할준비가되어있고의지가있으며, 2030년까지지속가능한개발의이점을충분히얻기위해 NPC, UCCC, 국제지방당국연합, 카메룬의다른시의회,그리고해외사이에상호연계가필요하다고나타났다. 따라서 본 연구는 각 시의회에 장애자문위원회(DAC)를 조직하고, 위원장은 UCCC 위원으로 공동활동을 할 것으로 제안한다. 또한 장애인 스포츠 발전을 위한 기금은 총회중 DAC 위원장이 만들고, 관리하고, 책임지고 UCCC와 각 시의회는 스포츠교육, 레저, 레크리에이션의 실천을위한 시설을 저렴한 비용으로 조성 및 재활용해야할 것을 제안한다. 주요어: 지속가능한개발, 패럴림픽스포츠, 시의회 ; Abstract The role of Municipal Councils on Paralympics sports development and its impacts on Sustainable Development in Cameroon OBEN Philip Apai Global Sport Management, Department of Physical Education The Graduate School Seoul National University The right to the practice of physical activity and sports is a fundamental Human Right since human creation. The Paralympics sports has the immense build-in virtues notably courage, determination, equality and inspiration. These values remain universal, least costs yet uphold high impacts, and which would hardly be harnessed by any other normative activity away from Para sports. Para sport development in any context inevitably relies on the extent of the dynamism of the actors involves precisely local authorities, central governments, and other development partners. In Cameroon, an assessment of its legal framework would reveal that the decentralization laws were passed in 2004 and 2018 with local development and governance as key thrust The title of my research is the role of Municipal Councils (MCs) on Paralympics sports development and its impacts on sustainable development (SD) in Cameroon. My key aim is to inform on the active role/contributions of MCs on the development of Para sports in the domains of policies, organizational set up, human resources development strategies, ownership and management of Para sports facilities, budget allocation for Para sports development, and the organization of Para sports and other competitions during the period 2016 and 2018 in Cameroon I claim that the process of Para sports development in Cameroon like elsewhere depends on policies, institutional frameworks, available and equipped human resources, and financial readiness to enable all stakeholders to fully initiate and implement Para sports development initiatives. Academic literature reveal that sports in Cameroon is faced with a plurality of technological, socio-economic, cultural, and especially Government-led influences with priority often given to football (Joanne & John, 2017). However, in order to optimize the gains from sports development, the UN adopted Resolution A/RES/70/1 in 2015 for member states, known as 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) Agenda 2030 as blueprint to improve on the quality of human life globally It is with the above considerations, the growing interests in Para sports as a vehicle for the SD of the Cameroonian sports industry, and the fact that Governments in recent years can no longer single and even-handedly provide everything for sports development in its diversity and scope (Holly Collison…et al, 2019), that I shall focus on the role of MCs on the development of Para sports and its impacts on sustainable development in Cameroon during the period 2016 to 2018 In order to attain the above-mentioned objective, I considered two (2) MCs; Yaoundé VI (big), and Efoulan Yaoundé III (small yet sensitive MC) for my data collection and analyses. Equally, to facilitate the understanding and evolution of my study, it shall be presented in five chapters as follows: chapter one shall treat the introduction, chapter two- literature review, chapter three-methods I used for data collection and analyses, chapter four- results, and chapter five- discussions and recommendation As a research procedure, I stated with data collection from my literature review, the administration of questions to both MCs, and documents from the libraries of the Universities of Yaoundé 1&11, Buea, and Seoul National Universities. I targeted a total population of fifty (50) participants but effectively got data from forty (40) participants. Twelve (12) semi-structured and twenty eight (28) structured questions in total were administered. In order to facilitate the process of data collection, my questions were focused on themes such as MCs policies, budget allocation, organization of competitions, ownership and management of sports facilities, athletes and staff transition, and stereotypes By and large, the socio-political, and security situations in Cameroon prohibited public gatherings, and retarded my data collection schedule. The following conclusions were arrived at the end of my study: that MCs need effective policies in order to foster Para sports development; that MCs need to own and manage sports facilities to ease the practice and learning of PE and sports for all; that there is readiness and willing by MCs to promote sustainable development; that there is need for human resource development; that there is need for an inter alia between the NPC, UCCC, International Union of Local Authorities, other MCs in Cameroon and abroad for engage the process of SD, and facilitate benefits of Para sports by 2030 in Cameroon. It was deduced from data collected that a Disability Advisory Committee (DAC) be created in each MCs to serve as the technical organ, and that a chairperson of DAC be co-opted as a member of the UCCC, that a Solidarity Fund for the development of Para sports be created by the 360 MCs in Cameroon. This fund should be managed and be accountable for by the chairperson of DAC during the General Assembly meetings of the UCCC and also that each MC should create and/or rehabilitate a permanent space, and facilities for the practice of PE, leisure and recreation for all at affordable costs Keywords: Sustainable Development, Paralympics Sports, Municipal Councils ; CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background to the study 2 1.2 Statement of the problem 4 1.2.1 Research Purpose 4 1.2.2 Research Questions 5 1.2.3 Justification and significance of this study 5 1.2.4 Area of research study Cameroon 7 1.2.5 Definition of basic concepts and notions 9 Sustainable Development 10 Municipal Council 10 Physical Activity 10 Sports 11 Condition and impairment 11 Functional classification 11 2.1 Strategies for Paralympic sports development and SD in Cameroon 16 2.1.1 Disability Advisory Committee DAC 16 2.1.2 Terms of Reference 16 2.1.3 Duties and areas the DAC should be consulted upon 17 2.1.4 Functions of the DAC 17 2.1.5 Membership and Composition of DAC 18 2.1.6 Criterion for the selection of DAC Members 18 2.1.8 Treatment of vacancies at DAC 19 2.1.9 Expression of Interest through a public advertising process in DAC 19 2.1.10 Treatment of observers at DAC 20 CHAPTER 3. METHODS 25 3.1 Sample Size of population for the present study 25 3.2 Measurements 26 3.3 Data collection methods and analyses used in my research 30 3.3.3 Stage 2: Creation of initial codes 29 3.3.4 Stage 5: Define themes 31 3.3.5 Stage 6: Writing-up 31 3.4 Research Design 32 3.4.1 Data collection process 33 3.4.2 Semi-structured Questions/Interviews 34 3.4.3 Observations 34 3.4.4 Data Analyses 35 3.4.5 Triangulation, peer examination, member-checking 36 3.4.6 Audit Trail 36 3.4.7 Role I played in this Research 36 3.5 Primary Research 37 3.5.1 Secondary research 37 3.5.2 Measurement 37 3.5.3 Selection of the topic 38 CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 42 4.1 Personally Enrichment 42 4.2 Sports development and growth 43 4.3 Research Enhancements 44 4.4 Impacts of Para sports on Sustainable Development in Cameroon 44 4.5 Challenges of SDGs 48 CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 49 5.1 Conclusion 49 5.2 Recommendations 50 5.3 Limitations 51 5.4 Future Research 52 References 53 ; Master
The territory of the country measures 25,713 km2. In the north it borders Serbia and Kosovo, in the west Albania, in the south Greece and in the east Bulgaria. It is situated between 40o 51' and 42o 22' north latitude and 20o 27' and 23o 05' east longitude. The population that permanently resides in this territory, according to the last census is 2,022,547 inhabitants from diverse ethnic groups. The Macedonian population prevails with approximately 64% of the total number, but multi-ethnicity represents a solid basis for a rich ethnographic capacity which is included in the tourism offer of the Republic of Macedonia (Marinoski, 2008a). The city population is 59.78% of the total population. The economy experienced a radical change in its conditions. The most significant structural change in the economic system was the transition from socialist self-governing to capitalism, which led to a change of ownership from social to private and a clear determining of the title of ownership. Economic processes emphasised privatisation as the basis of the transition process. Unfortunately, the transition was implemented in a way that many companies and economic systems from the real sector were made bankrupt and liquidated and the overall economic conditions instead of being promoted, demonstrated a remarkable reduction in their development. The downturn of the economy meant that tourism development could not be supported. The decline of the population's standard of living affected the mobility of domestic tourists and the decline of the domestic tourism market. Furthermore, it is a fact that these processes of liquidation contributed in the Republic of Macedonia to the increase in unemployment. A large number of employees in the industry lost their jobs so they were forced to be engaged in other activities. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is an important indicator of the economy of the Republic of Macedonia. According to data of the State Statistical Office derived from the annual accounts from business entities and other sources, the gross domestic product in 2014 amounted to 525,620 million denars or 9,727 million US $ while compared to 2013 it increased by 4.7%. The real growth rate of GDP, compared to 2013 was 3.5%. The final expenditure in 2014, compared to 2013, increased by 1.9% and in the structure of GDP it accounted for 86.8%. The share of exports of goods and services in GDP in 2014 was 47.8% (State Statistical Office of the Republic of Macedonia, n.d.a). Tourism resources of a natural and cultural character are abundant in the region. The natural values have basic, complex and complementary features. Mountains represent exceptionally significant tourist potential. The hilly to mountainous area accounts for 92.2% of the country's surface area. The average height of the country is 1,404 m above sea level. The country is mountainous with the highest peak measuring 2,764 m. There are 34 mountains on which there are 6 major winter sports centres. Equally attractive are the 14 larger gorges and canyons. As well as inactive volcanic landscapes there is one active solfatara. The climate is generally continental, whereas in the mountains it is a mountain climate and towards the open space of the Aegean and Adriatic Seas the climate is Mediterranean. The Republic of Macedonia is landlocked, but there are tectonic, glacial and artificial lakes. The river network consists of three major river basins whereas thermo-mineral springs represent the basis for locating 8 spa centres. There are plant species that are characteristic for the Mediterranean and the Euro-Siberian regions. Forest areas and forest land form a total of 1,288,915 hectares, or 50% of the country's complete territory. The most significant protected areas are the 3 national parks. The wildlife which forms the base for hunting activities is represented by mammals (mammalia) and birds (aves). There are a total of 47 registered hunting associations, which have their own hunting areas. Nine major fishing centres are located by the rivers as well as on the shores of tectonic and artificial lakes (Zikov & Vasil, 1997). Cultural tourism resources are represented by a rare abundance of archaeological sites that date back to the Palaeolithic, Neolithic, Eneolithic, Bronze and Iron Ages, as well as to the period of ancient Roman culture, to the early Christian period and to the Middle Ages. Churches and monasteries are a real treasure and an important destination for visitors. They date back to the IX and XIX centuries. Mosques date back to the XIV and XIX centuries. Secular architecture is represented by the built fortified cities, towers, bridges, bazaars, inns, baths and palaces, cultural monuments in the form of urban architecture and distinguished urban settlements and individual houses, monuments and memorials – landmarks from recent history, museums and cultural centres, theatres, universities and major libraries, cultural or sports halls and archives. Ethnographic values and traditions include architecture, traditional economic activities, crafts, food, folkloric clothing as well as folk songs and dances. The most important events are the cultural, entertainment, sports, economic and scientific events. The political structure of the Republic of Macedonia has undergone significant changes. The country went through different political systems. After the Second World War, it was a part of the Yugoslavian federation, so the policies were mainly made at the central level whereby the republics aligned their decisions to the federation and suggested their own individual policies to the Central Committee of the Communist Party and to the bodies of the federation. The political system was characterised by statist and socialist characteristics although the beginnings of the self-governing system were introduced in 1953. Significant changes occurred in 1974 when the self-governing system adopted a greater decentralisation and increase of the individual powers of the republics. During this period the Republic of Macedonia gained more autonomy. There was an improved decentralisation of power towards the local level so that the municipalities also became a significant political structure within the country. Starting from 1980, the Republic of Macedonia entered a transition period which resulted from the breakup of Yugoslavia. It was the only Yugoslavian republic that peacefully gained its independence. Since 1991, the country has been an internationally recognised state and a member of the United Nations (UN). In 2001, a military conflict occurred that was relatively quickly resolved by the signing of the Ohrid agreement. This agreement, among other solutions, allowed minority communities to participate according to the representation of the overall population in the state administration. The administrative-territorial structure of the state underwent significant changes which were in line with the autonomy and transition of the self-governing system towards the capitalist system. The separation of the legislature from the executive and the judicial authority was guaranteed by the constitution. The single party system transformed into a multi-party system and the rule of law was established. State governing was a parliamentary democracy. The highest legislative authority was the Parliament in which representatives were elected by parliamentary elections. It elects the Government of the Republic of Macedonia. The President of the country is elected by direct elections, leads foreign policy and is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The Ministries, besides participating in the decision-making of the government through its ministers, also have regional and local departments in major community centres through which operationally they implement state policies. The local departments for self-government in the country have an important place in the economic and social development of the country. They decide on the local infrastructure and its improvement as well as on the adoption of spatial and urban solutions that are of great importance for the development of tourism. The bodies of local self-government are managed by the mayor who is elected through local elections. The mayor presents his plans and their implementation to the Council which adopts these documents. The council members are also elected through local elections. In a political sense the local departments for self-government are autonomous in their decision-making. At state level, they are organised into the Association of Local Government Units – ZELS, which plays a significant role in inter-municipal cooperation as well as presenting to state institutions when they have common interests. At regional level, regions exist in which all municipalities are grouped. They are managed by Centres whose executives are elected by representatives of the units for local self-governance. They also enable the balanced economic development of the Republic of Macedonia and they do not have executive authority. In a political sense, numerous changes have taken place in the Republic of Macedonia. The country went from a socialist to a capitalist system, public ownership changed into private ownership, and the federal structure transformed into a unitary state. The country also had many turbulent periods of gaining independence and military conflict in order to establish a multi-party system and a general policy towards Euro-Atlantic integration processes. The legislature is separated from the executive and judicial autonomy. Representatives are elected through parliamentary elections as members of the Council which is appointed by the Government of the Republic of Macedonia. The President is also elected through presidential elections. Regions are established as functional territorial administrative units. The decentralisation processes in an administrative sense, are realised by the Mayor and the Council for local governance who are also elected through local elections.
Esta investigación se ha centrado en el estudio de la consanguinidad, como forma restrictiva en las relaciones de parentesco durante el Antiguo Régimen. Matrimonio y organización social formaban un tándem inseparable y la consanguinidad era uno de las principales estrategias en donde consensuar alianzas familiares. La consanguinidad matrimonial era una práctica prohibida por la Iglesia, pero estaba regulada por ella misma: las dispensas matrimoniales se convierten en el medio para validar estas alianzas prohibidas. La finalidad de este trabajo ha sido el conocer la evolución de la consanguinidad en sus diferentes formas, su incidencia en el matrimonio y su repercusión social. Se ha conocido de dónde surge el concepto de consanguinidad, no solo de forma canónica, sino las implicaciones sociales que el mismo conlleva. Las interpretaciones desde la Historia social, la Antropología, el Derecho canónico, la Sociología e incluso la biometría, han sido esenciales para poder abordar este tema, con empleo de nuevas categorías de análisis sobre el matrimonio, las estrategias sociales y las alianzas entre familias. Es evidente que durante el Antiguo Régimen nos encontramos en plena fase de cambio y transformaciones. En primer lugar se definió una muestra en torno a los registros matrimoniales de matrimonios consanguíneos, con lo que se han detectado diferentes modelos, pudiendo medir cuantitativamente el impacto de la consanguinidad en determinadas zonas. Ha sido necesario emplear documentación procedente de archivos diocesanos, con objeto de conocer en profundidad la práctica católica en torno a la consanguinidad, completándolo con documentación de archivos y bibliotecas nacionales e internacionales. El uso de diferentes escalas en esta tesis, nos ha ayudado a entender la complejidad del problema, en dos niveles que van desde las Diócesis españolas, pasando por Madrid, hasta Roma. Así hemos podido descifrar el funcionamiento de este tipo de alianzas y su validación por parte de la Iglesia. Luego se ha investigado la casuística de las dispensas matrimoniales y toda la teoría canónica de los impedimentos. El parentesco comienza a ser reglamentado, con una teoría sobre impedimentos, a partir del Concilio de Trento, con restricciones hasta el cuarto grado de consanguinidad. Se ha profundizado en la variación y tipología de los impedimentos matrimoniales, como base jurídica que maneja la Iglesia durante la Edad Moderna. El entramado de vías, para poder resolver y legitimar las dispensas matrimoniales, ha sido otro de nuestros objetivos, abordado en la tercera parte de la tesis doctoral. Existe toda una serie de instituciones que regulan y legislan las dispensas matrimoniales, desde la Dataría Apostólica al Tribunal de Penitenciaría. El empleo de fuentes vaticanas ha permitido conocer la complejidad existente durante la Edad Moderna. El discurso de la consanguinidad y su argumentación tiene dos vías claramente enfrentadas, como es la legislación católica frente a la potestad del Estado. Además, hemos sido capaces de analizar toda la estructura que regula el parentesco, desde los expedicioneros hasta la misma autoridad del Papa. La transición de los siglos XVIII y XIX, muestra toda una serie de cambios, a partir de la política regalista existente en España. Las tensiones de España, frente a la Dataría Apostólica de Roma, tienen una continuidad a lo largo del XVIII y una fuerte ruptura a principios del siglo XIX. La obtención de dispensas tenía una serie de requisitos, y uno de ellos era el económico y las tasas evolucionan paulatinamente, aunque hemos comprobado que en determinados momentos, no tienen un precio fijo. El inicio del siglo XIX, esta cuestión llegará a su punto máximo, con la promulgación del Decreto de Urquijo en 1799, donde se rompe con Roma, en cuanto a la solicitud de dispensas matrimoniales. Se otorga una mayor autonomía a los Obispos en esta materia, creándose diferentes problemas en las diócesis. El sistema, en cuanto a la regulación de las dispensas y el parentesco, comienza a fragmentarse en el siglo XIX. La última parte de nuestro trabajo se ha trasladado al estudio de caso, de diversas familias en el Reino de Murcia. Se ha procurado de establecer ciertos indicadores, en función de diferentes variables biométricas, en donde poder estudiar a fondo familias en las que se emplea la consanguinidad como estrategia matrimonial. Se han seleccionado dos tipos de grupos sociales para realizar este análisis: oligarquías urbanas y poblaciones rurales. La consanguinidad se convierte, no solo en una estrategia matrimonial, sino una forma de organización, pero con mecanismos de parentesco distintos, pues en las zonas agrarias la consanguinidad presenta un carácter múltiple. El objetivo era perpetuar la parentela. Con todo ello se ha conseguido establecer una nueva interpretación sobre la consanguinidad, en cuanto a su regulación y prohibición. Se ha conseguido profundizar en toda la práctica referente a la concesión de dispensas matrimoniales en España. Práctica hasta el momento abordada levemente, pero determinante en la comprensión de diversos aspectos sociales, políticos y económicos. En conjunto, este trabajo a contribuido a comprender la fragmentación de un modelo de familia, establecido por la Iglesia en que los enlaces consanguíneos estaban prohibidos. This research has focused on the study of consanguinity, as restrictively kinship relations during the Old Regime. Marriage and social organization formed an inseparable tandem and inbreeding was one of the main strategies where consensus family alliances. Consanguinity marriage was a practice forbidden by the Church, but was regulated by herself: marriage dispensations become the means to validate these alliances prohibited. The purpose of this work was to determine the evolution of inbreeding in its different forms, its impact on marriage and its social impact. It has been known where the concept of consanguinity arises not only from canonical form, but the social implications that it entails. Interpretations from social history, anthropology, canon law, sociology and even biometrics, have been essential to address this issue, with the use of new categories of analysis on marriage, social strategies and alliances between families. It is clear that during the old regime we are in the throes of change and transformation. First a sample was defined around the marriage records of consanguineous marriages, which have been detected different models can quantitatively measure the impact of inbreeding in certain areas. It has been necessary to use documents from diocesan archives in order to learn more about the Catholic practice around inbreeding, complete with documentation of national and international files and libraries. The use of different scales in this thesis, it has helped us understand the complexity of the problem, on two levels ranging from Spanish Diocese, to Madrid, to Rome. So we were able to decipher the workings of such alliances and its validation by the Church. Then it investigated the casuistry of marriage dispensations and all the canonical theory of the impairments. The relationship begins to be regulated, with a theory about impediments, since the Council of Trent, restricted to the fourth degree of consanguinity. It has deepened variation and typology of the impediments to marriage as the legal basis that manages the Church in the Modern Age. The network of roads in order to solve and legitimize the marriage dispensations, has been one of our objectives addressed in the third part of the thesis. There is a whole series of institutions that regulate and legislate marriage dispensations, from the Court of Dataria Apostolic Penitentiary. Vatican sources employment has shown the existing complex during the Modern Age. The speech of consanguinity and his argument has two clearly opposing ways, as is the Catholic law against State authority. Furthermore, we have been able to analyze the entire structure that regulates the relationship, from the same "expedicioneros" to papal authority. The transition from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, shows a number of changes from the existing royalist policy in Spain. Tensions of Spain, facing the Apostolic dates from Rome, have a continuity throughout the eighteenth and a strong break in the early nineteenth century. Obtaining waivers had a number of requirements, and one of them was the economic and rates evolve gradually, but we found that at certain times, they have a fixed price. The early nineteenth century, this question will reach its peak, with the promulgation of Decree Urquijo in 1799, where it breaks with Rome, regarding the request for marriage dispensations. Greater autonomy given to the bishops in this matter, creating different problems in the diocese. The system, in terms of regulating waivers and kinship begins to fragment in the nineteenth century. The last part of our work has shifted to the case study of several families in the Kingdom of Murcia. Efforts have been made to establish certain indicators, in terms of different biometric variables, in which to thoroughly study families in which inbreeding is used as a marriage strategy. We have selected two types of social groups to perform this analysis: urban oligarchies and rural populations. Inbreeding becomes not only a double strategy, but a form of organization, but with different mechanisms of kinship, as in farming areas inbreeding it has a multiple character. The aim was to perpetuate the relatives. Yet it has managed to establish a new interpretation on consanguinity, in terms of regulation and prohibition. It has managed to deepen the practical concerning the granting of marriage dispensations in Spain. Practice so far addressed slightly, but crucial in the understanding of various social, political and economic aspects. Overall, this work has contributed to understanding the fragmentation of a family model established by the Church in which consanguineous links were banned.
La tesi, dedicata alle committenze dei Comneno Duca in Epiro tra il 1204 e il 1318, è articolata in sette capitoli. Nel primo è tracciato il quadro storico-politico, entro gli estremi cronologici della dinastia dei Comneno Duca: dalla costituzione dello "stato" di Michele I, a ridosso del 1204, alla morte di Tommaso nel 1318. Il "secolo d'oro" (I.1) è stato suddiviso in tre segmenti cronologici, che corrispondono a) all'ascesa e alla disfatta di Teodoro e dei suoi immediati eredi (I.1.2), nel loro progetto di occupare Salonicco per riconquistare, forti del titolo imperiale, la capitale Costantinopoli (1204ca.-1246); b) al "regno" in Epiro di Michele II, cui viene conferito il titolo di «despota» e che fonda, di fatto, quello che viene definito «Despotato»; c) agli anni di potere di Niceforo e del figlio Tommaso, quest'ultimo sostenuto dalla co-reggenza della madre Anna. I successivi due paragrafi tracciano il quadro culturale e artistico, sia del periodo precedente a quello in esame per comprendere quale fosse la tipologia dei committenti in queste regioni periferiche dell'impero bizantino tra IX e XII secolo (I.1.3); sia del Duecento, prestando attenzione ad alcuni personaggi importanti, impegnati, oltre che sul versante politico, anche su quello artistico (Giovanni Bardanes, Demetrio Chomatenos), o a singoli centri (Hagios Nikolaos a Mesopotamon, Hagios Nikolaos a Kremastos, Bonitza), in cui è attestata – da fonti testuali o da sottoscrizioni librarie – la produzione di manoscritti (I.1.4). Il secondo capitolo si apre con una serrata disamina storiografica dei termini «despota» e «De-spotato» (II.1), necessaria a comprendere come venisse concesso tale titolo e che cosa implicasse nel XIII secolo. È inoltre occasione per ripercorrere i principali studi sul tema e presentare le figure dei Comneno Duca (da Michele I a Tommaso), cui è espressamente dedicato il paragrafo successivo (II.2). Dopo una breve premessa sulla tipologia di fonti utilizzate (numismatica, sfragistica, diplomatica, epigrafia), sono illustrate in modo analitico tutte quelle attestazioni nelle quali ogni "regnante" ha inteso esprimere in modo consapevole e con una certa chiarezza il proprio ruolo nelle vicende del tempo. Attraverso queste scelte di autorappresentazione emergono chiaramente le ambizioni politiche e ideologiche dei Comneno Duca, anche tenendo conto dell'assenza di fonti testuali "interne", ossia redatte da intellettuali organici alla corte di Arta. Il terzo capitolo è dedicato a un contesto cronologicamente e geograficamente circoscritto (l'Etoloakarnania tra il 1210 e il 1240 circa) attraverso l'approfondita analisi dell'attività di due figure eccezionali: il metropolita Giovanni Apokaukos e Costantino, il fratello di Michele I. Proprio le numerose lettere dell'arcivescovo aiutano a illuminare le vicende molto travagliate che riguardano questa "strana" e irrequieta coppia di rivali. La contesa per la giurisdizione su Naupaktos e l'area circonvicina si trasformò ben presto in un violento scontro: a questo tema, nonché alla presentazione del territorio e dei due "contendenti", è dedicato il primo paragrafo (III.1). Nel successivo (III.2) sono per la prima volta sistematicamente raccolte e commentate tutte le fonti, gli oggetti e i monumenti che è possibile riconnettere, per varie ragioni, al metropolita Apokaukos: in primis, attraverso uno spoglio della sua corrispondenza allo scopo di ricostruire la sua attività di committente sia sul versante dell'architettura e della decorazione monumentale sia su quello delle arti minori (in particolare i tessuti). Emerge in questo paragrafo anche il suo ruolo di concepteur di programmi iconografici e di autore di epigrammi destinati ad accompagnare oggetti preziosi. Il paragrafo III.3 introduce invece la figura di Costantino attraverso l'esame dell'exonartece del monastero di Varnakova, che egli fece costruire come mausoleo per sé e la sua famiglia: sfortunatamente molto alterato dopo la parziale distruzione del 1826, vengono in nostro soccorso documenti scritti seriori ed epigrafi metriche che dovevano essere apposte sulle due tombe. Grazie ad Apokaukos è poi possibile, nel paragrafo III.4, dare conto di altre iniziative "artistiche" di Costantino: in particolare la costruzione a Naupaktos di un soufas, ossia di una sala di ricevimento, che almeno nel nome richiama modelli dell'Anatolia selgiuchide. Tale impresa è stata letta alla luce del contesto in cui viene ricordata della citazione (una lettera di Apokaukos indirizzata al collega Chomatenos) e specificandone le particolarità sia architettoniche che simbolico-funzionali. L'ultimo paragrafo (III.5) verte su un altro monumento e in particolare sulla sua decorazione pittorica, patrocinata (come apprendiamo dall'iscrizione) da un certo Alessio Comneno Duca intorno al 1230. Si tratta, nonostante le precarie condizioni conservative, di un caso di studio molto interessante sia per gli elementi prosopografici (può Alessio essere identificabile con l'omonimo sepolto a Varnakova ed essere, quindi, un parente di Costantino?) sia per alcune soluzioni iconografiche, specie nel catino absidale. Il quarto capitolo è dedicato alla capitale del Despotato, Arta. Il nuovo ruolo di cui la città venne investita, soprattutto a partire dal 1230, comportò estese trasformazioni che le conferirono un'inedita facies monumentale, specie tenendo conto che nei secoli precedenti essa doveva apparire più dimessa, nonostante vi fossero – come si evince dal primo paragrafo (IV.1) – già diversi monumenti, alcuni dei quali ancora oggi esistenti. Il successivo paragrafo (IV.2) raccoglie le fonti storiche e i dati archeologici sulla città al fine di ricostruirne un più ampio quadro sociale, politico e topografico nel XIII secolo. Ciò permette di passare in rassegna (IV.3), evidenziando gli aspetti più interessanti ai fini della nostra ricerca, i monumenti che costellarono il centro urbano e l'area circonvicina, ma in un modo diacronico, ossia privilegiando una trattazione cronologica progressiva piuttosto che l'analisi sistematica di ogni chiesa o monastero. Questo perché ciascun monumento ha più fasi cronologiche, che spesso corrispondono a committenti differenti e quindi a diversi periodi storici. Un'analisi di Arta decennio per decennio può offrire quindi un quadro più chiaro del processo di monumentalizzazione iniziato da Michele II e proseguito da Niceforo, non senza il contributo delle rispettive mogli, Teodora e Anna. L'ultimo paragrafo (IV.4) getta uno sguardo d'insieme sulla città, seguendo un taglio particolare, quello topografico, per evidenziare – attraverso i monumenti principali – lo sviluppo di quella che Eastmond ha definito, a proposito di Trebisonda, «the ritual geography of the city». Nel Capitolo V, sempre privilegiando una lettura diacronica, si analizzano i due monumenti che più di tutti esprimono la ktetoreia dei despoti Michele II e Niceforo: i monasteri della Pantanassa presso Philippiada e della Parigoritissa di Arta. Essi presentano una storia costruttiva comune, segnata da due fasi, la prima legata a Michele II (1242-1267/1268) e la seconda a Niceforo I (1268-1296/1298). È proprio in questi due edifici che si manifesta con chiarezza non solo il "passaggio di consegne" tra una generazione e l'altra, ma anche la complessità della produzione artistica in Epiro. Ribaltando la prospettiva storiografica corrente, si prende in considerazione dapprima la Pantanassa e poi la Parigoritissa, questo perché, come emerge dal paragrafo V.1.1, è il monastero di Philippiada a vantare la precedenza cronologica su quello di Arta, che invece, nella sua prima fase, molto probabilmente non venne mai terminato (V.1.2). Niceforo, dopo aver ereditato il potere paterno, intervenne sui due edifici in modo differente. Nel caso della Pantanassa (V.2.1), provvide a costruire un complesso peristoon che inglobava il nucleo originario della katholikon e che si contraddistingueva per alcune soluzioni architettoniche estranee al contesto epirota, quali le volte a crociera costolonate e i portali strombati. La riqualificazione del monastero fondato dal padre Michele si tramutava, così, in un'"occidentalizzazione" del suo aspetto esterno. Nel caso della Parigoritissa (V.2.2) Niceforo optò per una ricostruzione integrale, secondo un progetto architettonico davvero straordinario e arricchito da alcuni elementi (come le gallerie e il baldacchino "aperto" sul prospetto occidentale) che richiamano soluzioni "imperiali" costantinopolitane. Per decorare il nuovo edificio reclutò mosaicisti da Oriente (Costantinopoli? Salonicco?) e scultori da Occidente: questi ultimi realizzarono opere molto singolari, che tuttavia rispondono – come vedremo – a un programma iconografico unitario. Nel Capitolo VI è tratteggiato il fenomeno della committenza aristocratica in Epiro, finora ri-masto decisamente ai margini degli studi. Si inizia con una disamina delle fonti epigrafiche attraverso cui è possibile conoscere il nome di questi altrimenti ignoti fondatori, di cui si precisano – per quanto possibile – i dati prosopografici. Nel primo paragrafo si cerca di tracciare un filo rosso tra le loro committenze, sia dal punto di vista artistico (stesse maestranze, stessi materiali) sia, soprattutto, da quello politico-topografico: una prospettiva di lettura, questa, che ci consente di ipotizzare una sorta di progetto "a tavolino" nella distribuzione geografica di tali fondazioni (VI.1). All'unico personaggio cui è possibile ascrivere più di un'opera, ossia Michele Zorianos, è invece dedicato il paragrafo successivo (VI.2). L'esame delle fonti epigrafiche e testuali si associa allo studio delle opere a lui sicuramente riferibili, il codice Barocci 29 della Bodleian Library di Oxford, l'anello d'oro del Metropolitan Museum di New York e, soprattutto, il complesso di chiese a Mokista in Etolia, per il quale venne coinvolto anche il monaco Cosma Andritzopoulos. Il VII e ultimo Capitolo raccoglie le conclusioni della ricerca, da un lato soffermandosi sui luoghi e i protagonisti delle imprese artistiche (in particolare sugli scultori occidentali della Pantanassa e della Parigoritissa, VII.1.1, e sui mosaicisti attivi in quest'ultimo cantiere, VII.1.2), dall'altro sulle componenti ideologiche e politiche sottese alle opere esaminate nei capitoli precedenti (VII.2).
Former Japanese Army buildings built from Meiji to Showa era are still found throughout Japan. Nevertheless their heritage value has not been sufficiently evaluated. Furthermore since these architectures face demolition, there are calls for their proper historical assessment which is a necessary step to construct means for their preservation.In this paper, the term "Army Heritage" refers to former military buildings or structures of the Japanese Army that have architectural or technical importance for preservation. The purpose of this research is to evaluate the technological transfer in regard to these heritages from France to Japan, as there is evidence that the Japanese Army invited arranged military missions from France in order to create new systems and facilities.The research is based on studies of original documentations in libraries and archives both in Japan and in France. The author studied remaining military buildings, specifically, an officers' mess hall of an aviation school in Akeno and an early stage military barrack of the 16th infantry regiment in Shibata. The investigation included dismantling method in Shibata.The author analyzed the results in three categories. 1, The system and organization of designs and plans of military architectures. 2, The prototypes of the architectural planning of military bases, barracks, covered paddock, officers' mess and hangars. 3, Japanese and French human networks in the old Japanese Army. From these analyses, the author found that French technologies were imported whenever the Japanese Army needed innovative technologies like modern Army or aviation. Additionally, the French networks had been undoubtedly established in the Japanese Army from Meiji to the first period of Showa era. This thesis can serve as an important reference to the remaining "Army Heritages", therefore the author proposes conservation to the Minister of Defense through this study. ; Le Japon possède un riche patrimoine militaire dont il ignore la valeur et les origines. Un regard sur le début du XIXe siècle montre une toute autre organisation des troupes, de type féodal. En fait, le pays adopte très vite le modèle français alors réputé le meilleur : de 1867 à 1919, diverses missions militaires organisent, bâtissent, ordonnent. Cette diplomatie militaire que l'on décortique à partir de sources inédites, est discontinue ; aux Français succèdent les Allemands, les Hollandais. Cependant les officiers du Génie et d'Artillerie, les As de la première Guerre mondiale ont tout particulièrement marqué le Japon. Casernes, mess d'officiers, usines, laboratoires en sont les témoins matériels, comme les premiers traités de construction et d'architecture. Dorénavant, le Ministère de la Guerre dispose d'une reconnaissance de ses plus anciens équipements. Avec cette synthèse, le ministère français de la Défense a une idée de la richesse de ces échanges.L'objet de la recherche est quelque peu tabou au Japon. L'architecture militaire n'a pas très bonne presse auprès du public car l'Archipel a tout perdu dans le dernier conflit mondial et il est toujours très critiqué par les pays d'Extrème Orient pour son occupation militaire.L'évaluation de la qualité architecturale des bâtiments militaires a longtemps été délaissée. Beaucoup de ces constructions publiques ont été détruites. Le peu de mémoire que constituent les restes mérite d'être apprécié à sa juste valeur avec les mêmes critères que pour l'architecture ou le génie civils. Aujourd'hui, l'armée de Terre soutient qu'elle a été formée par l'Allemagne, comme la Marine est persuadée d'avoir été éduquée par la Grande Bretagne. Nous montrons que le Japon a adopté les manières françaises pour son armée de Terre — à un moindre degré pour la Marine — et la France a continué longtemps cette formation par épisodes. Notre argumentaire, textes à l'appui, le certifie. D'autres chercheurs militaires ou non ont pisté antérieurement cette traces encore importantes de la présence française, mais faute de preuves suffisantes, ils n'ont pas pu aboutir aux certitudes que nous tentons d'affirmer. Le transfert de technologie de la France au Japon formalise une évolution constante et réfléchie, un éclectisme particulier qui figure une esthétique franco-japonaise. ; 明治から昭和にかけての旧陸軍建造物は少なくとも数百棟が残存しているが解体の危機に瀕する建物も多く、「陸軍遺産」として遺産学的な評価と保全活用方法が求められている。日本の近代化という観点からは西欧、特にフランスからの技術移転が顕著であり、日欧を横断した歴史的評価が必要である。建築史・技術史的な枠組で陸軍の築造ならびに築城事業の成立と発展を追い、日仏の技術比較の中での特徴解明が求められている。本論文は、陸軍にて日仏関係が続いた明治初期から昭和初期までの建築や土木構造物に焦点を当て、担い手であった工兵組織の成立と築造・築城事業における計画・設計・施工体制を対象とした。幕末から繰り返し派遣された仏軍事顧問団が軍事大国フランス陸軍の兵制、造兵、築造、築城技術をもたらし、翻案に始まり日本で独自の技術に育て上げたのが工兵を含む陸軍技術陣の仕事であった。具体的には仏兵営をモデルとした初期の歩騎兵の築営計画(兵営施設)、高度の土木技術を下敷きとなし仏砲工技術を採用した明治中期の築城計画(要塞)、大正期の陸軍航空部発足にともなって建てられた鉄筋コンクリート造の大規模建造物(格納庫等)や欧風デザインの将校集会所の建築を追い、人的交流、施設計画の決定プロセス、建築計画や構法技術の詳細を明らかにした。研究の方法は、日仏の史料館所蔵の史資料を発掘し突合せると共に、日本国内の遺構(新発田兵舎、明野将校集会所等)の解体調査を含んだ現地調査より建築技術的検証を行った。更に当時の陸軍施設建設を行った施工会社等に残されたデータを収集解析し実際の建設プロセスを復原、各時期に訪日した仏人技術者並びに訪仏した日本人技術者の履歴、図面の読み替えや要素技術の組み替えによる日本への技術導入等といった諸側面に光を当て日仏の密な関係を解明した。本論文の結論は以下の三点に集約される。一、陸軍施設の建築設計から施工体制の解明、二、兵営計画並びに陸軍建築のプロトタイプ解明、三、陸軍における人的ネットワークの解明。以上の三点より明治初期から昭和初期にかけての旧陸軍において、システムを含めフランスからの技術移転が新たな技術の導入が求められる毎に密に行われていたことが判明すると同時に、フランス系のネットワークが連綿と続いていたことが明らかになった。本論文をもって筆者は現存する旧陸軍建築遺産の保存活用方法について防衛省へ提言を行う。
Pikeville College Diary of a Flood A Publication of Pikeville College Pikeville, Kentucky 40501 April, 1977 Since 1889, the influence of Pikeville College has reached into the lives of families and individuals now digging out from under the muddy floodwaters of the Levisa Fork of the Big Sandy River, whose banks overflowed Monday night, Apri l 4, spilling over 51 feet of devastation into Pike County. The warm sun, 'tempered by a brisk wind, is now settling in on hundreds of students and employees . of Pikeville College as they begin putting back together their homes, classrooms and lives. Official estimates of the amount of money that Pikeville College will have to raise in order to get back to where it was on Monday morning, April 4, before the flood changed everything, are now over $1.5 million. At the same time, the people who are a part of Pikeville College-faculty, staff, students and administrators '--are trying to recover t heir spunk and spirit and carry on with their responsibilities. The process wi ll be slow. The coll ege's Science Building has served as a Red Cross Disaster Relief Center. For nearly two weeks, the dining room fed some 2,000 meals a day to people affected by t he flood who aren't connected with the college. Workers from HUD have set up offices in t he Science Bui lding that could be in use for up to six months. Larry Darlage, chairman of the Chemistry Department, helped Roger Keller organize the college facilities into a disaster. center before the Red Cross was mobilized. Now they and others who have assisted them are returning to their classes to finish the spring semester. They will have to manage that a long with continuing their service to the homeless, many of whom are college employees. "We estimate that to repair just the living facilities owned by the coll ege that were destroyed or bad ly damaged will cost upward of $300,000," President Jackson 0. Hall sad ly commented. Hall and Vice President for Development Bill Higginbotham are t rave ling to Detro it, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, Washington, New York, Charlottesvi lle, Richmond, Lexington and Louisville to seek immediate assistance. The personal possessions of college employees and students who have been displaced from their homes - many of whom have devoted countless hours staffing the emergency re lief centers as well as salvaging their belongings - a re conser vative ly estimated at $200,000. Although many of these people are from Pike County or areas where similar flooding occurs, others are from regions of the country where floods are unknown. Dr. Marie Tarpey, Vice President of Academic Affairs, came to Pikeville College from Delaware. A Boston native, Tarpey had no idea what kind of damage water will do. While the menace was rising toward her second floor apartment in a brand new complex just bui lt by the college, she was in her office call ing applicants to interview for a position currently open at the college. She had no idea that a f lood was in the making - a flood that would destroy her new furniture and most of her academic papers and books. (PHOTO) Associate Professor of Music Jim Andy Caudill and wife Jenny remove their belongings from college owned apartments. Photo by Bill Higginbotham Likewise, Dr. Jerry Harris, chairman of the college's Humanities Division, was dutifully teaching his Monday night class. About 7 p.m. Bill Higginbotham, Vice President for Development and Public Relations, walked into Harris' classroom and lifted him out of h1s chair. "We've got to get your cars out of the parking lot. The water is already up on the tires. It's taken us this long to figure out they were your cars." By the time they made the two minute trip from the classroom building down · the hi II to the parking lot, the cars had water up over the engines. They couldn't be saved. Harris and his wife Judith, recovering from major surgery in Columbus, Ohio, hospital, moved into the new apartment on February 25. On April 4, they lost nearly everything they had, including two libraries containing 1,800 pounds of books. SGA President Dole . . . exemplifies service above self A student government association president leads an exciting life at Pikeville College. Monday, April 4 , was a week long for Doug Dole, SGA president from Hamilton, Ohio. About 4 :45 p.m. that day Dole went with Ken Thornbury down the hill at the college to Park Street. The water was coming up and Thornbury wanted to move Bill McCloud's washer and dryer. Dole had been helping with the Red Cross Bloddmobile that had been in the college's Science Building that day. After moving McCloud's washer and dryer up the hi II and going back down to the river, Dole and his companions dis- covered the water coming up a lot quicker than they had noticed before. They began moving cars out of the parking lot behind the college gym. By the time the last car was on dry ground, the water was lapping around Dole's knees. Moving down Park Street next to the gym, Dole worked with Freddy Rutherford and Bi ll McCloud to move their be longings either up or out. He knocked on doors a ll a long the. street, asking people he didn't even know if they needed his help in trying to warn those who hadn't been outside that the water was coming up. Jonathan Harris joined Dole and Thornbury. They realized three people couldn't do much with the water rising so rapidly. So they went back to the dorm and got a lot more help. "They thought I was kidding (about the water). but they came anyway," Dole said . There were then at least fifteen students that went back to the Park Street area; others went to the other end of town. Dole didn't leave Park Street until the water was waist high. By that time his legs had begun to swell and were totally numb. He hurried to the new college apartments on the other side of the gym from Park Street. The water was up about six inches in the back of the building closest to the river When he arrived. He carried Lois Marks, wife of the college's alumni affairs director, out to her car. "Jonathan· must have carried the kid that was with Lois," Dole tried to recall. Lois was taking care of Jason Falls, four-year old son of public relations director Sara Falls, who was working furiously to move her first floor apartment be longings to safety. Some minutes later Dole waded back through the waist high water in the parking lot with Sara Falls. She climbed over furniture piled head high on the second floor breezeway and over the wrought iron railing to get an extra set of her car keys that she had left with neighbors for safe-keeping. Dole made sure she got up and back without falling. (Continued on page 3) While college employees and students were evacuating houses and apartments, water was also creeping into the college gymnasium: The interior destruction was total, not only to the gym, but to the classrooms housed in the build ing. To repair it and the tennis courts adjacent to it will cost more t han $300,000. Compounding an already bleak financial situation is the fact that Pikeville College relies heavily on gift support from the region. Annual giving had been projected at a level of $500,000 this year. The flood may reduce this by as much as $200,000, and the lingering effect will no doubt severely hamper local fund raising efforts next year. The business people and ind iv iduals who normally support Pikeville College in many cases are the same people who are digging themselves out of this disaster. Ramifications reach even further. There could be a decline in enrollment. Current students and other young men and women who otherwise would have come to Pikeville College will need to seek employment to offset the cost of replacing their homes and belongings. It's difficult to assess what that might mean in loss of tuition and room and board, but it could conceivably run as high as another $250,000 next year. Jack Marks, Director of Alumni Affairs, looked down shaking his head. "If anyone anywhere not affected by this tragedy ever thought of helping Pikeville College, I hope it will be now." Marks lost his personal belongings; he and his wife had moved into the new college apartments the first of March. He's back at work, trying to do what he can to get the college back in operating order. "The college needed me to come back to work," he said. "Everyone else is in the same shape I'm in; we're all doing the best we can. I just hope that depression and frustration doesn't set in." The future of Pikeville College depends on the spirit of people who work there like Jack Marks. And it depends on immediate financial relief from individuals, foundations and corporations outside the floodstricken area who come to the aid of this small, but vital, Appalachian college. Coming Events May 7 Alumni Banquet May 8 Commencement Summer Terms May 9-27 MiniMester June 6-July 28 Session I July 11-August 12 Session II June 6-August 5 Evening Session Morehead Graduate Classes May 16 Intersession June 6 Summer I July 5 Summer II
, ri^iiifitiisiiriTrrirraxTTjfxxitrrrTf j,t. '■ ' I* ' i ixxiixu - mj.Jumin-Unxjt-' 'if'.' IJsH/iA ■ j.1 .1H Ml- £1 ri= * -:- THE ~:~ Gettysburg mERGURY. FEBRUARY—MARCH, 1898. CONTENTS: [ Biographical Sketch of Dr. S. S. Schmucker,(continued), P. Austadt, D. D 103 The Kalevala, E. M. Stahl, '94, 108 The Ocean of Sleep, 115 Parasites,. 116 Education Among the General Synod Lutherans in the East, Grayson Z- Stup, A- B., '96 nS American Humor,. 123 A Modern Bellerophon, 129 Look Before You Leap 130 , Winter Crystal, [31 Blossoms, 132 [Sifted from Our Exchanges, 132 Editors' Desk, 135 I Sheer Nonsense, '. : 13S ■ : • ■ ' &: m I. M LLHR, PRINTER GETTYSBURQ. Imjig IIII ! IV Q'BURG C. LIB. I yiii&ai ■i ■^■■H I FAVOR THOSE WHO FAVOR US. J. R. STINE & SON, Qepts' ••• pdrpis^er, CHAMBERSBURG ST. C. B. KITZMILLER, --DEALER IN— flats, fopg, Boots and jSjoeg, GETTYSBURG, PA. Ready for Fall ant Winter. Suits to Order—Prices $12.00 to $35.00; Trousers, #2.50 to $9.00 ALL KINDS OF REPAIRING DONE. All the new effects in Check and i iv.'i- Plaids you will 11 ml at THE LEADING TAILOR, CLOTHIER AND GENTS' FURNISHER, J. H- JVl/ers, 11 Balto. St., Gettysburg, Pa. S. B. ALCOTT, —AGENT l'UR— Browning King & Co., iiiTi-iiiiiii Tailor, New York. Suits #12.00 up, Overcoats #12.00 up, Pants #4.00. Fit and workmanship guaranteed. ■ ~R. A. WONDERS'" Corner Cigar Parlors. A FULL LINE OF Cigars, Tobacco, Pipes, &c. Scott's Cor. Opp. Eagle Hotel, Gettysburg EPH. H, MINNIGH, Manufacturer, Wholesale and Retail Dealer in Confectionery and Ice Cream, Oysters in Season. News Depot & Subscription Agency, MAIN ST. GETTYSBURG, PA. Sole Mauuf r of Dr. Tyler's Congh Drops SAMUEL FABER. FINE CIGARS .AND. SMOKER'S mm. Chambersburg St., GETTYSBURG JOJW Jfl. TO(G)i CONFECTIONERY AND ICE CREAM, OYSTERS STEWED AND FRIED. No: 17, BALTIMORE STREET. COLLEGE OK P^-sldans § Surgeons, BAI.TIMORK.MI>. The College of Physicians ami Surgeons of Baltimore, Maryland, is a well equipped school. Four ses-sions are required for graduation. For full information send for the annual catalogue, or write to THOMAS OPIE, M. D., Dean. Cor. Calvert and Sarato u r~ ■ •f \ \ \3 I S. S. S. SCHMUCKER, D. D. The [jeiifojglHtfij ^eiwij, Entered at the Post Office at Gettysburg as secoud-class matter. VOL. V. GETTYSBURG, PA., FEBRUARY, 1898. No. 10. STAFF: EDITOR-IN-CHIEF, AI.UMNI EDITOR, IV. H. Bruce Carney. ' should take more time to think before we act and not rush on as if there were no future. We must not permit our humor to satisfy our religion nor supersede it. The motto "be temperate in all things" applies here as elsewhere. Humor, the necessary product of our fundamental princi-ples of government, stands to us as an emblem of prosper-ity, wealth, happiness, pleasure, contentment and freedom. It is a wonderful national platform and if not carried to excess we can proudly boast as the most humorous of all people. w. E. B., '99. A MODERN BELLEROPHON. The boy was in a lonely mood, The common fate he shared ; Examination day was nigh And he was unprepared. He pondered long upon the thought How best he might proceed ; For willing though the spirit seemed The flesh was weak indeed. At length o'ercome by doubts and fears, He fell into a dream In which a Senior came to him And told him of a scheme. Said he, "Young man, arise at once, The bridle's by thy side ; Go quickly catch the winged steed And on thy foray ride." Up leaped the lad at break of day, Free from his grave despair ; To fou7itain Pen he sped in haste And caught Pegassus there. He bridled him and mounted him, And rode off with a zest; Assured that some day on his brow The ivy vine would rest. But sad indeed 'tis to relate, This verdant Freshman boy, Unlike Bellerophon of old, No triumphs could enjoy. 130 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. The Prof's, keen eyes in rolling round Soon saw the horse awing; And sending out a gad-fly stare Surprised him by its sting. The jade burst forth iu accents grave, And made a fearful balk ; He threw the lad ; but since I've heard It taught him how to walk. —J. 13. BAKER, 1900. LOOK BEFORE YOU LEAP." When we come to examine the different professions of life, we see many who do not and in fact can not, do honor to themselves nor to the profession in which they are. It is a fact and one much to he lamented that there are men at present in the Christian ministry and other respon-sible positions, whose proper positions would be on the farm or on the road. There is no one profession from the lowest to the high-est, but that is disgraced by men who are not able to fill honestly the positions which they occupy. If there are any who would inquire why this is so, they can themselves find by observation that many of the young of the present day, as it has been in the past, do not look rightly before they enter a profession. Many desiring to become rich as soon as possible, enter any profession whatever, providing it promises riches in the future. They rush forward and do not take into consideration their own qualifications nor the real nature of the vocation. Thus urged on not by reason and judgment, but by the golden fruit of riches, they behold in the distance the tree laden with glittering fruit, and may finally be able to grasp some of the golden apples, but alas ! they find them to be ashes. Either in an unpropitious moment the whole fortune may be taken away, or if it even remains in their hands it will be their eternal ruin. The weary traveler upon the desert journeys along hirsty and fainting, when all at once he beholds in the distant horizon, water glittering in the sun. He is urged THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 131 on by this glorious sight. Yet to his surprise, when he ar-rives at the spot the water is not there, but in some other position; thus as he advances the water recedes, and after some fruitless efforts he finds that he has been de-ceived by the mirage of the desert. Thus it is with these seekers after fame. They may even attain to their object in view but when they have fame it will give them about as much pleasure as the burning sands of the desert give to the weary traveler. The idea that one can enter any profession he desires is false, although we are free agents we must always con-sider before we choose a calling for life. We are not at liberty to do anything carelessly and with indifference. But it is our duty in all matters to act honestly and thoughtfully. It is our duty to examine ourselves truth-fully to see whether we have the real qualifications for the position we are about to assume. We often hear men say they can do as much good in one profession as in another. Perhaps they can, providing they enter with proper motives and with the conscious-ness that they are truly performing their duty. But how frequently men just enter upon a course the very oppo-site of what reason and their own consciences tell them to do. In consequence of the object of our creation we must choose such a course of life as will enable us to do most good in the world. We must not take our own selfish mo-tives into consideration, but the honor and glory of God and the welfare of humanity. c. s. B., 1900. WINTER CRYSTAL Sweet, in silent winter night, The little church stands out Against the landscape crisp and white, So pure aud so devout. The mellow light shines soft aud kind Upon the ice-bound stream, And o'er the traveler's weary mind Sheds peace and joy serene. "TiJSS.' MML 182 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. BLOSSOMS. The violet 'long the traveler's way, Its sweetness gives to cheer his weary heart; The rarest rose on royal breast Though worn by queens plays not a nobler part. No wild rose e'er has bloomed in vain, Though but a beggar stoop to offer praise, Who reads its message pure and sweet, And bows before the thoughts of better days. But sweeter far than lowly flower, The life, a true and loving heart unfolds; Its sweetest fragrance, purity, Inspires the soul, and noble action moulds. j. N. K H., 99- SIFTED FROM OUR EXCHANGES. Is the literary or debating society less worthy than in the days of our fathers, or do we, in the great wisdom of our age, have less need of the training they offer ? There is cause for concern and the "problem" should receive earnest consideration by every college man. Rival inter-ests are said to be the chief cause of decline. Athletics, fraternities, clubs, etc., are generally cited as being the means of diverting interest from the literary society. But why does the student allow himself to be diverted ? Temp-tation is almost as old as the race. None of these things are comparable in value to the good old literary society, and it is the mark of honor to stand by that which is best. Students in earlier times were no doubt tempted to give their time to other interests as much as we, but they made their literary society of first importance. The modern col-lege debater or essayist would feel justly ashamed were he to be transported for an evening back to the old literary society of Longfellow and Hawthorne. If the proper lit-erary zeal existed to-day, rival interests would not inter-fere. The problem must be solved in the individual. His honor as a student should direct him to active participa-tion in literary work.—Ursinus College Bulletin. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 133 I write, not in criticism of any deficiency in library facilities in any college, but in earnest desire to further your good purpose, and to increase interest among your fellow students in the use of libraries. First, books must be AVAILABLE. The college library must cease to depend upon the occasional donation of out-worn private libraries, or the whim of some special friend for special literary or other fads. The income for new books should be as steady and as reliable as for the endow-ment of any chair. This income should be wisely appor-tioned to the needs of all departments of instruction main-tained by the institution, without partiality or undue dis-crimination. It goes without saying that it should be ad-equate to actual needs. Second, the existing treasures on the shelves, and the new ones to be secured must be ACCESSIBLE, (a) There should be a general library with the reading room in close proximity, and also (b) special departmental collection in the several buildings devoted to their respective uses. The general library should be open for the consultation and drawing of books from 8 A. M. to 10 p. M., in winter, and 7 A. M. to 10 p. M., in spring and summer. It should be open on all holidays and on Sunday afternoons. The departmental libraries should be in charge of a student librarian for each, and be open as occasion may warrant. Free access to the shelves should be given to all users of the books. The seeing, the handling, the examining of books by young people is a very helpful part of their edu-cation. To be accessible is also to be arranged systematically, to be classified, scientifically, to be catalogued, and, in a degree, to be indexed.—Prof. William E. Martin, Librarian Bucknell University, in The Lafayette. T t t In my opinion the Ideal College Life embraces the fol-lowing elements : 1. The student should keep in constant view the ob- 134 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. ject for which he is sent to college and apply himself closely to his studies so as to maintain a good, honorable standing in his class for scholarship. 2. He should be careful to take the proper exercise to develop along with his intellectual attainments a sound, healthy body, and not weaken or enervate it. 3. He should cheerfully comply with all the rules and regulations of the college, so as to carry with him when he graduates the recollection that he was a loyal, faithful student, and did all in his power to maintain the honor and good name of his alma mater. 4. He should in all his intercourse with the Faculty and his fellow-students be manly and gentlemanly, so as to have the respect and esteem of all. 5. He should, along with his physical, intellectual and social culture, so develop his moral and religious na-ture as to blend them all in such delightful harmony as to attain the life of a Christian, the highest and noblest type of manhood.—Geo. W. Williard, D. D., L. L. D.,in College Student. ttt Two things may justly be expected of college students more than any uther class of men ; one may be a more difficult accomplishment than the other, yet both may be acquired and go hand in hand with one another. The first is the ability to read ; the second, the ability to think. —The Wittenberger. t t t It is no small part of a College education to form habits of observation, acquisition and application. What a man is when he leaves College he will be for life. Among the most subtle temptations that will come to the student is that of wasting what is most common and yet most precious—time. Small pieces of time are like small coins, they disappear very readily without leaving any trace. The man who can conserve the minutes will not waste the hours, and yet how much can be accomplished THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 135 in a few stray minutes if we but seize the opportunities and make them count. It is so easy to sit down in one's chair and chat for five or ten minutes, or drop in on a neighbor, wasting his as well as our own time. It is not the minutes themselves that are so valuable ; it is the habit of wasting them that proves destructive. Formed while in college, it clings through after life, and its victim becomes one of those people who are always behind.—Vox Wesleyuna. EDITORS' DESK. We believe that books and articles which are not worth a second reading are scarcely worth the first. With this conviction in mind we endeavor to publish some real literature, something which will awaken thought and arouse sentiment, something which will be helpful to our varied class of readers. We are conscious that it is almost impossible to publish matters of value and interest alike to undergraduate whose life is young, spirits buoyant whose mind is centered upon the literature and questions of the past, and to our alumni sobered by the trials of life and occupied with the questions of the living present. However hard the task, we have relied upon your love for Alma Mater's interests to blind you to our short comings and to assist us in getting into the current of popular ap-proval. We have received many appreciated comments in the columns of our exchanges, clippings have been frequently made from our articles. Kind words and substantial evi-dence come in private letters, for all of which we are thankful; but we are grieved at the number who have asked for discontinuance and the tardiness of many de-linquents. We are passing through a crisis period in the history of our institution and especially is this true in re-gard to our publications. Although not in thick darkness* we will be lost if we do not go hand in hand as students and alumni, keeping cool heads and stout hearts, laboring not for selfish ends but for the common good of Gettys- 13(5 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. burg. Have you done your duty ? Let us in this day of patriotic awakening, rise also to a full measure of the de-votion due to Gettysburg and her interests. We are sorry that for causes which need not here be explained, the Feb. number of THE MEKCURY could not be issued. We have tried to make this number worthy your careful reading. Read everything, and the best things twice, not forgetting the advertisements. * * * "The Morning Watch." This subject was ably hand-led and forcefully presented at the last State convention. Every one prestnt could not help but realize the wonder-ful blessings, which came to all who faithfully observe it. If there is a class of people to whom the morning watch is more especially adapted than any other, it is the student. By the morning watch is meant the setting apart of a certain period of the early morn, say a half hour, to get alone with God, to meet Hira in some secret place, where silence reigns and the cares of this world are barred out. Where nothing interrupts the study of His Word, deep meditation, and sweet communion. Surely this ideal way of beginning the day cannot help but appeal to every reader. Do you want to develop character ? Do you want to be uplifted to higher planes of living ? Do you want to become more and more like the Master ? In short, do you want power ? Then observe the morning watch. Yours shall be the reward. Not infrequently does it happen that a student or stu-dents at a college or university have original ideas and plans by which the best interests of the institution might be advanced. It may be that these plans, if carried out. would meet a need which the particular institution has for a long time felt. It is, however, often the case that such plans and "schemes" are never put into execution for the simple reason that there exists no student organization of a kind to which such matters could be suggested, and THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. i:)7 which would be competent to carry through, in a syste-matic way, any student undertaking arising in this manner. The originator of the ideas so far from taking steps to bring his plans to a successful issue, sometimes does not even mention them to his companions. In this way much valuable activity on the part of the stu-dents is often lost to an institution of learning. At Gettysburg the advantage of an organization of the kind indicated above, was recognized by an alumnus. He lost no time in making known to the students his views as to the good, he felt sure, would accrue to our college through such an organization. The student body heartily favored the movement; and the Society of Pen and Sword was organized. The scope of activity of this Society, prac-tically includes every field in which the college has inter-est. In athletics and the college publications the Society is particularly interested. The only conditions of election to membership in the Society are a manifestation on the part of the student of sincere and active interest in all matters which concern the good of the college, and unmistakable evidence of loy-alty t^> alma mater. It is hardly necessary to add that already, at the end of the first year of its existence, the Society has accom-plished a half dozen very important undertakings in be-half of Gettysburg. Let us all join in our hearty wishes for another successful year. * * * IT is most gratifying to every lover of Old Gettysburg to note the greatly increased spirit of activity which now prevails throughout our entire institution. This spirit is particularly manifest among the boys who are musically inclined, and, as a result, the College has musical organi-zations of which she may well be proud. Moreover the recent organization of a good second Glee Club makes the prospect for the future very bright. We heartily com-mend the zeal of the Clubs and predict for them great suc-cess in their coming trip. They deserve it. 138 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. THERE has been an unusual number of lectures and entertainments in Brua Chapel this year. In general they have been quite well patronized by the students and the citizens of the town. This is a commendable way of rais-ing money for worthy objects, but we fear that too many entertainments will have a bad effect on the regular Y. M. 0. A. course which is provided every year. Might it not be better to have less in number and then aim to secure only the best ? SHEER NONSENSE. "Genius is a diffikult thing to hide. I hav even seen it revealed in blowing the noze or handling a toothpick. "It iz a pleasant thing to kno that cunning men, sooner or later, git kaught in the traps they set for others. "There is now and then a man who can make a cir-kumstanse, but as a general thing, cirkumstanses make men."—Josh Billings. It seems the wittiest things e'er heard By him who hears them told, Are those which he himself relates No matter if they're old. Thus you see 'tis verified The sayiug old and true, I know not who it's author was "Laugh, the world laughs with you." -Ex. FOOT-BALL TERMS. First down—Chawlie's moustache. Half-back—$2.50 paid on a borrowed $5. -Ex. Breathes there a man with soul so dead, Who never to himself (?) has said, As he stubbed his toe against the bed: « i it in ? -Ex. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 139 Some student, in searching through classic (?) literature, has come across the following fragment: "Darkibus uightibus, No lightiorum, Strikibus postibus, Breechibus torum."—Ex. Do you think she loves you? I don't know. I'm all in the dark. Well, if she entertains you that way, I think it's pretty good proof. There are two reasons why some people don't mind their own business. One is that they haven't any niiud, the other, that they haven't any business. —Han ard Lampoon. David Ward, the lucky gold miner, who brought back the news of a rich find of gold on the American side of Alaska, and who says that the rush next spring will be far down the Yukon on the American side, spent three years prospecting in Alaska, and in that time only received seven letters from home. Since his return he has had more than that many thousands of letters from would-be argonauts in three mouths. He is now in Philadel-phia, Pa., and tries to answer every inquiry concerning the Far North, its perils, rigors of climate and wonderful riches. His practical experience makes his advice highly valuable, and anyone interested in Alaska should avail themselves of his knowledge by writing to him. War Pictures. in beautiful colors. " ", u. "MAINE" and Battle-sfups .1NDIANAf" (Latter cleared for action) each i2xiS. North Atlantic Squadron, All ships of the line (in ac-tion) 12x36. Drawn from life by Reuterdahl. Finest pictures ever published. Mew York Bombarded. Transporting Troops to the Front. Artillery in Action. Storming Morro Castle. All the above beautiful colored pictures will appear in TRUTH. $1.00 will bring TRUTH for six mouths, in-cluding all the above and the follow-ing pictures on heavy plate paper for framing, will be given free as a premium. 1. Battle-ship "Maine," - 12x18. 2. " " "Indiana," 12x18. 3. Storming Morro Castle. Address, TRUTH, No. 40 Litho. Bldg. NEW YORK. WE RECOMMEND THESE BUSINESS MEN. TlQCJPriPr'Q lrt/HntPn Desiring position iu public or private I CO.L/IICI O VI CM I IX>U schools, Colleges or Universities, iu any slate in the Union, to apply through us. We charge no Commission on Salary for Se;uring Positions, Our facilities are the best. 5,000 vacancies last year. Life Membership and duplicate registration for one fee. 500 teachers wanted immediately to fill emergency vacancies on short notice. Graduate students iu great demand. H. H. HOPKINS SCO, Han:o?.'c, Maryland. You will find a full line of Pure Drugs & Fine Stationery PEOPLES' DRUG STORE. Prescriptions a Specialty. J. A. Sawney is ready to furnish clubs and board-ing houses with Bread, Rolls, &c, at short notice and reasonable rates. Washington and Middle Sta., Gettysburg David Troxel, DEALER IN FINE GROCERIES AND NOTIONS. . lias*. D. It., Manager. Pittsburg, Pa., Toronto, Can., New Or-leans, La., New York, N. Y., Wash-ington, D. C, San Francisco, Cat., Chicago, III., St Louis, Mo., Denver, Col, There are thousands of positions to be filled. We had over 8,000 vacancies last season. Unsurpassed facilities for plac-ing teachers in any part of the U.S. or Canada. One fee registers in 9 office. More vacancies than teachers Address all Applications to Pittsburg, Pa. MUMPER & BENDER, Fnrniture, Cabinet Making. Picture Frames. Baltimore St., - GETTYSBURG, PA. Go T/y iifr- ^HOTEL GETTYSBURG^? BARBER SHOP. Centre Square. B. M. SEFTON. SIMON J. CODORI, —DEALER IN— BEEF, PORK. LAMB, VEAL, SAUSAGE, York Street, Gettysburg, |3ilf*'Special rates to clubs. ^,Go To^ ^TIPTON & BARBEHEO^ BARBERS, In the Eagle Hotel, Gor. Main and Washington 8ta, Subscribe for > The MeflcuflJ. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. ACCUlVIUliATEDWEflliTH. Laying up of riches isn't the only thing in life, for frequently a sour disposition is Ihe result. You want to take comfort in life as you Lr" along, one of the best ways to lane comfort is to buy well-fitting clothing. My Pall Slyles are now here and the selection is large and varied Suits made to your order from 812 up. Pressing and Repairing done at short notice. J. I). I.IPPT, Merchant Tailor. 45 Chambersburg St., Gettysburg. G. E. SPANGLER, (Successr to J. VV. Eicholtz & Co.) DEALER IN PIANOS, ORGANS, MUSIC, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, STRINGS, Etc. YORK S TREET, ist Square, Gettysburg. 1108 « HESTXI T STttliET, PHILADELPHIA. Wright's Engraving House, HAS hecome the recognized leader in unique styles of COLLEQ E and FRA-TERNITY ENGRAVINGS and STATION-ERY, College and Class-Day Invitations, engraved and printed from steel plates ; Programmes, Menus, Wedding and Re-ception Invitations, Announcements, etc. etc., Examine prices and styles before ordering elsewhere. 50 Visiting Cards from New Engraved Plates $1.00. ERNESTA. WRIGHT, uo8 ChestnutSt., Philadelphia. JOHN L. SHEADS, NEW CIGAR STORE Next door to W. M. Depot, Gettysburg, Pa. P. F. HENNIG7 —DEALER IN— Bread, Rolls, Pretzels Crackers, YORK STREET, GETTYSBURG. t3F"Reasonable Rates to Clubs. L. D. MILLER, /p Main St., Gettysburg. Grocer, Confectioner and Fruiterer. IGE CREAM and OYSTERS in SEASON. GETTYSBURG, PA., Main St. Free 'Bus to and from all trains. Rates $1.50 ta $2.00 per day. Thirty seconds'walk from either depot. DINNER WITH DRIVE OVER FIELD WITH 4 OR MORE $1.35. JOHN E. HUGHES, Prop'r Go TA C. A. BLOCHER'S Jewelry Store .FOR. Souvenir Spoons, Sword Pins, &c. All Kinds of Jewelry. Repairing a Specialty. Post Office Corner, Centre Square. PHOTOGRAPHER, NO. 3 MAIN STREET, GETTYSBURG, PA. Our new Enameled Aristo Por-traits are equal to Photos made anywhere, and atany price. FAVOR THOSE WHO FAVOR US. BASE BALL SUPPLIES, Spaldings League Ball, ^ Mits, Masks, etc., and Managers should send for samples and special rates. Every requisite for Tennis, Golf, Cricket, Track and Field Gymnasium Equipments and Outfits, c 'omplete Catalogue Spring Summer Sports Free. "THE NAME THE GUARANTEE" A. G. SPkLDING, & BROS., New York, Philadelphia, Chicago. S. G. Spangler, & Co. Fine Groceries,, Telephone 39, 102 E. Middle St. s. J. cooor^i, jf., DRUGGIST. DEALER IN D rugs, Medicines, oilet Ar-ticles, Stationery, Blank Books, Amateur Pho-tographic Supplies, Etc., Etc. BALTIMORE STREET. R. H. CULP, J7 cllJt£I, A .* ''■-^.' Second Square, - York Street. College Emblems, EJVIILi ZOTHE, Engraver, Designer and Mauufact'g Jeweler. 19 SOUTH NINTH STREET; PHILADELPHIA, PA. SPECIALTIES : Masonic Marks. Society Badges, College Buttons, Pins, Scarf Pius, Stick Pins and Athletic All goods ordered through C.H.Tilp. BOKRDINC-By Day, Week or Month. Rates reasonable. House equipped with all modern improvements. GROCERY STORE in same building. Full line of goods kept and sold at small profits. House and Store located on Cor. of College Campus, opposite Brua Chapel. J3F"Public Patronage Solicited SIIIIIIII>1 II. TauuJiiiibaimli. Prop. MENEELY BELL~G0. Troy, N. Y. Manufacturers of SUPERIOR BELLS. The 2000 pound bell now ringing in the tower of Pennsylvania College was manufactured at this foundry. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. AM0£ EGBERT —DEALER IN— Hats, Shirts, Shoes, Ties, Umbrellas, Gloves, Satchels, Hose, Pocket Books. Trunks, Telescopes, Rubbers, Etc., Etc., AMOS ECKERT. Ff.Q Jol}nJ. Thomson's Sons IMPORTERS AND JOBBERS OF + DRUGS, + NOB. 16 and IS \V. German sti t. BALTIMORE, Ml). Offer to the trade their large and well-selected stock of DRUGS, MEDICINES, CHEMICALS and PERFUMERY. Make a specialty to have on hand everything required by Pharmacists. A complete stock can at any time be selected or wants supplied. Job printer1 j WEAVER BUILDTJVG, Centre Square, ALONZO L. THOMPSEN, Manufacturing- Chemist. Race, Winder, Sharp & beadenhall Sts, P. (). Box 657. BALTIMORE, MD. I beg to call attention to the trade that I have recently added to my Plant a com-plete set of Drug Milling Machinery of the most improved pattern. J. I. MUMPER, PHOTOGRAPHER, 29 BALTIMORE ST., GETTYSBURG, PA. Special Attention C()LLE(JE WORK. A FINE COLLECTION OF BATTLEFIFLD VIEWS. Always on hand. Mail Orders receive Prompt Attention. CALL ON F. MARK BREAM The Carlisle Street Grocer, Who always has on hand a full line of fine Groceries. ^j:xj>imM*iMms£?:mm WE RECOMMEND THESE BUSINESS MEX. HOTEL GETTYSBURG SHSPQvB .'n Centre Squarv. where McClellan Bouse formerly stood. &ETT1 slil'K'l. PA. RATES 82 PER DAY. H is ihe acknowledged Lead-ing Hotel of Gettyslrg Heat-ed fnrbugttont with steam; hoi or cold Baths; conmrodions Sample Rooms: Dlnillif-rooni E^iij capacity 20Q; lias a Cusine of ar excellence Headquarters for League American VV1 1- :ii;iii. ileadquarters commer- V cial travelers., Headquarters ^ military or civic societies, Free iins to and from all ~ "^ tl'ains II. & I>. H. Miller Prop's. EIMER & AMEND, Manufacturers and Importers of CHEMICALS an i CHEMICAL APPARATUS, 205, 207> 209 & 2I1 Third Avenue, Corner [8th Street. NEW YORK. Finest Bohemian and German Glassware, Royal Berlin and Meis-sen Porcelain, Purest Hammered Platinum, Balances and Weights. Zeiss Microscopes; and Bacteriologi-cal Apparatus, Chemical Pure Acids and Assay Goods. Established 1876 PENROSE MYERS, Watchmaker and Jeweler. Gettysburg Souvenir Spoons, College Souvenir Spoons. No. 10. Balto. St. (icll.vslinrs. Pa! & "PRICES ALWAYS RIGHT" THE LUTHERAN PUBLISHING HOUSE, ^ No. 42 North nth St. PHILADELPHIA, PA. Acknowledged Headquarters for ANYTHING and EVERYTHING in the way of Books for Churches, Families, Col leges, and Sellouts, and Lit-erature, for Sunday Schools. Please Remember That by sending your orders f us yon help build up and ileveio) i the Church institutions, with pecun-iary advantage tO yOUTSelf. Addl't- Henry S. Boner, Snp?.t. No. i2 North 9;h siren. PHILADELPHIA 1 IARBER <:SHOP CHARLES C. SEFTON, Proprietor. BALTIMORE STREET. The place for Students to go. Only First, class Tnusorial Work \
Este trabajo analiza la manera cómo España construyó, a finales del siglo XIX, una imagen de nación moderna fundamentada en la conciencia de un pasado glorioso, el del descubrimiento de América o del Nuevo Mundo. La atención se enfoca en el análisis de la participación del país ibérico en las Exposiciones Históricas (EH) que tuvieron lugar en Madrid, en 1892, precisamente en el marco de la celebración del IV centenario de dicho suceso. Evento de gran trascendencia para la coyuntura política española de fin de siglo, caracterizada por la profunda crisis que había dejado la pérdida de supremacía sobre la mayor parte de sus antiguas colonias en el continente americano. No es gratuito, pues, que en este contexto se asista a una especie de competencia, entre tres naciones, por conseguir el predominio de la conmemoración. Italia, por ser la cuna de Cristóbal Colón; España, por haber apoyado de forma decida el proyecto colombino; y, Estados Unidos, por considerarse heredera directa de la civilización occidental. En las tres, los eventos expositivos constituirán el eje central de la celebración. Para el caso de España, tras una primera iniciativa, en 1888, de celebrar una exposición de carácter universal -como la inaugurada ese mismo año en Barcelona-, en 1891 se decanta por la realización de dos, de carácter histórico e internacional, "detenidas en el siglo XVI". A diferencia de las ferias mundiales, donde primó el sello arquitectónico que le otorgó cada nación, en las EH a cada nación le será asignada una o varias salas dentro del Palacio de Biblioteca y Museos Nacionales, inaugurado para la ocasión. El piso principal albergará a la Histórico-Europea (HE), proyectada con el propósito de mostrar los testimonios históricos y de las artes provenientes de aquella época y conservados por los países europeos. La planta baja, acogerá a la Histórico- Americana (HA), que busca dar cuenta del estado de desarrollo alcanzado por los pueblos americanos al momento de la llegada de los españoles. De esta manera, las EH se convierten en las más importantes de su género, no sólo en ámbito español de la segunda mitad del siglo XIX sino de todo el orbe. La primera, por reunir objetos de carácter histórico y artístico de varias naciones europeas, pero especialmente de la anfitriona; la segunda, por exponer por primera vez, y a la vista de Europa y el mundo, el panorama de las culturas prehispánicas conocidas hasta ese entonces, algo que no habían logrado ni siquiera los Congresos Internacionales de Americanistas. En ellas, pues, se hace imposible separar lo histórico, cultural, artístico o científico, de sus implicaciones políticas. No es de extrañar, pues, que España hiciera un despliegue de la gran riqueza de su patrimonio histórico-artístico y de material americano, acumulando durante siglos por la casa real y la nobleza; los museos, archivos y bibliotecas; la iglesia; y, los coleccionistas privados, en su mayoría pertenecientes a la aristocracia y a la naciente burguesía. Es, precisamente, la participación de España en estas EH la que interesa en esta investigación, pues tuvo presencia en las dos. En la HE ocupará la mayor parte de los salones que la conformaban, a través de una gran una gran variedad material bibliográfico y documental, pinturas de reconocidos artistas, piezas de arte decorativo, mobiliario litúrgico, tapices y, sobre todo, objetos de valor histórico que hacían alusión a hechos o personajes destacados del devenir nacional, entre los siglos XV y XVII. Por su parte, en la HA, participa con documentación y material arqueológico fruto de su presencia, por más de tres siglos, en territorio americano. De tal manera que, el estudio de dicha participación constituye un prisma privilegiado de observación de sus implicaciones políticas y culturales. El trabajo se divide en cinco partes, cada una de ellas dividida en dos capítulos. La primera aborda, por una parte, los postulados que rigieron las políticas del recuerdo asumidas por Italia, Estados Unidos y España, los tres países que, a uno y otro lado del Atlántico, asumieron la delantera en la celebración del IV centenario del descubrimiento de América (IV centenario); por otra, analiza los sentidos divergentes que adoptaron las exposiciones que, como eventos centrales de la conmemoración, se proyectaron en cada una de dichas naciones, haciendo énfasis en el proceso de delimitación de la naturaleza de las circunscritas para el caso español. En la segunda, emprende el acercamiento al contexto específico del país ibérico, explorando cómo una retórica visual concreta, la relacionada con la iconografía colombina, coloca la figura de Colón y el suceso del descubrimiento al servicio de la imagen de España como nación imperial, en la que confluirán una serie de prácticas del recuerdo circunscritas no solo a la pintura de historia sino al espacio público y a la industria editorial. La tercera, pone el foco de atención en el complejo exhibicionario que tuvo lugar en Madrid en 1892 que muestran, de alguna manera, una jerarquización de imaginarios nacionales en torno a la historia, las artes, la arqueología y la industria. En primera instancia, aborda los proyectos expositivos distintos a las EH, tales como la Exposición Internacional de Bellas Artes, la Escolar y el Certamen de labores, así como pequeñas iniciativas de diversa índole; para luego centrarse en las EH, especialmente en los difusos límites que acompañó el proceso de delimitación de su denominación y naturaleza, y cómo esta situación se exteriorizó en el discurso museográfico que ellas desplegaron. Las dos últimas partes asumen un estudio pormenorizado de la participación de España en las EH. La cuarta, analiza su presencia en la EHA, mostrando cómo dicha participación se inscribe en el contexto geopolítico colonial finisecular abordando, en primer lugar y de manera general, la presencia en dicha exposición de otras naciones que disputan este contexto imperial, en sus múltiples aristas, como Portugal, Dinamarca, Noruega, Francia y los Estados Unidos. En segundo lugar, se examinan las instalaciones de España, que exhibirán material de minería y objetos etnográficos procedentes, especialmente, de las que aún eran sus colonias; así como antigüedades precolombinas conservadas en sus museos. La quinta, explora las implicaciones políticas e históricas que subyacen bajo el propósito de configurar una unidad nacional que subraya la continuidad histórica entre los reyes católicos y la España finisecular en crisis, en la que confluyen: monarquía, instituciones estatales, iglesia y coleccionistas particulares. Así, en primera instancia se estudia el despertar de una conciencia imperial basada en la posesión de un patrimonio histórico y artístico por parte de la casa real; museos, bibliotecas y archivos estales; y, la iglesia católica. Por último, se explora el papel que desempeñaron las colecciones particulares, especialmente de aristócratas, en la ratificación de una línea de tiempo entre los reyes católicos y los soberanos del siglo XIX. En un intento de España por recuperar la credibilidad de un gobierno finisecular en crisis, tanto a nivel interno como hacia el exterior, su participación en las EH fue concebida, dado su alcance ibérico, americano y europeo, como una estrategia política para afirmar y consolidar su lugar como una nación con conciencia imperial; una táctica de visibilización para combatir tres frentes geopolíticos diferenciados. Por una parte, el europeo, en el que predominaba la historiografía de la decadencia expresada en la Leyenda Negra; por otra, el norteamericano, que se proyecta como una nueva potencia que puede desplazar su protagonismo en Hispanoamérica; y, por último, las recién independizadas naciones americanas que, al estar definiendo sus referentes identitarios, y ante las cuales convenia estrechar los lazos que la unían a ellas. De tal manera que, la actualización de una conciencia imperial adquiere, en la coyuntura centenarista, una dimensión enfocada en nuevas formas de colonización, desde el ámbito cultural e histórico, liderado por el movimiento hispanista, en el que historia, raza y religión compartidas, a uno y otro lado del Atlántico, se resignifican como los estandartes de una nación con conciencia imperial. La investigación permitió inferir que, en términos de patrimonialización de un pasado glorioso, se llevó a cabo una diferenciación entre el material de origen europeo, convertido ahora en argumento del grado de civilización alcanzado por España durante la Edad Moderna, expuesto en la EHE; y, el material americano, que adquiere la connotación de prueba y trofeo, exhibido en la EHA. En este contexto, el espectacular despliegue de España en las EH, a través de colecciones históricas, artísticas y de arqueología americana, contribuyó al proceso de patrimonialización de un pasado imperial que, después de cuatro siglos y a través de sus vestigios, ratificaba el aporte del país ibérico a la expansión de la civilización occidental. Logrando unir, como nunca antes, a diferentes estamentos oficiales y particulares, bajo un solo objetivo, el de traer a la memoria los cimientos que sustentaron el "descubrimiento y la conquista" del continente americano. Para el gobierno, la monarquía y la nobleza constituyó un momento propicio para reevaluar su prestigio, a través de una resignificación de sus bienes patrimoniales, que implicaría un giro en su sentido de apropiación, pues se extendería del ámbito particular al nacional. Estableciendo, de esta manera, una línea de tiempo entre la época de los Reyes Católicos, suscrita a la conquista y descubrimientos en ultramar, que elevó a la corona española a la categoría de imperio, y la de la nueva era de los imperialismos de finales del siglo XIX, en la que España necesita competir para expandir su imaginario colonizador, ahora, desde lo cultural. En este propósito, los vestigios de las glorias del pasado se actualizan con el propósito proyectar un imaginario imperialista-paternalista sobre el otro americano, el de una nación con expectativa civilizadora, bajo la que subyace la noción de una raza trasatlántica, cuyos cimientos serán una historia, una lengua y una religión compartidas. ; This work analyzes the way in which Spain built, in the late nineteenth century, an image of a modern nation based on the awareness of a glorious past, that of the discovery of America or the New World. The focus is on the analysis of the participation of the Iberian country in the Historical Exhibitions (EH) that took place in Madrid, in 1892, precisely within the framework of the celebration of the IV centenary of that event. Event of great importance for the Spanish political situation at the end of the century, characterized by the deep crisis that had left the loss of supremacy over most of its former colonies in the American continent. It is not gratuitous, therefore, that in this context we should witness a kind of competition, between three nations, for the predominance of commemoration. Italy, for being the birthplace of Christopher Columbus; Spain, for having decisively supported the Columbian project; and, the United States, for considering it the direct heir to Western civilization. In all three, the exhibition events will be the central axis of the celebration. Event of great importance for the Spanish political situation at the end of the century, characterized by the deep crisis that had left the loss of supremacy over most of its former colonies in the American continent. It is not gratuitous, therefore, that in this context we should witness a kind of competition, between three nations, for the predominance of commemoration. Italy, for being the birthplace of Christopher Columbus; Spain, for having decisively supported the Columbian project; and, the United States, for considering it the direct heir to Western civilization. In all three, the exhibition events will be the central axis of the celebration. In the case of Spain, after a first initiative, in 1888, to hold an exhibition of a universal nature -such as the one inaugurated that same year in Barcelona-, in 1891 it opted for the realization of two, of historical and international character, "arrested in the sixteenth century". Unlike the world fairs, where the architectural seal awarded by each nation prevailed, in the EH each nation will be assigned one or more rooms within the Palace of Library and National Museums, inaugurated for the occasion. The main floor will house the Historical-European (HE), designed with the purpose of showing the historical testimonies and the arts from that time and preserved by European countries. The ground floor will house the Historic-American (HA), which seeks to account for the state of development reached by the American peoples at the time of the arrival of the Spaniards. In this way, the EH become the most important of its kind, not only in the Spanish field of the second half of the nineteenth century but of the whole world. The first, for bringing together objects of historical and artistic character from several European nations, but especially from the hostess; the second, for exposing for the first time, and in view of Europe and the world, the panorama of the pre-Hispanic cultures known until then, something that had not been achieved even by the International Congresses of Americanists. In them, therefore, it becomes impossible to separate the historical, cultural, artistic or scientific from their political implications. It is not surprising, then, that Spain made a display of the great wealth of its historicalartistic heritage and American material, accumulating for centuries by the royal house and the nobility; museums, archives and libraries; the church; and, private collectors, mostly belonging to the aristocracy and the nascent bourgeoisie. It is precisely the participation of Spain in these HE that is of interest in this research, since it was present in both. In the HE will occupy most of the rooms that made it up, through a great variety of bibliographic and documentary material, paintings by renowned artists, pieces of decorative art, liturgical furniture, tapestries and, above all, objects of historical value that alluded to facts or outstanding characters of the national future, between the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries. For its part, in the HA, it participates with documentation and archaeological material fruit of its presence, for more than three centuries, in American territory. Thus, the study of such participation constitutes a privileged prism of observation of its political and cultural implications. The work is divided into five parts, each divided into two chapters. The first deals, on the one hand, with the postulates that governed the policies of remembrance assumed by Italy, the United States and Spain, the three countries that, on both sides of the Atlantic, assumed the lead in the celebration of the IV centenary of the discovery of America (IV centenary); on the other, it analyzes the divergent senses adopted by the exhibitions that, as central events of the commemoration, were projected in each of these nations, emphasizing the process of delimitation of the nature of the circumscribed for the Spanish case. In the second, he undertakes the approach to the specific context of the Iberian country, exploring how a concrete visual rhetoric, related to Columbian iconography, places the figure of Columbus and the success of the discovery at the service of the image of Spain as an imperial nation, in which a series of practices of remembrance confined not only to history painting but to the public space and the publishing industry will converge. In the second, he undertakes the approach to the specific context of the Iberian country, exploring how a concrete visual rhetoric, related to Columbian iconography, places the figure of Columbus and the success of the discovery at the service of the image of Spain as an imperial nation, in which a series of practices of remembrance confined not only to history painting but to the public space and the publishing industry will converge. The third, puts the focus of attention on the exhibition complex that took place in Madrid in 1892 that show, in some way, a hierarchy of national imaginaries around history, the arts, archaeology and industry. In the first instance, it addresses the exhibition projects other than the HE, such as the International Exhibition of Fine Arts, the School and the Work Contest, as well as small initiatives of various kinds; to then focus on the HD, especially on the diffuse boundaries that accompanied the process of delimitation of their denomination and nature, and how this situation was externalized in the museographic discourse that they deployed. The last two parts assume a detailed study of Spain's participation in EH. The fourth, analyzes its presence in the EHA, showing how this participation is part of the finisecular colonial geopolitical context addressing, first and foremost, the presence in this exhibition of other nations that dispute this imperial context, in its multiple edges, such as Portugal, Denmark, Norway, France and the United States. Secondly, it examines the facilities of Spain, which will exhibit mining material and ethnographic objects from, especially, those that were still its colonies; as well as pre-Columbian antiquities preserved in its museums. The fifth, explores the political and historical implications that underlie the purpose of shaping a national unity that underlines the historical continuity between the Catholic kings and the finisecular Spain in crisis, in which they converge: monarchy, state institutions, church and private collectors. Thus, in the first instance the awakening of an imperial consciousness based on the possession of a historical and artistic heritage by the royal house is studied; museums, libraries and state archives; and, the Catholic church. Finally, it explores the role played by private collections, especially of aristocrats, in ratifying a timeline between Catholic kings and nineteenth-century sovereigns. In an attempt by Spain to recover the credibility of a finisecular government in crisis, both internally and externally, its participation in the EH was conceived, given its Iberian, American and European scope, as a political strategy to affirm and consolidate its place as a nation with imperial conscience; a tactic of visibility to combat three distinct geopolitical fronts. On the one hand, the European, in which the historiography of decadence expressed in the Black Legend predominated; on the other, the North American, which projects itself as a new power that can displace its prominence in Latin America; and, finally, the newly independent American nations that, being defining their identity referents, and before which it was appropriate to strengthen the ties that united them. In such a way that, the updating of an imperial consciousness acquires, in the centenarist conjuncture, a dimension focused on new forms of colonization, from the cultural and historical field, led by the Hispanist movement, in which shared history, race and religion, on both sides of the Atlantic, are resignified as the banners of a nation with imperial consciousness. The research allowed to infer that, in terms of patrimonialization of a glorious past, a differentiation was carried out between the material of European origin, now converted into an argument of the degree of civilization reached by Spain during the Modern Age, exposed in the EHE; and, the American material, which acquires the connotation of test and trophy, exhibited in the EHA. In this context, the spectacular deployment of Spain in the EH, through historical, artistic and American archaeology collections, contributed to the process of patrimonialization of an imperial past that, after four centuries and through its vestiges, ratified the contribution of the Iberian country to the expansion of Western civilization. Managing to unite, as never before, different official and private strata, under a single objective, that of bringing to mind the foundations that supported the "discovery and conquest" of the American continent. For the government, the monarchy and the nobility it was a propitious moment to reassess their prestige, through a resignification of their patrimonial assets, which would imply a turn in their sense of appropriation, since it would extend from the particular scope to the national one. Establishing, in this way, a timeline between the time of the Catholic Monarchs, subscribed to the conquest and discoveries overseas, which elevated the Spanish crown to the category of empire, and that of the new era of imperialisms of the late nineteenth century, in which Spain needs to compete to expand its colonizing imaginary, now, from the cultural. In this purpose, the vestiges of the glories of the past are updated with the purpose of projecting an imperialist-paternalistic imaginary on the other American, that of a nation with civilizing expectation, under which underlies the notion of a transatlantic race, whose foundations will be a shared history, language and religion.
Oggetto della ricerca è stato lo studio e l'analisi del sistema dell'editoria d'arte contemporanea nella Milano degli anni trenta, a partire da una mappatura della produzione libraria specializzata uscita lungo il decennio di cui si sono messe a fuoco forme, meccanismi e protagonisti. Il lavoro ha avuto una frase preliminare di individuazione dei materiali di studio, di strutturazione dell'ambito e dei campi di ricerca, in una prospettiva storiografica sostanzialmente inedita, al confine tra la storia dell'arte e dell'editoria, in cui si intrecciano le dinamiche della promozione artistica e del suo consumo, del mercato editoriale e della filiera del libro. Le peculiarità dell'edizione d'arte, dal suo profilo materiale al pubblico a cui è indirizzata, ne fanno un prodotto con caratteristiche e problematiche distinte nel quadro allargato dell'industria editoriale. Tale specificità negli anni trenta si innesta in un dibattito cruciale sull'identità dell'arte contemporanea, prefigurando un quadro storico nuovo rispetto al periodo precedente in cui si assiste alla significativa fioritura di iniziative editoriali inedite tese alla codificazione e divulgazione dei valori della cultura figurativa del presente. L'intero studio si è fondato sulla mappatura sistematica delle pubblicazioni date alle stampe tra il 1929 e il 1943 – arco cronologico individuato come il più congruente ai fini dell'indagine – condotta sulla base dell'analisi di fonti d'epoca specializzate quali guide bibliografiche, bollettini, cataloghi di vendita dei libri, nonché i registri di carico delle biblioteche di settore. Il recupero, l'esame diretto e la schedatura delle singole edizioni attraverso parametri specifici, messi a punto tenendo conto della natura del libro d'arte e in particolare della centralità delle fotoriproduzioni nella filiera produttiva, ha portato alla realizzazione di un database, confluito in un repertorio organizzato in schede tecniche e indici delle presenze editoriali. I risultati scaturiti da questo ampio censimento hanno orientato la ricerca verso i grandi nodi del sistema produttivo, dei generi letterari emergenti e dei procedimenti di riproduzione e di stampa delle immagini, tra teoria e agganci ai testi, alle fonti a stampa e alla documentazione d'archivio, allargando il complessivo campo di indagine a una comparazione con la rispettiva produzione editoriale italiana e straniera coeva. La tesi si articola dunque in tre grandi parti, introdotte da un tentativo di definizione delle forme del libro d'arte contemporanea e da una verifica dell'andamento della produzione editoriale. Quest'ultima ha messo in luce l'esistenza di una periodizzazione interna agli estremi cronologici legata a doppio filo a una molteplicità di dinamiche in atto che incidono in modo diretto sull'editoria di settore, tra le quali il consolidamento di un nuovo collezionismo, i contestuali svolgimenti sul piano della politica delle arti e i progressi tecnici dell'industria grafica sono solo alcune delle più eloquenti. L'analisi del sistema editoriale si è rivolta anzitutto a definirne gli attori, vale a dire le figure direttamente coinvolte nella filiera produttiva, restituendo per la prima volta una mappa strutturata degli editori, dei fotoincisori, dei tipografi e stampatori. Tra le prerogative del settore spicca infatti la frammentazione dei soggetti imprenditoriali dovuta all'elevato standard di specializzazione richiesto dal libro illustrato, alla cui realizzazione concorrono necessariamente professionalità diverse. A monte, nel panorama degli editori è emersa una sensibile diversificazione tradotta in una sostanziale permeabilità al tessuto delle gallerie e del mercato e a quello delle riviste, permettendo di riconsiderare luoghi che per la storiografia vivono separati. Spostando l'obiettivo sulla produzione editoriale, ovvero sui libri oggetto d'indagine, si sono discusse le problematiche connesse alle forme della divulgazione dei nuovi valori figurativi, a fronte di un processo mobile teso a una loro compiuta definizione. Una prospettiva aderente alla mappatura, che facesse leva su uno sguardo d'insieme e sui molteplici aspetti del prodotto librario considerati nella ricerca, ha inteso mettere a fuoco i generi emergenti, dal libro-catalogo, al panorama, alle collane di monografie d'artista, riflettendo sulla loro fortuna, tra scarti, continuità ed elementi innovativi, anche attraverso un confronto con i modelli internazionali. Una parte centrale del lavoro è stata dedicata, infine, alla disamina dei diversi procedimenti fotomeccanici di riproduzione e di stampa impiegati nella realizzazione dei libri, un problema nodale, connaturato alle specificità stesse dell'editoria d'arte – fondata sulle riproduzioni e sulla loro mise en page – che tuttavia, allo stato degli studi, risulta sostanzialmente trascurato dalla storiografia. Attente alle attrezzature tecniche, ai passaggi di lavorazione e ai risultati grafici, le ricerche svolte hanno confermato il valore di questo filone di indagine, mettendo in luce il peso che negli anni trenta le innovazioni tecnologiche nel settore hanno giocato nel determinare non solo la fisicità e la grammatica delle immagini, e dunque la ricezione dell'arte, ma le stesse forme editoriali. Novità significative sono emerse, in particolare, in relazione alla riproduzione a colori e ai suoi rinnovati sistemi in rapida ascesa commerciale, come il fotocolor, di cui è stata ricostruita la prima diffusione. Il repertorio finale delle schede tecniche delle singole pubblicazioni, integrato da indici ed elenchi, tra cui i cataloghi completi delle collezioni editoriali, è presentato in appendice. ; The research aimed at studying and analysing the contemporary art publishing system in Milan during the Thirties, on the basis of a mapping of the specialised book production with a major focus on its forms, mechanisms and leading figures. The work spanned a preliminary phase designed to identifying the study materials, to defining the research boundaries and fields in a quite unusual historiographical perspective, poised between history of art and publishing, on a ground where the dynamics related to the artistic promotion and its consumption, to the publishing market and to the book production chain are mutually intertwined. Because of their peculiarities, such as the material profile as well as the target audience, art books prove to be products with distinct features and issues within the publishing industry. In the Thirties, such specificity interact with a crucial debate on the identity of contemporary art, prefiguring a new historical context characterised by the unprecedented development of editorial initiatives aimed at the codification and dissemination of the values of the current figurative culture. The entire study was based on the systematic mapping of publications issued between 1929 and 1943 – a chronological arc identified as the most congruent for the purposes of the investigation – carried out according to the analysis of coeval sources, such as bibliographic guides and bulletins, book sales catalogues, specialised libraries records. The evaluation and cataloguing of each editions took into account specific parameters selected depending on the nature of art books and more specifically considering the central role of photomechanical reproductions in the production chain. All information was gathered in a database converted into an organised repertory with technical entries and indexes of editorial presences. The results of this broad census led the research considering the great issues of the productive system, the emerging literary genres, and the reproduction and printing processes of images, making references to theory as well as to texts, printed and archive sources, until broadening the field of investigation to include a comparison with the related Italian and foreign coeval publishing. The thesis is thus divided into three main parts, introduced by an attempt to define the forms of contemporary art books and by a check of the performance of editorial production. This section shed light on an existing periodization within the chronological extremes closely intertwined with a wide variety of ongoing dynamics directly affecting the publishing sector, among which the consolidation of a new collecting, the contextual developments in the field of art politics and the technological advances of the graphic industry are just some of the most relevant. The analysis of the publishing system chiefly looked to define the players, actually the figures personally involved in the production chain, thus outlining for the first time a structured map of publishers, photoengravers, typographers and printers. In fact, among the prerogatives of the sector, one which undoubtedly stands out is the fragmentation of the entrepreneurial figures ascribable to the high specialization standards which illustrated books require and to the creation of which contribute multiple professional profiles and skills. The panorama of the publishers itself revealed a remarkable diversification corresponding to a consistent permeability to the context of the galleries and the art market as well as to the context of magazines, thus making it possible to reconsider places which according to historiography live apart. Shifting the goal to the publishing production, namely to the books object of the investigation, the work addressed the issues related to the forms of dissemination of new figurative values, in response to the coeval ongoing process aiming at their accomplished definition. In keeping with the mapping, and tapping into a comprehensive overview and a wealth of aspects typical of the product book considered in the research, the perspective aimed at highlighting the emerging genres, such as the book-catalogue, the panorama, the series of artist monographs, while reflecting on their fortune, among gaps, drifts, continuity and innovative elements, also based on a comparison with international models. Finally, a key part of the work consisted in examining the photomechanical reproduction and printing processes employed in the production of books: a crucial issue inherently belonging to the specificity of art publishing – based on reproductions and their mise en page – that, however, appears largely overlooked by historiography. Mindful of the technical equipment, the processing steps and the graphic results, the research carried out confirmed the value of this investigation line, while shedding light on the role that the technological innovations achieved in the Thirties played not only in determining the materiality and grammar of images, and hence the reception of art, but the very publishing forms. Significantly new features emerged, in particular, in relation to the colour reproduction and its renovated, quickly booming commercial systems, such as fotocolor, whose first diffusion this work retraced. The appendix presents the final catalogue of books entries as well as indexes and lists, including the complete listing of publishing series.
