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Expansion and Contraction of the Franchise. Between the theory and practice of the American Revolution there was a wide breach. The ruling caste of property owners retained control in spite of the legendary democratization of that era. Jefferson's declaration of the equality of man was not fully applied to suffrage requirements until the time of Andrew Jackson. Since then, suffrage restrictions of property, color, and sex have suffered the fate of houses built upon sand. The floods of democracy have now smitten upon these limitations for more than a century. In the rise of the common man, both the property-owning and taxpaying qualifications for voters disappeared even in the original commonwealths. Once these restrictions which separated the old aristocracy from the new proletariat had been vanquished, the requisites of color and sex were likewise abandoned.With few exceptions, suffrage had been granted to practically all adult male white citizens before the Civil War. Yet counter-attacks were waged by the advocates of a limited electorate. The theory prevails that a steady swing toward universal suffrage characterizes the American franchise. The pendulum has also swung in the opposite direction. Connecticut and Massachusetts, where the reaction against suffrage extension was rapid, were the first states to retrench on the policy of adult male white suffrage. In place of property qualifications, literacy restrictions appeared. The purpose of these restrictions set up by Connecticut in 1855 and Massachusetts in 1857 was to bar the ignorant immigrants from the voting class.

The education department of the state of New York, which is charged with the administration of the literacy test law of 1923, has recently submitted a report on the workings of the measure from 1923 to 1929. The document furnishes some very illuminating evidence, not only on the operation of the literacy test for voters, but on other phases of political action.These figures indicate a steady increase of interest in voting in the state of New York, if the presidential years are not included. Despite the peak applications of 1928, a larger number of new voters applied in the off-year 1929 than in the gubernatorial year 1926. The figures for 1928 are particularly significant. The Hoover-Smith campaign brought out a record number of non-voters who had never participated, and it must be recalled that these 163,299 persons had either become of age or had been naturalized since January 1, 1922. They do not include persons who were qualified but had never voted before the literacy test law became operative.

Rome one of the greatest powers of the ancient world has exerted important influence upon practically all modern nations. It has done much to shape the lives and customs of the people is necessary to obtain an understanding of our language, our literature, our religion our art and out government. This fact makes Latin as their language, and important topic for study by all nations in all ages.

This paper has a twofold intention.The first is to discuss the problem of political parties, — their justification and status, — in a society which requires political democracy as the set of political institutions appropriate for the government of men living under modern social and economic conditions. (By these modern conditions I mean such things as the economic forms of production and distribution in the industrial era; the organization of labor in relation to economic enterprise; the intensity and extensity of communication among men living in geographical separation and, consequently, the physical enlargement of the civic association; the approximation to universal education; the spread of literacy, etc.) There are two points to be noted here:(1) That modern society is or tends toward a democracy in its physical and economic conditions, whether in a given instance its political forms are outwardly democratic, as in France, England and the United States, or anti-democratic, as in Italy, Germany and Russia.(a) Not only does Russia publicize its claim to being democratic and make constitutional efforts in that direction which are, of course, at once vitiated by the persistence of its totalitarian regime; but even Germany and Italy give an appearance of democracy, — though they abominate the thought and word, — an appearance which is a reverse and distorted image. Thus, by the pressure of propaganda and the exercise of brutal force, the rulers of Germany and Italy try to make it appear that they have a mandate from the people for their policies.

The results of the seventh census of population in Canada, taken as of June 1, 1931, are comprised in 14 octavo volumes, of which all except the final volume of maps and graphs and certain monographs to be included in the two volumes of census monographs, have been issued. The present review is confined to the population census proper, including, however, the topics of gainful occupations, earnings, and unemployment; on the other hand, agriculture, merchandising and services, and institutions are omitted. In other words, the present review is limited to volumes I-VII, together with those monographs included in volumes XII and XIII which treat the topics of these seven volumes, so far as the monographs themselves have been issued. The advantage of considering the monographs in connection with the corresponding topics of the census itself is obvious, since the detailed analytical treatment of the former helps to throw into clear light the census findings and adds materially to the value of the results.An outline of the contents of the several volumes may help to give perspective to the whole subject. Volume I contains, in addition to the administrative summary of the work of the census, a brief analysis and comment on each of the major subjects covered by the census, together with a selection of tables on all topics; the text covering 344 pages and the tables 1,177 pages. Volumes II-VII are devoted to tabular matter; volume II to population figures for local subdivisions, with details by sex, age, etc., for these areas; volume III to age classifications; volume IV to "cross classifications," e.g. birthplace with racial origin, literacy, religion, etc.; volume V to wage-earners, earnings, families, and housing; volume VI to unemployment; and volume VII to occupation and industry.