Abstract Taxation and the Formation of the Late Roman Social ContractBy Patrick E. ClarkDoctor of Philosophy in HistoryUniversity of California, BerkeleyProfessor Carlos Noreña, Chair"Taxation and the Formation of the Late Roman Social Contract" offers a novel interpretation of the function of taxation in late Roman society. I argue that the tax policies introduced by Diocletian at the end of the 3rd century facilitated the negotiation of a social contract between the rulers and the ruled that stipulated that all Roman citizens had rights under and responsibilities to the Roman Empire. The late Roman social contract contrasted with the social contract of the Principate, which sought to reduce the responsibilities on the emperor's political coalition while also enabling this group to enjoy more rights under the empire. Taxation was, on the one hand, one of the citizens' responsibilities, whose specific provisions, rates, and institutions were subject to intense negotiation between the ruler and the ruled. On the other hand, taxation functioned as a forum where state actors and taxpayers interacted, engaged in performances of the "public transcript", and negotiated with each other, and as a medium for communication that enabled the emperor to give real world realization to his values, ideals, and normative conceptions of citizenship. Thus instead of interpreting late Roman sources for taxation individually as accurate statements of the nature of late Roman taxation, I situate them in a larger discursive context that led to a broad consensus on the social contract and the nature of citizenship.The first chapter builds on recent work by Walter Scheidel, Gilles Bransbourg, Andrew Monson, and Carlos Noreña and demonstrates that tax policies under the Principate worked to reinforce and make visible the social and legal hierarchy that underpinned the social contract of the Principate. Tax expenditures by the state on senators, soldiers, the local elite, and the city of Rome created financial incentives for these groups to support the Roman monarchy. Chapter 1 also serves as a point of contrast for chapters 2 and 3. In chapter 2 I reconstruct Diocletian's vision for state-society relations from his imperial constitutions, arguing in particular that Diocletian continued a 3rd century development in which all Roman citizens were expected to be concerned with the survival of the emperor and empire. In addition to requiring his subjects to demonstrate their commitment to the empire through empire-wide displays of traditional religious devotion, as 3rd century emperors had, Diocletian proliferated obligations on certain occupations, decurions, tenant farmers, and, most importantly, taxpayers. At the same time, Diocletian insisted that his policies would be fair, rational, useful, and legal. Chapter 3 examines Diocletian's tax policies in greater detail and concludes that by and large they reflected the vision for state-society relations outlined in chapter 2. Taxation under Diocletian would be fair, rational, useful, and legal, and, most importantly, it would locate individual taxpayers in a universal hierarchy of fiscal responsibility that defined each taxpayer as owing a discrete portion of the state's budgetary requirements. Chapter 4 then explores the impact that these tax policies, as a powerful medium for communicating imperial ideology, had on taxpayers' conception of the empire and their place in it. My close reading of 477 Egyptian papyri, including many valuable petitions, demonstrates that petitioners asserted their acceptance of the legitimacy of their fiscal burdens, only if those burdens corresponded to the petitioners' census documents. This acceptance had two main consequences. First, it confirmed the legitimacy of the imperial ideology, outlined in chapters 2 and 3, that in part structured fiscalité under Diocletian. Second, petitioners' payment of their taxes enabled them to argue that they were enthusiastic members of the imperial community who deserved the state's legal protection. This second claim transformed the label "taxpayer" into a positive moral quality of an ideal citizen. In this way, petitioners tried to use their payment of taxes to secure for themselves legal rights in the social contract.If the observations from chapter 4 represent a constructive engagement with and acceptance of Diocletian's ideology and policies, chapter 5 is an example of the polemic criticism the emperor's policies could provoke. In his Divine Institutes and On the Deaths of the Persecutors Lactantius argues that the Tetrarch's persecution of Christian, which deprived them of the state's legal protection, revealed the ideology and institutional basis of the Tetrarchy to be unjust. On closer examination, other Tetrarchic policies appear unjust as well. Tapping into a deeper Graeco-Roman philosophical tradition, Lactantius demonstrates that Tetrarchic tax policies had a deleterious effect on social relations in the Roman Empire. Contrary to justice, taxation introduced inequality, war, violence, and discord. It would be more just, Lactantius maintained, for Romans to give charity instead, because charity would reduce inequalities and strengthen the bonds of Roman society. Rather than being the outpourings of righteous indignation, however, Lactantius' polemics should be read, like the petitions from chapter 4, as a contribution to the negotiation of the late Roman social contract.My observation that the communicative nature of 4th century tax policies facilitated the negotiation of a social contract represents an advancement in scholarly thinking about taxation in the later Roman Empire because it reveals the ideological and ethical pronouncements that tax policies and statements about taxation could make. Taxation enabled the emperor and his subjects to communicate their conception of state-society relations and to critique what they saw as flaws in others' conceptions. This observation also has analytical value outside the narrow temporal bounds of dissertation. For example, when viewed through the lens of my dissertation, the emperor Julian's reduction of the Gallic provinces' tax rate should be seen as his attempt to communicate his commitment to a just social contract in advance of his planned revolt against Constantius II. Julian's tax policies signaled to the whole empire that he intended to be a prototypical good emperor. Herein lies the main take-away from this dissertation: when emperors, intellectuals, and petitioners mentioned taxation, they were talking about much more than taxation; they were making normative claims about how best to organize their society.
This study tries to expose the situation of the main religious holidays during the communist period in Romania. In Roumania, we know that the religious holydays were one of the targets targeted by the Communist Party, because they hold, besides their well-known functions – religious, cultural, playful, aesthetic, cosmic – also an important ethnic, community function, what activate the goal of the study. The commu-nist leaders wanted Christianity to be faded from the public space, but it was summoned socially in the form of commemorations, so it leads the novelty of the investigation. There are several works devoted to religion in post communist Europe. The problematic relationship between the state and society, in all its forms of existence, and the religious phenomenon, between the temporal power and the transcendent power occupy a fundamental place in the sociological and historical thought. Patrick Michel, studying in his works on the specific issue of the relationship between religion the Church and totalitarian power, explains how much religion has suffered the hostile attitude of the power that tried to reduce its presence in the world social space he has just arrogated. It recalls the efforts of this one, to remain in the socio-political field, by refusing the rules of the political game introduced by the totalitarian power, by infiltrating inside the social field, in all its components, for to be present and participate in the existence of autono-mous social spaces. In the Balkan countries, the image of a religion abused both by the identity and the political often revives with the discourse of post-communist religious renewal. In Bulgaria or Albania, there is this vision of religiosity completely stifled by the totalitarian regime. The vision of a religious emptiness imposed by the previous regime is specific to research on religious in the post-communist era, a vision that emphasizes the repression of Christian religiosity and the resulting consequences for society. The researchers analyzed what happened during the socialist period and how religious life continued under the appearance of forced athe-ism. Conclusions. The biographical approach served as a starting point for field investigations aimed at documenting, from case-by-case reconstruction, stories of family trajectories, the multitute ritual solutions adopted during the communist period. I conducted exploratory surveys in Oltenia, the western part of Romanian Wallachia, which remained essentially a rural area, with the exception of the only big city of Craiova, (Oltenia's historical capital is the most important urban and administrative center district – 300,000 inhabitants) one of the largest cultural centers of the country. These first investigations that I conducted reveal the existence of a set of clandestine practices that were introduced, under the communist regime, to replace the absence of the Church in the main moments related to the life cycle, especially for baptism and marriage, the prohibition of all religious attendance imposed on Party cadres, and the attempt to completely de-sacralize religious holidays. I also realized a work in the local archives of Oltenia, to expose the me-dia of the time, the written press was the main means of the propa-gation of the new ideology. We had tried to expose the gradual way in which the communist system tried to impose the calendar that marked "the new era": we could distinguish the means used by the regime to manipulate the opinions and behavior of people regarding Religious holidays. These techniques of modeling the mentality of people are found abundantly in all the documents of that time. The effort to supplant the religious of daily life is also exerted on the celebration of festivals and calendar rites. The most followed restrictions are applied to Christic feasts (especially Christmas and Easter), while other festivals related to the commemoration of saints are recovered by the socialist ritual system. These are saints that the oral tradition has dedicated as patrons of economic activities (livestock, viticulture, beekeeping), a resource exploited by both the regime and the ordinary social actors. The Christian holiday becomes a folkloric entertainment. ; L'étude tente d'analyser les caractéristiques principales de la célébration des fêtes religieuses dans la période communiste en Roumanie, il est le but des études proposées. La méthodologie embrasse l'analyse historique et rétrospective, décrivant la méthode des données directes sur le terrain qui ont reçu des informateurs oraux. La nouveauté de l'étude est de prouver l'idée que la réduction de la célébration des fêtes traditionnelles en Roumanie a été l'un des objectifs du Parti communiste depuis obyadodiyi et festivals, en plus de sa fonction première, les fonctions religieuses, culturelles, esthétiques, bande dessinée, sont aussi importantes ethniques, sociales. Conclusions Les dirigeants communistes ont cherché à le christianisme a disparu de l'espace public, mais la société a gagné Obulo inhibé comme une célébration de l'action festival du cycle de calendrier obryadodiy, les cérémonies de mariage et de funérailles, et ainsi de suite. ; В исследовании предпринята попытка проанализировать особенности празднования основных религиозных праздников в коммунистический период в Румынии, возникает целью предлагаемой студии. Методология занимает историко-ретроспективный анализ, метод прямого описания полевых материалов, предоставленных устными информаторами. Новизна исследования заключается в доведении идеи, минимизация празднования традиционных праздников в Румынии была одной из целей Коммунистической партии, поскольку обядодии и народные праздники, кроме своих первоочередных функций, религиозных, культурных, эстетических, комических, имеют также важные этнические, общественные функции. Выводы. Коммунистические лидеры стремились, чтобы христианство исчезло из общественного пространства, но она обула законсервировано обществом в виде празднования, фестивальных действий, обрядов календарного цикла, свадебными и похоронными обрядами, и тому подобное. ; У дослідженні зроблено спробу проаналізувати особливості святкування основних релігійних свят у комуністичний період у Румунії, що постає метою пропонованої студії. Методологія обіймає історично-ретроспективний аналіз, метод прямого опису польових матеріалів, що були надані усними інформаторами. Новизна дослідження полягає у доведенні ідеї, що мінімізація святкування традиційних свят у Румунії була однією з цілей Комуністичної партії, оскільки обядодії та народні свята, окрім своїх першочергових функцій, релігійних, культурних, естетичних, комічних, мають також важливі етнічні, громадські функції. Висновки. Комуністичні лідери прагнули, щоб християнство зникло з громадського простору, але вон обуло законсервовано суспільством у вигляді святкування, фестивальних дій, обрядодій календарного циклу, весільними та поховальними обрядами, тощо.
L'étude tente d'analyser les caractéristiques principales de la célébration des fêtes religieuses dans la période communiste en Roumanie, il est le but des études proposées. La méthodologie embrasse l'analyse historique et rétrospective, décrivant la méthode des données directes sur le terrain qui ont reçu des informateurs oraux. La nouveauté de l'étude est de prouver l'idée que la réduction de la célébration des fêtes traditionnelles en Roumanie a été l'un des objectifs du Parti communiste depuis obyadodiyi et festivals, en plus de sa fonction première, les fonctions religieuses, culturelles, esthétiques, bande dessinée, sont aussi importantes ethniques, sociales. Conclusions Les dirigeants communistes ont cherché à le christianisme a disparu de l'espace public, mais la société a gagné Obulo inhibé comme une célébration de l'action festival du cycle de calendrier obryadodiy, les cérémonies de mariage et de funérailles, et ainsi de suite. ; This study tries to expose the situation of the main religious holidays during the communist period in Romania. In Roumania, we know that the religious holydays were one of the targets targeted by the Communist Party, because they hold, besides their well-known functions – religious, cultural, playful, aesthetic, cosmic – also an important ethnic, community function, what activate the goal of the study. The commu-nist leaders wanted Christianity to be faded from the public space, but it was summoned socially in the form of commemorations, so it leads the novelty of the investigation. There are several works devoted to religion in post communist Europe. The problematic relationship between the state and society, in all its forms of existence, and the religious phenomenon, between the temporal power and the transcendent power occupy a fundamental place in the sociological and historical thought. Patrick Michel, studying in his works on the specific issue of the relationship between religion the Church and totalitarian power, explains how much religion has suffered the hostile attitude of the power that tried to reduce its presence in the world social space he has just arrogated. It recalls the efforts of this one, to remain in the socio-political field, by refusing the rules of the political game introduced by the totalitarian power, by infiltrating inside the social field, in all its components, for to be present and participate in the existence of autono-mous social spaces. In the Balkan countries, the image of a religion abused both by the identity and the political often revives with the discourse of post-communist religious renewal. In Bulgaria or Albania, there is this vision of religiosity completely stifled by the totalitarian regime. The vision of a religious emptiness imposed by the previous regime is specific to research on religious in the post-communist era, a vision that emphasizes the repression of Christian religiosity and the resulting consequences for society. The researchers analyzed what happened during the socialist period and how religious life continued under the appearance of forced athe-ism. Conclusions. The biographical approach served as a starting point for field investigations aimed at documenting, from case-by-case reconstruction, stories of family trajectories, the multitute ritual solutions adopted during the communist period. I conducted exploratory surveys in Oltenia, the western part of Romanian Wallachia, which remained essentially a rural area, with the exception of the only big city of Craiova, (Oltenia's historical capital is the most important urban and administrative center district – 300,000 inhabitants) one of the largest cultural centers of the country. These first investigations that I conducted reveal the existence of a set of clandestine practices that were introduced, under the communist regime, to replace the absence of the Church in the main moments related to the life cycle, especially for baptism and marriage, the prohibition of all religious attendance imposed on Party cadres, and the attempt to completely de-sacralize religious holidays. I also realized a work in the local archives of Oltenia, to expose the me-dia of the time, the written press was the main means of the propa-gation of the new ideology. We had tried to expose the gradual way in which the communist system tried to impose the calendar that marked "the new era": we could distinguish the means used by the regime to manipulate the opinions and behavior of people regarding Religious holidays. These techniques of modeling the mentality of people are found abundantly in all the documents of that time. The effort to supplant the religious of daily life is also exerted on the celebration of festivals and calendar rites. The most followed restrictions are applied to Christic feasts (especially Christmas and Easter), while other festivals related to the commemoration of saints are recovered by the socialist ritual system. These are saints that the oral tradition has dedicated as patrons of economic activities (livestock, viticulture, beekeeping), a resource exploited by both the regime and the ordinary social actors. The Christian holiday becomes a folkloric entertainment. ; У дослідженні зроблено спробу проаналізувати особливості святкування основних релігійних свят у комуністичний період у Румунії, що постає метою пропонованої студії. Методологія обіймає історично-ретроспективний аналіз, метод прямого опису польових матеріалів, що були надані усними інформаторами. Новизна дослідження полягає у доведенні ідеї, що мінімізація святкування традиційних свят у Румунії була однією з цілей Комуністичної партії, оскільки обядодії та народні свята, окрім своїх першочергових функцій, релігійних, культурних, естетичних, комічних, мають також важливі етнічні, громадські функції. Висновки. Комуністичні лідери прагнули, щоб християнство зникло з громадського простору, але вон обуло законсервовано суспільством у вигляді святкування, фестивальних дій, обрядодій календарного циклу, весільними та поховальними обрядами, тощо. ; В исследовании предпринята попытка проанализировать особенности празднования основных религиозных праздников в коммунистический период в Румынии, возникает целью предлагаемой студии. Методология занимает историко-ретроспективный анализ, метод прямого описания полевых материалов, предоставленных устными информаторами. Новизна исследования заключается в доведении идеи, минимизация празднования традиционных праздников в Румынии была одной из целей Коммунистической партии, поскольку обядодии и народные праздники, кроме своих первоочередных функций, религиозных, культурных, эстетических, комических, имеют также важные этнические, общественные функции. Выводы. Коммунистические лидеры стремились, чтобы христианство исчезло из общественного пространства, но она обула законсервировано обществом в виде празднования, фестивальных действий, обрядов календарного цикла, свадебными и похоронными обрядами, и тому подобное.
BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION The particular exploration of new ways of interactions between society and Information Communication Technologies (ICT) with a focus on the Humanities has the potential to become a key success factor for the values and competitiveness of the Nordic region, having in mind recent EU and regional political discussions in the field of Digital Humanities (European Commission, 2016; Vetenskapsrådet's Rådet för forskningens infrastrukturer, 2014). Digital Humanities (DH) is a diverse and still emerging field that lies at the intersection of ICT and Humanities, which is being continually formulated by scholars and practitioners in a range of disciplines (see, for example, Svensson & Goldberg, 2015; Gardiner & Musto, 2015; Schreibman, Siemens, & Unsworth, 2016). The following are examples of current areas of fields and topics: text-analytic techniques, categorization, data mining; Social Network Analysis (SNA) and bibliometrics; metadata and tagging; Geographic Information Systems (GIS); multimedia and interactive games; visualisation; media. DARIAH-EU (http://dariah.eu), is Europe's largest initiative on DH, comprising over 300 researchers in 18 countries, thereby opening up opportunities for international collaboration and projects. Of Nordic countries, Denmark is the full partner with four universities, Copenhagen, Aarhus, Aalborg and University of Southern Denmark. Danish DARIAH activities are facilitated by the national DH Infrastructure DIGHUMLAB, hosted at the DARIAH-DK coordinating institution, Aarhus University. Sweden's first university, Linnaeus University, joined in May 2016 as a collaborative partner. Finland (University of Helsinki) and Norway (Norwegian University of Science and Technology) have taken action to join by the end of 2016 also, as collaborative partners. The idea of forming the Nordic Hub of DARIAH-EU has been recently brought forward by Mike Mertens, the Head of DARIAH-EU. It was met by enthusiasm among the representatives of the listed universities, who would at this panel like to present and discuss possible joint opportunities and challenges in Nordic DH. With its tradition in supporting the Humanities research and development, Nordic countries may serve as a bastion for (Digital) Humanities. The Nordic Hub of DARIAH-EU may pay the way forward towards reaching that aim. CURRENT EFFORTS (PROJECTS, R&D AND EDUCATION) Koraljka Golub and Marcelo Milrad will present and analyse the cross-sector and cross-disciplinary Digital Humanities Initiative at Linnaeus University along the axes of its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. Their long-term vision is to create a leading education in this field and to establish a leading research regional centre that combines in novel ways already existing expertise from different departments and faculties working in close collaboration and co-creation with people and different organizations (both public and private sector) from the surrounding society. Marianne Ping Huang will present the Danish DIGHUMLAB, with specific focus on the DARIAH-related activities with the national DH research infrastructure, which is now bidding for its second period on the DK road map for research infrastructures. The presentation will include a presentation of the Danish participation for DH and open cross sectorial innovation with DARIAH Humanities at Scale (2015-2017) and how this intersects with Aarhus being European Capital of Culture 2017. Mikko Tolonen and Inés Matres will present the ongoing development at the University of Helsinki (and in Finland) regarding digital humanities. This includes the recently launched Heldig (digital humanities centre https://www.helsinki.fi/en/researchgroups/helsinki-digital-humanities) and how it can relate to collaboration in Dariah. Matres will also discuss a survey about Finnish needs about networking within Dariah that she has been mapping before Växjö conference. Andreas Bergsland will discuss the role of digital humanities (DH) at NTNU, a technology and science university with an explicit mission of public humanities. He will present several ongoing initiatives: the ARTEC interdisciplinary task force, DH projects in linguistics, print and sound cultures, digital storytelling and performance, archives, and pedagogy. Bergsland will conclude by reflecting on the opportunities and challenges of promoting critical, sustainable, ethical, and interdisciplinary DH at NTNU in partnership with academic and nonacademic actors and local and global networks such as DARIAH. PROSPECTS AND CHALLENGES Major opportunities in DH in Nordic countries lie in the collaborative democratic tradition that supports re- combining already existing expertise and resources encompassing 1) different universities, 2) various disciplines, and 3) the wider community through input from related public and private sectors. These points serve to unite and consolidate already existing expertise in order to create new constellations for collaboration leading to new knowledge and products (expertise, education, research, public and relevant commercial services). Possibilities to collaborate across Nordic countries can take place at a number of levels, including joint research and innovation, education efforts, expertise and experience exchange, bringing in international views to address more regional challenges. Ensuing important value for the general public could be a (re)-affirmation of the value of humanities in particular, and academic practices in general. Challenges would be discussed in terms of the emerging job market, the low number of students pursuing carriers in humanities at the Master level (e.g., in Sweden), and the fact that DH as a field is still in its infancy, leading to it being quite difficult to get funding and grants to carry out long-term research that sustain our efforts over time. Not the least, epistemological, conceptual and terminological differences in approaches by the different disciplines and sectors may present further challenges and therefore may require additional resources to reach an understanding. Further, while there is a strong collaborative spirit across Nordic countries, there will certainly be administrative issues with cross-university collaboration as the current working structures are based on individual units. REFERENCES European Commission. (2016). Horizon 2020: Social Sciences & Humanities. Available at https://ec.europa.eu/programmes/horizon2020/en/area/social-sciences-humanities Gardiner, E. and Musto, R. G. (2015). The Digital Humanities: A Primer for Students and Scholars. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Vetenskapsrådet's Rådet för forskningens infrastrukturer. (2014). Områdesöverikt för forskningens infrastrukturer. Available at http://www.vr.se/download/18.2302fa711489c4798d4a35fa/1411461229423/Samtliga+områden+infrastruktur.pdf Schreibman, S., Siemens, R., and Unsworth, J. (2016). A New Companion to Digital Humanities. (2nd ed.). Malden, MA; Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. Svensson, P., and Goldberg, D. T. (Eds.). (2015). Between Humanities and the Digital. Cambridge, Ma.: MIT Press.
Die Interpretation von Vereinen als "Schulen von Demokratie" ist Bestandteil des Konzepts sozialen Kapitals, das seit den 1990er Jahren einen prominenten Platz in den Sozialwissenschaften einnimmt. In der entsprechenden Literatur wird ehrenamtliches Engagement als essentiell für die Stabilität und Leistungsfähigkeit von Demokratien angesehen, da es insbesondere interpersonales Vertrauen und soziale Normen unter den Engagierten fördert. Es wurden bereits zahlreiche empirische Untersuchungen zu sozialem Kapital und der Interdependenz seiner drei Bestandteile Netzwerke zivilen Engagements, interpersonalem Vertrauen und sozialen Normen durchgeführt. Nachholbedarf besteht jedoch in der Analyse des Zusammenhangs zivilen Engagements und sozialer Normen. Es ist das Ziel dieser Untersuchung zur Klärung der Frage beizutragen, welche konkreten Aspekte zivilen Engagements zur Unterstützung sozialer Normen beitragen. Als theoretische Fundierung der Forschungsfrage dienen neben dem Konzept sozialen Kapitals hauptsächlich die Partizipationsforschung und die Zivilgesellschaftstheorie sowie Konzepte guter Staatsbürgerschaft. Die empirischen Analysen beinhalten zunächst eine Charakterisierung zivilen Engagements und der Unterstützung sozialer Normen in Europa. Dabei werden strukturelle, inhaltliche und individuelle Rahmenbedingungen zivilen Engagements berücksichtigt, die über den Formalisierungsgrad der Involvierung, die Engagementbereiche sowie die Intensität des Engagements operationalisiert werden. Bei der Unterstützung sozialer Normen werden mit Gemeinsinn, sozio-politischem Bewusstsein sowie Gesetzestreue drei Normdimensionen unterschieden, die im Kern kommunitaristischer, liberaler und traditionell-elitistischer Staatsbürgerverständnisse stehen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass sich ziviles Engagement in Europa quantitativ und qualitativ unterschiedlich darstellt. Während freiwillige Involvierung in Nord- und Osteuropa stark verbreitet ist, ist das Niveau zivilen Engagements in West- und Südeuropa geringer. Andererseits sind West- und Südeuropäer tendenziell aktiv und vernetzt engagiert, während anderswo passive, individuelle Involvierung eine größere Rolle spielt. Europaweit identisch ist dagegen das bevorzugte Engagement in sozial-religiös-kulturellen Organisationen sowie Sport- und Freizeitvereinigungen. Bezüglich der Unterstützung der drei Dimensionen sozialer Normen zeigen sich ebenfalls quantitative Unterschiede. Generell finden Gesetzestreue, sozio-politisches Bewusstsein und Gemeinsinn in Osteuropa die größte Unterstützung. In der Priorität der drei Normdimensionen ist Gemeinsinn länderübergreifend am Ende angesiedelt. Um zu untersuchen, welche Aspekte zivilen Engagements die Unterstützung sozialer Normen beeinflussen, werden verschiedene multivariate Analysemodelle getestet. Die Ergebnisse zeigen zum einen eine unterschiedliche Eignung der Modelle für die drei untersuchten Normdimensionen und zum anderen eine unterschiedliche Eignung für die untersuchten Länder. Es werden, in Übereinstimmung mit dem Sozialkapitalansatz, die stärksten Zusammenhänge zwischen zivilem Engagement und Gemeinsinn nachgewiesen. Außerdem wirkt sich intensive Involvierung besonders stark aus. Je nach Engagementbereich können die Effekte dabei positiv oder negativ sein. Vernetzt Aktive in sozial-religiös-kulturellen Vereinigungen sind besonders zuverlässige Unterstützer von Gemeinsinn. Auch sozio-politisches Bewusstsein und Gesetzestreue können durch zivile Involvierung erklärt werden, wobei jedoch auch andere Organisationsbereiche eine Rolle spielen. Insgesamt können Effekte struktureller, inhaltlicher und individueller Parameter zivilen Engagements auf die Unterstützung sozialer Normen nachgewiesen werden. Bezogen auf die untersuchten Länder bedeutet dies, dass die Analysemodelle besonders gut für Westeuropa geeignet sind, wo sich ziviles Engagement besonders intensiv vollzieht. Die Qualität der freiwilligen Involvierung ist für die Unterstützung sozialer Normen also wichtiger als die Quantität. Diese Ergebnisse knüpfen einerseits an bereits vorhandene Studien an, gehen aber insofern darüber hinaus, als sie die besondere Rolle der Vernetzung in Vereinigungen für die Effekte zivilen Engagements veranschaulichen. In einem letzten Analyseschritt wird nachgewiesen, dass neben der Integration in Vereinigungen auch die Integration in sozialen Netzwerken aus Familien und Freunden sowie die Verbundenheit zum Wohnort Einfluss auf die Unterstützung sozialer Normen haben können. Zudem werden Effekte des dritten Sozialkapitalelements, interpersonales Vertrauen, veranschaulicht, die sich sowohl in der Interaktion mit zivilem Engagement als auch mit der Unterstützung sozialer Normen zeigen und somit die Interdependenz der drei Bestandteile belegen. ; The interpretation of associations as "schools for democracy" is part of the concept of social capital, which has been a prominent topic in social science since the 1990s. In the respective literature voluntary work is regarded as essential for the stability and performance of democracies, because it promotes interpersonal trust and social norms among the people involved. Several empirical studies have dealt with social capital and the interdependence of its three elements: networks of civic engagement, interpersonal trust and social norms. Analyses of the relation between civic engagement and social norms, however, are scarce. This study would like to contribute to clarify which aspects of civic engagement actually promote the support of social norms. Besides the concept of social capital, participation research, civil society and concepts of good citizenship provide the theoretical framework for the research question. The empirical analyses start with a characterisation of civic engagement and the support of social norms in Europe. Structural, content-related and individual aspects of civic engagement are considered and operationalised by the formality and the area of involvement as well as the intensity of the engagement. Concerning the support of social norms, public spiritedness, socio-political awareness and law-abidingness are studied representing the core norms of communitarian, liberal and traditional-elitist concepts of good citizenship respectively. The results show that civic engagement in Europe differs quantitatively and qualitatively. While voluntary involvement is widespread in Northern and Eastern Europe, the level of civic engagement in Western and Southern Europe is significantly lower. On the other hand, Western and Southern Europeans are involved very actively and are highly integrated within the organisations, whereas elsewhere passive and individual involvement plays a more prominent role. There are also different levels of support for the three dimensions of social norms. Generally speaking, law-abidingness, socio-political awareness and public-spiritedness receive most support in Eastern Europe. Public-spiritedness has the lowest priority of the three norm dimensions in all countries. In order to assess which aspects of civic engagement influence the support of social norms, different multivariate models are tested. The results show that the models' suitability differs for the three norm dimensions as well as for the countries. In accordance with the concept of social capital, the strongest effects of civic engagement can be found in relation to public-spiritedness. The effects are especially significant for intensive forms of involvement. Depending on the area of involvement, the influence on public-spiritedness can be positive or negative. Active and highly-integrated actors in social, religious and cultural associations are very reliable supporters of public-spiritedness. Socio-political awareness and law-abidingness can also be explained by intensive civic engagement, although different categories of associations are responsible. All in all, the effects of structural, content-based and individual parameters of civic engagement on the support of social norms can be verified. With regard to the countries presented in this study, these results imply that the models of analysis are especially suited for Western Europe, where the activity and integration characterise civic engagement. In summary, the quality of voluntary involvement is more important for the support of social norms than its quantity. These results correspond to previous studies, but they also include new insights by illustrating the prominent role of integration in associations for the effects of civic engagement on the support of social norms. The final step of the analysis confirms that the integration in social networks of family and friends as well as a bond to the local community can also influence the support of social norms. Furthermore, effects of the third social capital component, interpersonal trust, are tested. They occur with regard to both civic engagement and the support of social norms, which proves the interdependence of the three elements.
This strategic analysis of Swedish agriculture – production systems and agricultural landscapes in a time of change – focuses on climate change, future availability of natural resources and economic regulation in a global food market. The background to the project was that the Faculty of Natural Resources and Agriculture of the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences identified an urgent need to explore the implications and opportunities of coming changes for agricultural production systems, arable land use and farm landscape functions in Sweden. Another objective was to determine the research needed to ensure that we are equipped to adapt to the coming changes. The analysis was carried out in the form of three literature reviews (Climate Change and Agricultural Land Use in Sweden: A Literature Review, (Eckersten et al., 2008a); Changes in the Global Natural Resource Base Relevant for Future Agriculture in Sweden – A Literature Review, (Johansson, 2008); and Economic Globalisation and Swedish Agriculture – Future Changes Affecting Swedish Agriculture from an Economic Perspective with Special Emphasis on Globalisation, (Holstein, 2008). It also comprised workshops and seminars and finally production of this synthesis report, which summarises the work done and suggests six research themes. Different IPCC emission scenarios describe pathways for those factors that are regarded as important for emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG), such as demography and social, economic and technological development. The projected global temperature increase varies from a little less than 2 °C up to 3.5-4.0 °C by the end of this century. Shrinking glaciers and rising sea levels are some of the consequences of the temperature increase. This climate change will have considerable consequences for agriculture, ecosystem function and human health on a global scale. The conditions for food production in Sweden are projected to become more favourable in terms of potential productivity as a result of future climate change. However, despite more favourable average cropping conditions, there could be drawbacks in the form of more frequent extreme weather events and, for example, more severe crop pathogen attacks and increased risks of nutrient leaching. The temperature increase is predicted to be greater during winter than during summer. Furthermore, precipitation will probably increase and the precipitation pattern will change. The temperature increase may lead to an extension of the growing season by several months in southern Sweden. Swedish agriculture is currently dependent on high inputs of external resources. The situation at present is that agricultural demands are increasing with regard to the natural resource base, e.g. ecosystem services and fossil fuels. The use of fossil fuels to sustain food production cannot continue indefinitely; agriculture world-wide must adopt mitigation strategies. One way is to search for self-sustaining, diversified, low-input, energy-efficient agricultural systems, using local renewable resources and ecosystem services. Another way to meet the challenges of future food supply and at the same time sustain life-support systems might be through intensive high-input agriculture on the 'best' land in order to save other areas for nature conservation. Swedish agriculture and food production are closely linked to the global food and feed market. Increased globalisation means that the profitability of Swedish farms is influenced to an increasing extent by actors on the global market. Conditions for Swedish agriculture in the past have been largely determined by political regulations, national and subsequently by CAP (Common Agricultural Policy in EU), but are gradually becoming more dependent on world market forces. Sweden has a comparative disadvantage in primary production compared with many other countries but the competitiveness of the Swedish food sector as a whole has increased during recent years due to increased exports of processed products. Another opportunity is to increase production of products with added value, e.g. organic products. However, the effects of globalisation on Swedish agriculture are hard to predict. Increased liberalisation will lead to increased competition, which will most probably lead to decreased production in Sweden. However, future changes in land productivity could potentially affect land use more than does the degree of liberalisation in trade. The conclusion that Swedish agriculture will decrease, at least in terms of land use, may very well turn out to be incorrect. This should be clear, not only from scenarios where climate change makes Swedish production more competitive but also from the latest developments on the world market where large increases in demand for agricultural products have been noted. This increase may have the consequence that land in less competitive countries will become sufficiently productive. Twelve climate scenarios for different regions in Sweden were developed within the FANAN project, from south-west Skåne in the south to Övertorneå in the north. Projections of future cropping systems under the new climatic conditions are described for three regions, south-west Skåne, Mälardalen district and the coast region of Västerbotten. There are diametrically opposed scenarios for future land use and appropriate design of agricultural production systems in the literature, which implies a need for a great variety of research. Research in adaptation as well as mitigation strategies will be important. Problems are interlinked and interdisciplinary research will probably be necessary to solve the complex problems concerning agriculture and the food supply of future populations. Six different strategic research themes are presented as a result of the FANAN project: 1.Future analyses of long-term sustainable land use, p.54. 2.Sustainable production systems — crop and animal sciences, p. 55. Cooling crops — crop-soil interactions Crop breeding — perennial cereals Domestic animal production Cultivation techniques 3.Ecosystem services in production systems of the agricultural landscape, p. 59. 4.From words to action, p. 60. 5.Monitoring of agricultural production, p. 62. 6.Multidisciplinary research network, p. 62. Large research programmes rather than small disciplinary projects will promote the solution of future complex problems. It will be necessary to combine empirical research with modelling and synthesis work in order to generate good science that is relevant to the challenges in sustainable agricultural management. FANAN concludes that SLU has a central role to play in developing these sustainable strategies.
El concepto "desarrollo sustentable" se ha consolidado en la academia, organismos internacionales e instituciones públicas que tienen como una preocupación central el bienestar colectivo o la calidad de vida de la población. También está presente en el discurso de partidos políticos, organizaciones no gubernamentales, movimientos sociales y otros actores de la sociedad civil, que buscan nuevas respuestas a distintos problemas que aquejan a la sociedad y que dicen relación con su estrategia de desarrollo. De esta forma, se trata de un concepto universalmente aceptado y legitimado, aunque su significado no siempre sea unívoco y no conlleve en todos los casos al mismo tipo de acciones. Su fortaleza, sin embargo, radica en su concepción ampliamente compartida como uno de los meta - objetivos de la sociedad. No obstante, tal vez una de las mayores debilidades del concepto sea su (todavía) baja aplicabilidad a la realidad. Como dice Reboratti (2000:202), "desarrollo sostenible es.una meta a alcanzar, una posibilidad que aparece en el futuro y que tal vez nunca alcanzaremos.", pero según reconoce el mismo autor, requiere de al menos un esfuerzo de planificación, que –según entendemos nosotros- ha de contar con herramientas específicas, que permitan encauzar en forma efectiva el desarrollo de un territorio hacia su sustentabilidad. En este contexto, resulta fundamental desarrollar una metodología de ordenamiento territorial que pueda conducir efectivamente a un desarrollo sustentable. Por cierto, es necesario que dicha metodología sea de fácil aplicación, de manera que se constituya en un apoyo eficiente y eficaz para las instituciones responsables de la planificación y administración del territorio. En virtud de lo anterior, el presente trabajo tiene como objetivo general exponer una metodología para la elaboración de un Plan de Ordenamiento Territorial, basada en el concepto de "sustentabilidad", que sea efectiva y simple en su aplicación. Los componentes centrales de esta propuesta metodológica son: (a) la integración de distintas herramientas de análisis para el diagnóstico evaluativo de un territorio, (b) la ponderación de todas las dimensiones de la sustentabilidad, (c) la proposición de instrumentos para el diseño de modelos espaciales que permitan encauzar el desarrollo de un territorio hacia su sustentabilidad, considerando el uso racional de los recursos naturales, la reducción de los riesgos de desastres y el mejoramiento de la calidad de vida de las generaciones presentes y futuras. La metodología propuesta ha sido aplicada a un caso de estudio de escala local, la comuna de San José de Maipo en Santiago de Chile, a través de un ejercicio docente desarrollado por los alumnos de la promoción 2007 en el Taller de Gestión Ambiental, del Magíster en Asentamientos Humanos y Medio Ambiente de la Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile. El proceso metodológico propuesto considera básicamente dos subprocesos: el diagnóstico evaluativo del sistema territorial y el diseño de un modelo territorial, cuyo resultado es la elaboración de un Plan de Ordenamiento Territorial Sustentable para la comuna de San José de Maipo. ; The "development sustentable" concept has been consolidated in the academy, international organizations and public institutions that take as a central worry the collective well-being or the quality of life of the population. Also it is present in the speech of political parties, not governmental organizations, social movements and other actors of the civil society, who look for new answers to different problems that afflict the society and that have relation with his strategy of development. Of this form, it is universally accepted and legitimized concept, though his meaning not always is univocal and does not carry in all the cases to the same type of actions. It strength, nevertheless, takes root in the conception widely shared as one of them in goal - objetives of the society. Nevertheless, one of the major weaknesses of the concept is that still have low applicability to the reality. As Reboratti says (2000:202), " sustainable development is . a goal to reaching, a possibility that appears in the future and that maybe we will never reach . ", but as the same author recognizes, needs of at least an effort of planning, which - as we understand - has to rely on specific tools, that they should allow to channel in effective form the development of a territory towards it sustentability. In this context, it turns out to be fundamental to develop a methodology of territorial classification that could lead exactly to a sustentable development. Certainly, it is necessary that the above mentioned methodology have an easy application, an efficient and effective support for the institutions responsible for planning and administrate the territory. In that way, the present work has as general objective expose a methodology for the elaboration of a Territorial Planning Classification, based on the concept of "sustentability", that is an effective and simple application. The central components of this methodological offer are: (a) the integration of different tools of analysis for the diagnosis of a territory, (b) the ponderation of all the dimensions of the sustentability, (c) the proposition of instruments for the design of spatial models who allow to channel the development of a territory towards it sustentability, considering the rational use of the natural resources, the reduction of disasters risks and the improvement of the quality of life of the present and future generations. The proposed methodology has been applied to a case of study on a large scale locally, the commune of San Jose del Maipo in Santiago of Chile, across an educational exercise by the pupils of the promotion 2007 in the Workshop of Environmental Management, of the Magíster in Human Accessions and Environment of the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile. The methodological proposed process considers basically two subprocesses: the diagnosis evaluation of the territorial system and the design of a territorial model, whose result is the elaboration of a Territorial Classification of a Sustentable Plan for the commune of San Jose del Maipo. ; Fil: Rodríguez Seeger, Claudia. Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile ; Fil: Reyes Päcke, Sonia. Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile
The Swedish mountain region makes up about one third of the country but includes less than 2 per cent of the population. It stretches for over 1000 km and includes 90 per cent of the total nature conservation area in Sweden. With its 8000 km of hiking trails and 100 mountain huts and lodges it is one of the most important areas for outdoor recreation and tourism - visited by one fourth of the Swedish adult population every year. With the current decline of the extractive industries tourism has become an important development issue in the area. Effective spatial planning in the mountains presupposes good information on tourism and outdoor recreation. Municipalities need adequate data to base planning on. One precondition for more effective information supply to spatial planning is research and development of methods. It must be possible to follow developments, predict environmental effects and effects on user attitudes, satisfaction etc. There are big differences between visitors in the mountains. Their needs and interest in different nature experiences, their tolerance towards crowding and contacts with other users vary a lot. It is important for planning and management to find out which qualities users are looking for and appreciating and to have a clear picture of the variance between different users. Management of recreation areas is normally combined with conservation and often has two goals: i) to maintain "natural conditions" and ii) to provide recreation opportunities. These two goals will often be contradictory. Resolving this conflict is both a theoretical and practical problem. The discourse within spatial planning differs from the nature conservation discourse. While the nature conservation discourse comes from a tradition of "calculating rationality" and a scientific, central view that points out the foremost values – "national interests", national parks, world heritage areas – the basis of the spatial planning ideology in Sweden is a conception of local, political decision making. The Swedish planning system with a planning monopoly and veto of the municipalities is in theory a system with deliberative or communicative rationality: the plan is supposed to express citizens' will and needs expressed through their representatives. How to provide the planning system with relevant information on different levels, i.e. information that can be used for predicting different reactions to different management actions in order to be able to handle conflicts will be one of the central questions in the thesis. Special attention will be paid to different methods of measuring nature tourism and outdoor recreation. Self registration combined with satisfactory studies on non participation can give a relatively good synoptic picture of the use of the area. At the same time it is obvious that the non participation varies too much geographically and between different points of time for self registration alone to be used for studying frequencies and patterns of use. Flight observations carried out as a part of the study in Södra Jämtlandsfjällen (article II) proved to be a good method of studying the patterns of camping. They were also important for conflict analysis and studying divergences. The indirect methods for estimating the total number of visitors have to be calibrated often, which can be difficult (for example number of visitors in a car or a buss). The indirect methods risk missing factors that make it possible to get indications of possible tendencies in the use of an area. In situations where conflicts exist, it is important that the picture of the present situation is well established and legitimate. This means that both methods and the actors participating in the study have to be experienced as legitimate by all parties taking part in the planning process. A general conclusion is that there are not any good shortcuts to useful knowledge about outdoor recreation and tourism for planning as a whole, for management or for EIA. Need for predictions is far too big to make indirect data useful alone. Three studies are presented: i) a national screener study on current tourism patterns in the Swedish mountain region, ii) a case study among the visitors in Södra Jämtlandsfjällen and iii) a case study among the residents in Södra Jämtlandsfjällen. ; Effektiv fysisk planering i fjällen förutsätter tillförlitlig och bra kunskap om turism och friluftsliv. Kommunerna behöver lämplig data att basera sin planering på. En förutsättning för effektivare kunskapsförsörjning är forskning och utveckling av metoder. Det måste vara möjligt att följa utveckling, förutsäga effekter på miljön och brukares attityder, tillfredställelse etc. Den svenska fjällregionen omfattar ca en tredjedel av landet men bara mindre än 2 procent av svenska befolkningen bor i området. 90 procent av alla skyddade naturområden ligger i området. Med sina 8000 kilometer vandringsleder och 100 fjällstugor och -stationer är det ett av de viktigaste områdena för friluftsliv och turism. Området besöks av en fjärdedel av den svenska vuxna populationen varje år. Turism har fått allt större betydelse och roll i utvecklingen av området, mycket på grund av råvaruindustrins nedgång. Det finns stora skillnader mellan besökare i de svenska fjällen. Deras behov och intressen för olika naturupplevelser, deras tolerans för trängsel och kontakt med andra besökare varierar mycket. Det är viktigt för planering och förvaltning att ta reda på vilka kvalitéer besökare söker och uppskattar. Förvaltning av friluftsområden är vanligen kombinerad med bevarande och har ofta två mål: i) att bevara "naturligt tillstånd" och ii) ge möjligheter till friluftsliv. Dessa mål står ofta i strid med varandra. Lösning av denna konflikt är både ett teoretiskt och praktiskt problem. Hur man borde förse fysisk planering med relevant information som kan användas för att förutse reaktioner på olika förvaltningsåtgärder för att kunna hantera konflikter är en av de centrala frågorna i den här avhandlingen. Olika metoder för att mäta naturturism och friluftsliv diskuteras. Tre studier presenteras: i) en nationell studie om svenskarnas fjällvanor, ii) en fallstudie bland besökarna i Södra Jämtlandsfjällen och iii) en fallstudie bland lokalbefolkningen i Södra Jämtlandsfjällen.
The changes the rural economy and society experience today are wide ranging and complex. They stem to a large extent from changing socio-economic norms and values in a society as well as from the changes of the global economy, of the market policy and trade rules. These changes affect however, not only sectoral markets, but local economies and rural areas in general (FERMAN 1999). At the same time rural economies have to meet rising environmental and recreational claims of the society, which fundamentally change both the structure and the level of goods and services demanded from rural economies (DRABENSTOTT and MEEKER 1999). The European Structural Funds as one of the most important rural development policy planning tools in the EU currently undergo a fundamental re-organisation extending the assistance programs towards Central- and Eastern European countries (VANHOVE 1999). These reforms are deep-going and wide-reaching in their nature and influence the competitiveness of rural economies in Europe in several aspects. They will alter the sectoral structure and the activity levels in rural economies as well as the economic performance of these economies in general. In order to be able to consider these economy-wide impacts of a changing institutional framework in the future rural development planning, it is utmost important to assess these a-priori (JOHNSON and SCOTT 1997). Although the ongoing reforms of the regional development policy in the EU play a significant role in changing the rules and conditions of rural economies, there is another obvious influence on the spatial dynamics of an economy, namely the decreasing importance of agriculture in rural economies. Almost all rural areas in Europe have experienced a decline in the importance of agriculture during the nineties so that only very few rural areas could now be defined as being dependent on agruculture. As a result, the economic structure of rural economies dependends more and more on service activities (LOPEZ-BAZO et al. 1999). The role of rural areas has also been altered, particularly in northern Europe, by an increase in the demand for rural 'consumption' goods, for example for rural leisure goods and for rural tourism (EUROPEAN COMMISSION 1999). A further cause for the rapidly changing relationships between actors, sectors and regions in a spatial economy are the changes in production technologies as well as the emergence of completely new production technologies. The Information Technology (IT) branch, one of the most important example of the so called "New Economy" affect economic space and hence rural areas in various ways. The modern tele-commuting technologies e. g. increasingly separate places people live in and work in. This makes it for people more attractive to live rural and to work urban (DRABENSTOTT and MEEKER 1999). One consequence of these changes has been a blurring of the distinctions between rural and urban space and a concomitant change in the nature and the extent of interdependencies that exist between rural and urban areas. From an economic perspective these growing inter-regional interdependencies alter the degree to which income is generated, retained or leaked from a rural or urban economy and the extent to which regions are interdependent (PONS-NOVELL and VILADECANS-MARSAL 1999). The growing inter-regional interdependencies people live in one region, earn money in another one and spend it in a third one), however, have severe consequences in the regions- socio-economic development and, therefore, have to be considered carefully in regional development planning which requires an inter-regional analysis approach (SCHINDLER, ISRAELEVICH, HEWINGS 1997). The main goal of our study is to develop a reliable analysis tool for exploring the impacts of these changing global economic conditions of rural economies. Another objective of our study is to look for alternative rural development planning options and to compare them within the framework of the European Structural Funds in selected applicant countries. While there is little doubt among economists about the increasing importance of these Funds in Europe-s regional economic development, only few of the studies carried out so far have used an inter-regional and inter-sectoral framework to analyse policy impacts to rural and to urban regions as well as to various sectors of an economy explicitly (AZIS 1997a). Using the example of Latvia our study makes a contribution to close this research gap in understanding and predicting the causal structure of the fundamental changes regional economies experience today in Europe as well as to assess the impacts of potential changes in European regional policy setting within a framework of an inter-regional general equilibrium. We have demonstrated in our paper that an inter-regional CGE model can be quite a useful tool for analysing the impacts of changes in global economic conditions and for assessing the inter-regional as well as the inter-sectoral implications of potential policy changes even if computational resources are limited and a full range of regional economic data required by a formal CGE analysis are not available. We have also asserted in our study that a regional CGE model is an impact model permitting analysis of interdependent effects across various parts of an economy rather than a device for statistic testing of economic variables. In our empirical analysis we found out that the rural economy of Latvia, which was used as an example for Central and Eastern European accession countries, has to expect the largest welfare gains from the integration into the EU if Latvia opens its markets gradually and not if the current policy setting is continued or if it conducts a completely liberal market policy as it is favoured by the Chicago School of Economics. This argument is supported by the fact that the market protection in the EU is currently relatively high in comparison to Central and Eastern European countries. Since especially agricultural markets are highly protected in the EU, above all rural regions will gain from the integration to the EU. Moreover, since many of the rural regions in the CEE will be eligible for the financial aid foreseen within the EU Structural Funds these rural communities will be strengthened financially as well.
Gender mainstreaming has been associated to the creation of an enabling environment for CSA. Indeed, gender mainstreaming is considered, at international level, as critical to achieving national development goals and addressing key global challenges such as climate change and food and nutrition insecurity in the agriculture sector. However, despite multiple international commitments on gender issues, having gender-labeled policy and governmental gender bodies, gender mainstreaming in the policy cycle is lagging. In this communication for the CSA workshop, we propose to identify and analyze the barriers leading to poor gender mainstreaming and potential solutions in policies for CSA in Guatemala and Honduras. Indeed, within the gender and development literature has been extensively researched and emphasized the importance of considering the nexus between gender, agriculture, food security and nutrition (FSN), and climate change (CC) not only to reduce gender inequalities, but also to address CC and FSN issues. However, few studies address the process of gender integration in the policy cycle related to the nexus of gender, agriculture, FSN, and CC, the critical policy nexus to create a CSA enabling environment. No specific methodology has been developed to assess gender integration in CC, FSN, and agricultural policies either. This study seeks to bridge this gap. We developed and conducted a methodology based on the three concepts of policy integration, policy mix and policy translation. We rely on the 'policy integration' concept to capture the level of integration of gender issues. Policy integration refers to the incorporation of an issue in policy making and policy evaluation and is often used interchangeably with mainstreaming. We consider integration at all stages of the policy cycle from elaboration, to implementation and evaluation. The concept of 'policy mix' captures the interactions between relevant policies affecting a boundary spanning challenges in a specific space and time. It also enables us to the analyze the coherence of the interaction of policy instruments (instruments mix) to achieve a specific goal. We considered gender equity as our boundary-spanning challenge, and the scope of our analyzed policy mix includes the policy domains of gender, CC, FSN, and agriculture. Analyzing policy interactions can furnish a more holistic understanding of how policies included in the policy mix affect gender equity. As the issue of gender integration has been promoted by international arena toward national or local arena, especially in less developed countries (Acosta et al., 2019a), we also movilize 'policy translation' concepts as it is one of the processes affecting policy integration. Considering two different countries, incorporating the policy translation concept enables us to better understanding of the potential barriers to gender integration in policies related to CC, agriculture, and FSN during this translation phase. Through policy document analysis and key informant interviews, we examine the barriers that result in poor gender mainstreaming in CC, FSN, and agricultural policies and explore possible solutions, using a case study approach applied to Guatemala and Honduras. Guatemala and Honduras were selected as very relevant cases to address gender mainstreaming issue. On the one hand, the two countries have made international commitments related to gender integration in policy, and their governments have elaborated gender policies at national and sectorial levels (e.g. agriculture) and created gender bodies in charge of coordinating gender mainstreaming/gender policy implementation. Results show that, despite having made multiple international commitments on gender issues and having gender-labeled policy and governmental gender bodies, gender mainstreaming in the policy cycle is lagging. There are multiple barriers of a different nature and at different levels that explain the lack of gender integration in the policy cycle, related and linked to: (1) policy translation from the international level; (2) structural policy barriers at national level; (3) behaviors and corruption; and (4) lack of knowledge and capacity. At policy translation level, although gender is integrated in sectorial and national policy, it is not sufficient to observe a change in bridging/closing the gender gaps. At structural policy level, there is a gap between the creation of policies and their implementation. The lack of gender integration also comes from the way governments operate, divided by sectors and not used to working on cross-cutting issues. Additionally, we establish a link between the country's structural poverty and the lack of gender integration in policies. Finally, the weakness of the gender institutional framework in terms of human resources staff capacity constitute an additional barrier. Behaviors and corruption barriers refer to state corruption, patriarchal culture, and the lack of interest by politicians that affect the effectiveness of gender mainstreaming. The lack of knowledge and capacity barriers correspond to the lack of gender awareness. This leads to the coexistence of different definitions of gender equality and gender mainstreaming in policies and, consequently, different conceptions of how to achieve it. Besides, the technical approach given to CC issue results in ignoring its social aspects and thus the lack of gender inclusion. Solutions to address these barriers have been identified. Some of the solutions mentioned by interviewees in both countries and in policy documents are consistent with literature findings such as the need to keep building capacity on gender, to produce scientific evidence on gender to inform policy, to push for more law enforcement, to foster women access to property, and to improve policy and project design. Additionally, our study shed light on the level of discouragement and feelings of powerlessness of key informants on the situation they shared, to which they saw no solution, as was particularly the case in Guatemala. Furthermore, there were no references to the need to strengthen sectorial gender units and civil society (both financially and in terms of capacity). We also highlight the importance of considering the nature of the relationship (purely technical and/or political) between governments and international cooperation actors to evaluate the level of gender integration in policy. Neither in this study (interviews and policy documents) nor in the literature were concrete solutions proposed to overcoming the barriers related to structural racism and machismo, religious extremism, power groups, and censorship of civil society. Based on these findings we find interesting to further discuss, the role of research for development organizations as well as the wider international cooperation in addressing those barriers. We find interesting to start discussing how to address complex barriers of structural racism and machismo, religious extremism, power groups, and censorship of civil society from science and/or other modes of action. We hope that these findings can help the reflection on how to build enabling policy environments to achieve CSA goals which is underpinned by gender inclusion in all policy cycle.
Diese Arbeit besteht aus zwei Veröffentlichungen und einer bevorstehenden Veröffentlichung zu unterschiedlichen hochschulpolitischen Themenkomplexen, die im Rahmen des Forschungsprojekts "Bildungsforschung als Basis für die Hochschulpolitik in Niedersachsen" (Fördernummer 51490026) entstanden sind. Kapitel 1 führt in die Bedeutung der Bildung – und insbesondere der Hochschulbildung – für die Gesellschaft ein und gibt einen Überblick über hochschulpolitische Maßnahmen in Deutschland. Kapitel 2 analysiert das Wanderungsverhalten von Studienberechtigten zur Aufnahme eines Studiums. Die ausreichende Bereitstellung von Studienplätzen für Studienanfängerinnen und anfänger ist eine Voraussetzung für die Eröffnung von Teilhabechancen in der Bildung. Um abschätzen zu können, ob die Anzahl der angebotenen Studienplätze ausreicht, ist die Kenntnis des Wanderungsverhaltens von Studienberechtigten hilfreich. Ziel dieses Beitrags ist es, unterschiedliche Wanderungsmuster und Gründe für die Zuwanderung in die Bundesländer auszuarbeiten, um Einflussfaktoren für die zukünftige Zahl von Studienanfängerzahlen zu benennen. Dieser Beitrag ergänzt die bisherigen Veröffentlichungen, indem er versucht, eine Verbindung zwischen individuellen Wanderungsmotiven und makroökonomisch erklärten Wanderungsströmen herzustellen sowie gleichzeitig die räumlich-geographische Distanz als wichtige Einflussgröße zu berücksichtigen. Genauer können die Bundesländer durch die Anwendung einer Cluster- und Varianzanalyse aufgrund ihrer Wanderungsstrukturen in vier Gruppen eingeteilt werden, die klare Muster aufweisen und sich in den Eigenschaften Größe, Arbeitslosigkeit, Studienangebot, Hochschulqualität sowie Lebensumfeld unterscheiden. Abhängig von diesen Ergebnissen lassen sich Gründe für das Wanderungsverhalten ableiten, die ökonometrisch in einem Gravitationsmodell abgebildet und zu einem methodischen Ansatz zusammengefasst werden können. Es zeigt sich, dass räumlich lange Wege und Studiengebühren negativ sowie ein hohes Angebot an Hochschulen und Studienplätzen positiv auf die Zuwanderung wirken. In Kapitel 3 wird das Übergangsverhalten von Studienberechtigten in die Hochschule vor dem Hintergrund der Politikmaßnahme zur Verkürzung der Schulzeit (G8) eingehend analysiert. Die Maßnahme G8 zielte darauf ab, dass deutsche Abiturienten schneller anfangen zu studie-ren und damit schlussendlich dem Arbeitsmarkt eher zu Verfügung stehen. Mit der Arbeit in Kapitel 3 soll der Effekt einer verkürzten Schulzeit infolge von G8 auf die Übergangsdauer von Studienberechtigten, d.h. die Zeit zwischen Erlangung des Abiturs und Studienbeginn, mittels eines Difference-in-difference Ansatzes in Kombination mit einer Panel Schätzung mit Fixed Effects untersucht werden. Anders als bei bestehenden anderen Untersuchungen wurde hier der vollständige Zeitraum der G8 Umsetzung (2006–2017) einbezogen, weitere makro-ökonomische Variablen, welche den Übergangszeitraum beeinflussen, als Kontrollvariablen integriert sowie eine Vollerhebung zu den realisierten Übergangsquoten als Datengrundlage verwendet. Als zentrales Ergebnis lässt sich festhalten, dass durch die G8 Reform der unmittelbare Übergang ins Studium negativ und alle zeitverzögerten Übergangsraten positiv beeinflusst wurden. Die Studiumsaufnahme hat sich infolge von G8 also bei einer Vielzahl von Studienberechtigten um mindestens ein Jahr nach hinten verschoben. Das Kapitel 4 wendet sich den Hochschulen und ihrer wirtschaftlichen Bedeutung neben ihrer Charakteristik als öffentliches Gut und ideellen Wert zu. So haben Hochschulen einen nicht zu vernachlässigenden Einfluss auf Angebot und Nachfrage und repräsentieren damit einen wichtigen wirtschaftlichen Akteur in ihrer Region. Mit diesem Beitrag wird auf Basis einer Multiplikatoranalyse für die Nachfragewirkungen sowie eines räumlich-ökonometrischen Schätzmodells (spatial panel) für die Angebotswirkungen die Bedeutung der Hochschulstandorte in Niedersachsens auf Kreisebene quantifiziert, verglichen und klassifiziert. Im Vergleich zu zahlreichen anderen Beiträgen, welche die ökonomische Bewertung von Hochschulstandorten vornehmen, stellt dieser Beitrag nicht nur eine bestimmte Hochschule bzw. Hochschulregion losgelöst von anderen Standorten in den Fokus, sondern bietet ein umfassendes, vollständiges und konsistentes Bild aller Hochschulstandorte in Niedersachsen, sodass auch ein Vergleich der Standorte untereinander möglich ist. Die einkommensinduzierten direkten und indirekten Nachfrageeffekte werden auf Basis eines detaillierten Datensatzes der Hochschulstatistik in Kombination mit Einkommens- und Beschäftigungsmultiplikatoren aus einer regionalen Input-Output-Tabelle berechnet. Die angebotsseitigen Effekte, also die Wirkungen, die aus der Lehre und Forschung entstehen, werden auf Basis der Humankapitaltheorie und der Theorie zur Wissensverbreitung (knowledge spillover theory) mit Hilfe von spatial panel regressionen geschätzt. Die Ergebnisse vermitteln einen vollständigen und nachvollziehbaren Eindruck über die wirtschaftliche Bedeutung jedes einzelnen Hochschulstandorts in Niedersachsen und ermöglichen Vergleiche zwischen den Standorten sowie Eingruppierungen. ; This thesis consists of two published articles and one forthcoming article encompassing different subjects related to higher educational policies. The articles were part of the research project "Educational Research as the Basis for University Policy in Lower Saxony" (grant number 51490026). In Chapter 1 the importance of education – and in particular higher education – for society is introduced. In connection with this, the education policies for higher education in Germany are summarised. In Chapter 2 is dealt with the migration behaviour of school leavers who start studying. The adequate and sufficient supply of university places that meets the demand of first year students is one aspect of equal access and participation possibilities in higher education. Therefore, it is important to have knowledge of the migration behaviour of school leavers holding a university admittance qualification. The aim of this article is to work out different migration patterns and reasons for migration between the federal states in order to identify influencing factors for the future number of first-year students. This contribution complements the previous studies by attempting to create a link between individual migration motives and macro-economically explained migration flows, while at the same time considering the spatial distance as an important factor. Applying a cluster and variance analysis to the migration characteristics, the Federal States in Germany can be divided into four groups. The clusters vary in size, unemployment, range of offered courses, university quality and living conditions. Based on this information, reasons for migration can be deducted and empirically evaluated using a gravity model. It can be shown that long distances and tuition fees have a negative impact on inmigration whereas a large number of universities and a high supply of university places show positive effects. In Chapter 3 is analysed in detail the transition time of school graduates from leaving school until enrolment into university against the background of the policy measure G8. The policy measure G8 was supposed to bring German school leavers into university earlier. The aim of the contribution in Chapter 3 is to evaluate the effect of G8 on the transition from school into university using a difference-in-differences set-up within panel estimation with fixed effects. In comparison to a number of other studies, in this contribution, the complete time period of the G8 implementation (2006–2017) was considered, other macro factors affecting the transition process were controlled for and a full population survey encompassing realised enrolment rates was used. The main finding was that the G8 reform affected the enrolment rate for an immediate transition negatively but all other subsequent transition rates with higher time gaps positively. The university enrolment was hence postponed by at least one year due to G8. Chapter 4 focuses on universities and their economic contribution in addition to their characteristics as a non-material public good. Universities are important economic actors in having a considerable impact on the demand and supply side of their local economy. The aim of the contribution in Chapter 4 is to quantify, compare and classify the different economic demand- and supply-side contributions of the university locations within Lower-Saxony using a com-bination of multiplier analysis and spatial econometrics on a NUTS 3 level. In comparison to numerous other studies this contribution does not focus on the economic impact of single cases or a selected university location but gives a complete picture of the importance and significance of all university locations within Lower-Saxony. The income induced direct and indirect demand effects were estimated with a rich data set from higher education statistics in combination with an income and employment multiplier derived from a regional input-output table while the supply-side effects, i. e. the impact of the education and research outcomes, were determined by estimating with spatial panel regressions a model derived from human capital theory and knowledge spillover theory. The estimation results gave a complete and reproducible impression of the importance and significance of the different university locations offering the opportunity for comparisons and classifications.
This thesis addresses two topics: technology and values. More specifically, the studied technology is an ensemble of digital technologies that is often referred to as "digitalization," and the values are gathered from empirical material from the Swedish (digital) government. The purpose of the thesis is to generate an enhanced understanding of the relation between digital technology and values. The study is motivated by, a) a need to theorize digital government research, b) a need to establish a link between narratives of technology and research on values, and c) a need to disclose how investments in digital technology are legitimized. The research question of this thesis is, "how can we understand the relation between digital technology and values?" To answer this question, theoretical concepts that are rooted in philosophy of technology are used: polytechnics and monotechnics, externalism, and internalism. Moreover, a theory of four value positions, namely professionalism, efficiency, service, and engagement is used. The thesis revolves around five papers, and its methodological approach is characterized by pragmatism. Data were gathered from relevant literature and document studies, an analysis of expert groups, and survey results from national and local government entities. The findings from the papers were subject to a narrative analysis. This analysis generated three conclusions, which constitute the theoretical contribution of the thesis. The relation between digital technology and values can be understood from these three key conclusions: The first regards convergence, and incorporates two narratives of digital technology: as a polytechnic tool, and as a monotechnic force: a machine. Digital technology is pluralistic in the sense that it may enable several values through multiple technological frames. In parallel, it relies on uniformity and standardization. The technology is therefore subject to several tensions. The story of the machine tends to become dominant through calls for action: it emphasizes the need for rapid adaptation of both individuals and society. In digital government, such adjustment would include an uncertain transformation of professionalism values. The legitimacy of this transformation is highly dependent on which story of technology it is based on. The second conclusion concerns technology as a paradigm. The digital paradigm, as studied in this thesis, is characterized by a story about a technological society for everyone. However, this story stems from a narrow range of actors with respect to educational and geographical context. A broadened view of digital technology and values would require a more symmetrical range of norms, since how values manifest themselves is dependent on the properties of the paradigm. The third and final conclusion regards congruence and divergence. The relation between digital technology and values is shifting between value congruence, and value divergence. When digital technology becomes associated with a narrative of progress that suggests that its value lies in the future while the present is "transformative," it can develop in a seemingly self-augmented and autonomous manner. Contrasting stories of value divergence can be found in evaluations from practice. However, this divergent narrative is repositioned as a story of "barriers", which tells us that values can be realized if society adapts. The interplay between these narratives has implications for how we perceive value realization. The thesis concludes with the following summarizing contributions. Theoretically, it produces an enhanced understanding of the relation between digital technology and values, as described above. Through this theoretical understanding, a link between narratives of technology and values is established empirically. By doing so, this thesis has revealed how values are legitimized, manifested and perceived, depending on what technology "is". Finally, a societal need is fulfilled by suggestions for policy making. Democratization of the norms associated with digital technology would improve governance in the sense that policy makers would have to actively choose between incommensurable views. As a result of this, accountability would increase, together with transparency concerning the narratives that inform policy. ; Denna avhandling studerar relationen mellan digital teknik, ofta benämnd "digitalisering", och värden. Materialet tar sin utgångspunkt i historiska och aktuella utredningar och policys framtagna inom svensk offentlig sektor. Syftet att fördjupa förståelsen för hur olika tekniksyner i dessa påverkar värden såsom professionalitet, effektivitet, service och demokrati. Studiens motivation är att teoretisera forskning om digital förvaltning, skapa en länk mellan historier om teknik, och aktuell forskning om värden, och att förstå hur investeringar i digital teknik legitimeras. Avhandlingen hämtar teoretiska utgångspunkter från teknikfilosofi, och forskning om värden inom offentlig sektor. Resultaten från fem artiklar sammanfattades genom narrativ analys, och renderade följande slutsatser: relationen mellan teknik och värden kan förstås.: -Som en konvergens, där digital teknik assimilerat äldre tekniker. Två berättelser framträder i denna kontext: det flexibla verktyget, och den autonoma maskinen. Konvergens möjliggör realisering av flera värden med hjälp av tekniken, samtidigt som det ofta sker genom standardisering och uniformitet. Berättelsen om maskinen blir dominant eftersom den kommer med uppmaningar om att samhället och individen måste anpassas. I offentlig förvaltning innebär denna anpassning en transformation av professionella värden. Denna transformations legitimitet är i hög grad beroende på vilken tekniksyn den baseras på, då en autonom teknik påverkar värden som till exempel ansvarighet. -Som ett paradigm, där manifesteringen av värden påverkas av normerna inom detta paradigm. Det digitala paradigmet i det studerade materialet, är karaktäriserat av en berättelse om ett teknologiskt samhälle för alla. Denna berättelse berättas dock av aktörer från en smal kontext vad gäller utbildningsbakgrund och geografisk hemvist. I och med att direktiv om digital förvaltning ofta har som mål att bredda användningen av digital teknik, borde en förutsättning för denna bredd vara att bredda normerna som beskriver det digitala samhället. -I termer av kongruens och divergens. Relationen mellan digital teknik och värden skiftar mellan värdekongruens, och värdedivergens. Samspelet mellan dessa berättelser påverkar hur realisering av värden uppfattas. Berättelsen om ett epokskifte karaktäriserat av teknologiska och ekonomiska framsteg tenderar att generera en syn på tekniken som något autonomt, vars värde ligger i framtiden. Nutiden är alltid transformativ. Denna berättelse står i kontrast mot utvärderingar från praktiken, där värden divergerar. Divergensen positioneras som en berättelse om "hinder" för fortsatt utveckling. Avhandlingen konkluderas med att föreslå en breddning av de normer som informerar politik och beslutsfattare. Om dessa beslutsfattare aktivt skulle behöva navigera och välja mellan inkommensurabla tekniksyner skulle det ha positiva konsekvenser för legitimitet, ansvarighet och transparens. ; Vid tidpunkten för disputationen var följande delarbete opublicerat: delarbete 2 (manuskript). At the time of the doctoral defence the following paper was unpublished: paper 2 (manuscript).
Die VR China hat aufgrund ihres rapiden Wirtschaftswachstums große Umweltprobleme und inzwischen den weltweit größten CO₂-Ausstoß zu verantworten. Die Emissionen im Verkehrssektor tragen enorm dazu bei. Fahrzeuge, Staus, Lärm und Luftverschmutzung konzentrieren sich insbesondere in chinesischen Megastädten. Die chinesische Regierung hat als Antwort auf diese Problematik damit begonnen, durch Umstrukturierungs- und Aufwertungsmaßnahmen Wirtschaftszweige mit geringem CO₂-Ausstoß zu etablieren. Dieser New Energy-Sektor umfasst Industrien im Bereich der Elektromobilität, der erneuerbaren Energien aber auch die Kernkraft. Außerdem hat die Zentralregierung Stadtentwicklungsprogramme etabliert, mit denen Energie eingespart, der Ressourcenverbrauch gesenkt, Emissionen reduziert und nachhaltige Lebensstile gefördert werden sollen. Die südchinesische Megastadt Shenzhen, die unmittelbar an Hongkong angrenzt, genießt als Sonderwirtschaftszone weitreichende Freiheiten und gilt in den o. a. Bereichen als nationales Vorbild. Sie partizipiert seit 2011 an einem Low Carbon City-Programm und verfolgt bis 2020 das Ziel, ihre CO₂-Emissionen gegenüber 2005 um 45 Prozent zu senken. Elektromobilität hat das Potenzial, zur Minderung der Emissionen beizutragen sowie die Mobilitätsstrukturen und das Mobilitätsverhalten nachhaltig zu verändern. Deshalb partizipiert Shenzhen seit 2009 auch als Pilotstadt der Zentralregierung an den Modellregionen zur Förderung der Elektromobilität. Nach erfolgreichen Pilotprojekten für E-Busse und E-Taxen sowie einem flächendeckenden Aufbau der Ladeinfrastruktur verfügt Shenzhen inzwischen über 51.929 Elektrofahrzeuge, 166 Ladestationen, 4.197 Schnell- und 19.232 Normalladesäulen und gilt als nationales Vorbild auch in diesen Bereichen (Stand Juni 2016). Die Anzahl der Elektrofahrzeuge entspricht ca. 1,65 Prozent aller Fahrzeuge in Shenzhen. Mit Chinas größtem Batterie- und Elektrofahrzeughersteller BYD hat ein weiterer Akteur in der Megastadt ein großes Interesse an einer systematischen industriellen Weiterentwicklung dieser Zukunftsbranche. Die Umweltaspekte und Ressourcenunabhängigkeit gelten als positive Nebenaspekte auf dem Weg zu einer Low Carbon City. Ziel der vorliegenden Dissertation ist es, die Strukturen, Prozesse und Instrumente zur Förderung der Elektromobilität und deren Zusammenhang mit nachhaltigen Strategien der Stadtentwicklung am Fallbeispiel Shenzhen zu untersuchen. Elektromobilität sollte hierbei nicht nur als ein Wechsel der Antriebssysteme vom konventionellen Motor hin zum elektrisch betriebenen Motor betrachtet werden. Elektromobilität kann vielmehr als ein ganzheitliches System verstanden werden, das die Nutzung erneuerbarer Energiequellen, die Verkehrsvermeidung durch Transit Oriented Development, Verkehrsreduzierung durch innovative und multimodale Mobilitätsansätze sowie den Ausbau des ÖPNVs berücksichtigen kann. Fünf geplante und teilweise umgesetzte Projekte, die sich mit Ladeinfrastruktur in Wohn- und Geschäftsgebieten, mit der Nutzung erneuerbarer Energiequellen, mit stadtplanerischen Lösungen zur Verkehrsreduzierung im MIV, mit e-Carsharing und anderen innovativen Mobilitätslösungen und mit der Anwendung von E-Bussen und E-Taxen befassen, werden dazu untersucht. Die beiden Stadtentwicklungsgebiete in Pingdi und in Qianhai sind besonders hervorzuheben, da sie trotz unterschiedlicher Voraussetzungen ein großes Potenzial für die künftige Anwendung der Elektromobilität in Shenzhen besitzen. In einer Top-down-gesteuerten Governance-Struktur setzt die Stadtregierung Shenzhens die Rahmenbedingungen und dereguliert die Märkte zu Gunsten staats- und privatwirtschaftlicher Akteure im Bereich der Elektromobilität. Zuerst wird der ÖPNV bei Bussen und Taxen auf Elektromobilität umgestellt. Im zweiten Schritt geht es um den Antriebswechsel im Wirtschaftsverkehr insbesondere bei der Logistik. Erst im letzten und schwierigsten Schritt versucht die Stadtregierung, bis 2020 mit Hilfe von Anreizen und Restriktionen einen Anteil von drei Prozent elektrischer Fahrzeuge an den Gesamtzulassungszahlen zu erreichen. Bei allem wird deutlich, dass Shenzhen die Nutzung erneuerbarer Energiequellen für den Antrieb von Elektrofahrzeugen zugunsten der Kernenergie vernachlässigt. Jedoch tragen stadtplanerische Lösungen in Low Carbon City-Projekten zur Vermeidung von Verkehr im MIV bei. Die Reduzierung des MIV durch e-Carsharing und andere innovative Mobilitätslösungen steht erst am Anfang. Das Verkehrssystem Shenzhens kann zu diesem Zeitpunkt noch nicht als nachhaltig bezeichnet werden, da Industrieziele - gepaart mit umfangreichen staatlichen Regulierungen - die Strukturen, Prozesse und Instrumente dominieren. Elektromobilität führt aber durch das systematische Konzept der Stadtregierung zu einer umweltgerechteren Stadtentwicklung. ; Due to its rapid economic growth, the P. R. China is facing significant environmental challenges and is now responsible for the world's largest share of CO₂ emissions. Emissions in the transport sector contribute tremendously. Vehicles, traffic congestion, noise and air pollution are concentrated in particular in Chinese megacities. In response to these problems, the Chinese government has begun to establish low carbon sectors through restructuring and improvement measures. The new energy sector includes industries in the areas of electromobility and renewables, but also nuclear power. Also, the Central Government has established urban development programs, which promote sustainable lifestyles and energy conservation, as well as reducing resource consumption and emissions. The South Chinese megacity of Shenzhen, which lies directly adjacent to Hongkong, enjoys wide-ranging freedoms as a special economic zone and is considered a national model in the above-mentioned areas. Since 2011, Shenzhen has participated in a low carbon city program. The city aims to reduce CO₂ emissions by 45 percent by 2020 compared to 2005 levels. Electromobility has the potential to contribute to the reduction of emissions, as well as to change mobility structures and mobility behavior. To that end, in 2009 Shenzhen was selected by the Central Government to be the pilot city in a model region for the promotion of electric mobility. After successful pilot projects for e-buses and e-taxis, as well as wide-scale expansion of charging infrastructure, Shenzhen now has more than 51,929 electric vehicles, 166 charging stations, 4,197 fast and 19,232 columns and is considered a national model in these areas (June 2016). Electric vehicles now make up about 1.65 percent of all vehicles in Shenzhen. China's largest battery and electric vehicle manufacturer, BYD, is another player in the megacity, and it has a great interest in the systematic industrial development of this future sector. Improvement of environmental conditions and resource independence are considered positive ancillary aspects on the way to a low carbon city. The aim of the present work is to investigate the structures, processes, and instruments that promote electromobility and their connection to sustainable strategies of urban development in the example of Shenzhen. Electromobility, in this context, should be considered not only as a change of the drive systems from the conventional engine to the electric engine. Rather, electromobility can be considered as a holistic system, which can take into account the use of renewable energy sources, the avoidance of traffic by means of transit-oriented development, the reduction of traffic through innovative and multimodal mobility approaches, and the expansion of local public transport. Five planned and implemented projects, including charging infrastructure in residential and commercial areas, the use of renewable sources of energy, urban planning solutions to reduce traffic from private vehicles, e-car sharing and other innovative mobility solutions, and the use of e-busses and e-taxis are investigated. The two urban development areas in the sub-district Pingdi and in Qianhai are particularly noteworthy, because they have great potential for the future application of electromobility in Shenzhen, despite different conditions. The Shenzhen City Government, in a top-down governance structure, sets the framework and deregulates the markets in favor of state and private actors in electromobility. First, public transport, in the form of buses and taxis, is converted to electromobility. The second step is to change the drive systems in commercial traffic, especially in the field of logistics. Finally, in the last, most difficult step, the city government relies largely on incentives and restrictions to reach a three percent share of electric vehicles by 2020. In all, it is clear that Shenzhen neglects the potential to use renewable energy sources for electric vehicles in favor of nuclear power. In addition, urban planning solutions in low carbon city projects contribute to the avoidance of traffic from private vehicles. The reduction in the use of private vehicles in favor of e-car sharing and other innovative mobility solutions is just beginning. The transportation system at Shenzhens cannot yet be considered sustainable, as industrial targets, coupled with extensive state regulation, dominate the structures, processes, and instruments. However, through the systematic concept of the city government, electromobility leads to more environmentally sound urban development.
The Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) aims at the conservation of migratory waterbird populations through the joint production of knowledge, collaborative and sustainable management. Within this framework the RESSOURCE project (Strengthen Southern Sahara Expertise on Birds and their Rational Use for Communities and their Environment) funded by FAO, EU and FFEM was developed. The aim of the project is to improve the knowledge on waterbirds and their using in order to promote a better management of the waterbird populations and habitats on the following sites: the Senegal River Delta (Senegal), Inner Niger Delta (Mali), Lakes Chad and Fitri (Chad), the Nile Delta and Nasser Lake (Egypt) and the Khor Abu Habil (Sudan). Component 3 of the project focus on the using of waterbirds for which there is little or no data available about ecotourism, sport-hunting, recreation, food or commercial hunting. Our aim is to address the local and national socio-economic impacts of these sectors. Therefore, to strengthen the conservation of waterbirds and Sahelien wetlands, the project aims to build national observatories. Indeed, defined as information systems, they facilitate shared understanding of the issues, participate in decision-making, promote collective and coherent actions, organize the management of information flows and their links to actions. This information is derived from the data collected according to a series of indicators generated by this same collection process. Thus, facilitating such collection also facilitates the creation of these observatories. New technologies and social networks are now considered effective tools for conservation. They can contribute significantly to the collection and sharing of data in real time. Today, there are a number of free and open tools used for species conservation against illegal wildlife trade (Traffic 2017). Experiments have shown that SMS may be limited in terms of collection and transfer of complex information (Le Bel, Chavernac et al. 2014). It is therefore necessary to choose the most suitable technology for the production of direct data in real time. To meet our objectives of observatory building, of managing complex data and information flows for sharing, for decision-making and collective action, we turned to OpenDataKit system with KoboToolBox and its KoBoCollect Android smartphone application developed by the Harvard Humanitarian Initiative and OCHA (Kreutzer 2014). The tool responds to the following 4 main actions: i/ Collecting field data on a smartphone, ii/ Centralizing the data on the Internet platform, iii/ Analyzing the data (automatic pre-analysis and downloading to spreadsheet) and iv/ Giving back data to the field. This tool does not require any qualification or advanced technical knowledge. It can be used in areas not covered by the internet because once collected the data is stored in the smartphone. When the investigator finds internet access he can send this data by synchronization to the platform. Previously used for inter-stakeholder study and decision-making projects on human-wildlife conflict mitigation (LeBel, Chavernac et al. 2016) we benefit from the experiences and advice of a growing 'community'. Likewise, since the project is long-term, it aims at the transfer and appropriation by national scientific, administrative and citizen actors of this digital tool, which can improve consultation and decision-making. The use of KoBoCollect involves a 3 step process. Following a first exploratory survey in November 2016, we were able to identify socio-cultural, economic, legal indicators and logistical constraints (in particular the fear of speaking and contradictory speeches) and design a first questionnaire. During the second phase of coconstruction in January 2017 with the national consultants, a questionnaire with 5 themes and two entry points on waterbird utilization, trade and consumption was tested in order to design the survey. The third step was to develop an electronic form under KoBoCollect, to test it for improvement and to train the team of enumerators to a digital note taking. The survey in Lakes Chad and Fitri took place in 20 villages (360 interviews) from 5th March to 9th April 2017. Information collected aims at testing hypotheses on the following behaviors: food choice, food access, income, leisure and pleasure. We collect quantitative and qualitative data through a set of questions focusing on the multi-uses of waterbirds in these territories. Additional questions were added on stakeholders' perceptions and knowledge of wetlands, waterbirds, migration, legislation and hunting. The first Chadian data is currently stored on the KoBoToolbox site and nearly ready for analyzing. The innovation within this socio-economic, socio-cultural and cognitive survey protocol is the use of the KoBoCollect as a co-production tool. Thus, the use of this numerical digital interface tool has several advantages: speed of access to collected data and its sharing, standardization of qualitative data for statistical analysis and pre-analysis carried out on the storage platform of KoBoToolbox, compilation and creation of database, remote access and data sharing and finally solution sharing by the "KoBoToolbox community". In this way, it could constitute the first step to the observatory building. Because of these facilities and by attempting to minimize bias of protocol change, we can improve the collection with the investigators in a more reactive way during the process. This saves time and meets scientific and financial objectives. Also, the consultants' appropriation took place quickly and did not encounter any specific problems, even if they mentioned navigational difficulties within the digital questionnaire, as we might do in an interview with a paper questionnaire and handwritten notes. Similarly, the challenge of collecting qualitative, literal and complex data with a digital interface remains to be considered. Thus, field tests have enabled us to identify important points to optimize and improve the tool whenever possible. For the moment these points concern computer bugs and correspondence of the environment between the website and the smartphones. Since the African continent has a high level of mobile penetration and the highest mobile growth rate (Aker and Mbiti 2010), this type of mobile data collection system could be an efficient tool for strengthening the monitoring and management of natural resources in terms of speed and accession. However, in order that these gains not to be unnecessary, the choice of such a tool must take into account: knowledge of the terrain and its constraints (energy, internet coverage and GSM), co-construction of the questionnaire, standardization of the data collection, numerous field tests, a simplified questionnaire for simplified navigation within the application, the relationship between time passed on direct digitization of data and time passed in preparation and digital collection.
