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Статья посвящена рассмотрению дискуссии между А.Я. Гуревичем и Л.М. Баткиным, которая внесла значительный вклад в становление «несоветской» медиевистики. Цель исследования состоит в определении характерных черт полемики между А.Я. Гуревичем и Л.М. Баткиным, ее значения в процессе трансформации эпистемологического поля отечественной исторической науки. Теоретической основой статьи стали принципы интеллектуальной истории. Исследование осуществлено на основе сравнительно-исторического и историко-генетического методов. В настоящей работе проанализированы взгляды А.Я. Гуревича и Л.М. Баткина на ряд методологических вопросов, которые оказались в центре прений между учеными. В публикации делается вывод о том, что рассматриваемый диспут затрагивал вопросы о культурной и социальной сущности личности, о реализации личностью функций внутри общественных структур, о причинах и механизмах изменения культурных ценностей и доминант. Трактовка понятия «личность» определяла выбор подхода к изучению общества. Если для А.Я. Гуревича личность является порождением социально-культурной системы конкретной эпохи, а особенность личности заключается в оригинальном соединении общих черт культуры, то для Л.М. Баткина личностью является индивид, который, руководствуясь общими нормами и установлениями, пропускает их через свое сознание и словно вновь порождает нормы и ценности. Согласно Л.М. Баткину, «осознающая личность» – начало преодоления стереотипов и матриц общественного сознания. В этой связи подход А.Я. Гуревича был нацелен на реконструкцию общественных стереотипов и матриц, определявших поведение людей. Л.М. Баткин анализировал выдающиеся литературные произведения, которые, по мысли ученого, открывают в исследуемой культуре ее изменение и трансформацию. Ряд тезисов, высказанных Л.М. Баткиным в ходе полемики, был воспринят и интерпретирован Ю.Л. Бессмертным, А.Л. Юргановым, А.В. Каравашкиным, И.Н. Данилевским и оказал влияние на формирование их научно-исследовательских программ. Ученые сошлись во мнении, что средневековую культуру необходимо изучать исходя из особенностей развития самой культуры, следует уделять внимание пониманию специфики культурного языка, особенностей мышления и самовыражения исследуемой эпохи, надлежит учитывать уникальные черты культуры и использовать принципы герменевтики в качестве методологической основы интерпретации письменных источников.
he article is devoted to the discussion between A. Gurevich and L. Batkin, who made a significant contribution to the development of "non-Soviet" medieval studies. The purpose of the study is to determine the characteristic features of the controversy between A. Gurevich and L. Batkin and its significance in the process of transformation of the epistemological field of Russian historical science. The principles of intellectual history constitute the theoretical foundation of the article. The study was carried out on the basis of comparative historical and historical genetic methods. The present work analyzes the views of A. Gurevich and L. Batkin on a number of methodological issues that were at the center of the debate between the scholars. The author concludes that the dispute under consideration raised questions about the cultural and social essence of the individual, about the implementation by the individual of his functions within social structures, and about the causes and mechanisms for changing cultural values and dominants. The interpretation of the concept of personality determined the choice of approach to the study of society. While for A. Gurevich, the personality is a product of the socio-cultural system of a particular era and the peculiarity of the personality lies in the original combination of common features of culture, L. Batkin views the personality as an individual who, being guided by general norms and regulations, lets them go through his consciousness and as if generates norms and values again. According to L. Batkin, "the conscious personality" is the beginning of overcoming stereotypes and matrices of social consciousness. In this regard, the approach of A. Gurevich was aimed at reconstructing social stereotypes and matrices that determined people's behavior. L. Batkin analyzed outstanding literary works, which, according to the scholar, reveal change and transformation in the culture under study. A number of points made by L. Batkin during the polemic were perceived and interpreted by Yu. Bessmertnyi, A. Yurganov, A. Karavashkin, and I. Danilevskii and influenced the formation of their research agenda. The scholars agreed that medieval culture should be studied proceeding from the peculiarities of the development of the culture itself; attention should be paid to understanding the specifics of the language of culture, features of thinking and self-expression of the era under study; unique features of culture should be taken into account; it is required to use the principles of hermeneutics as a methodological basis for the interpretation of written sources.

The article analyzes the reflection of the Western European early medieval mentality in the Оld English poem «Judith». The following research methods were used: clustering (formation of a cluster of verbal reflections of mental attitudes) and historical-semantic analysis of objects included in the cluster. Poem «Judith» information, connected with the mentality, concerns two lines: the motivation to participate in the battle, and the posthumous punishment of the main antagonist of Holofernes. The analysis allowed the author to draw the following conclusions. Firstly, the poem «Judith» is not a direct poetic paraphrase of the eponymous book of the Оld Testament. The text contains a number of additions that carry completely new information, revealing in particular problems associated with the mentality (Judith speech, the posthumous fate of Holofernes). Secondly, the poem «Judith» allows us to distinguish two levels in the mentality of Anglo-Saxon society – basic one and emerging. The first of them is represented by the concept of «glory» (wuldor and tir). The use of the word wuldor indicates a significant stability of structures associated with the foundations of the mentality of society. For Anglo-Saxon society such a basis was war and glory. The glory had been denoted by the word, rooted in the days of the Old German community (linked to the Gothic language), and unknown to the Vikings. The same stability shows respect for the leader of the enemy troops. The second level is represented by the image of «snake hall» (wyrm-sele), which was formed during the wars with the Vikings in the 10th century for the liberation of the occupied territories. Thirdly, the presence of two levels in the mentality allows author to consider the period of its formation as open. Thus the innovation, arised under Scandinavian influence, was not entrenched in mentality.

The article examines the understanding of feudal land ownership as a fundamental institution of a feudal society. Drawing on the results of medieval studies in Russia we indicate the specific features of feudal property necessary for the retention by students. On this basis we provide the general definition of the bourgeois agrarian revolution and identify its different types. Finally, we consider the presence of classical signs of feudal property relations in agrarian Russia till 1861.

The article examines the history of menu formation in the Russian public eating establishments in the19th and early 20th centuries. Taverns and pancake houses appeared in the 16th and 17th centuries. the main principles of cookery (its bread character, the use of grits or flour in all dishes and main drinks) are outlined on the basis of available sources of that time. There were important food bans (besides fasts): to eat blood, animal prey, calves, goats, pigeons, bears, etc. Due to these prohibitions medieval Russian cuisine did not use finely chopped raw meat (minced meat), respectively, there were no sausages and pates. The materials of archaeological research allow to determine the ratio of the main elements in the diet of medieval urban dwellers and cooking technology. The author pays special attention to the evolution of stoves and hearths, the gradual development of the construction of the Russian oven at the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries. She traces the innovations of the late 17th and 18th centuries, reveals the intensification of the innovation process in the 18th century and its influence on both kitchen equipment and new ways of making butter, sour cream, sauces, etc. The article briefly deals with the evolution of 18th-century cookbooks from the formation of the genre (ca. the 1730s) to the generalized compilations of the 1790s and examines their vocabulary and structure. It is noteworthy that their authors were not cooks, but officials-translators looking for literary work. The author suggests the existence of a handwritten collection of recipes for the traditional Russian cuisine, known to the compilers of culinary compilations in the 18th century. She focuses on the adaptation of new dishes, drinks, foods, and the special role of eating establishments (eateries, taverns, herbergs) in this process. Through the example of tea-drinking the author demonstrates the way of transformation of the earlier unknown dishes into the customary and widespread ones, which became the attributes of traditional tavern cuisines by the middle of the 19th century.

A brief course of lectures (introduction and three lectures) is dedicated to the social and economic history of France, as the main country of the medieval era. The course addresses issues of the genesis of the classic French feudalism. Special attention is paid to the problem of formation of the feudal land ownership from allodium and benefice to the hereditary feud (fief). The course interprets the feudal division causes and ways to overcome it, as well as the evolution of the socio-economic characteristics of the main classes of French feudal society, most of all the nobility and dependent peasants. Particular attention is paid to the economic policy of absolutism in France, which was reflected in the work of famous historical figures: King Henry IV, his first minister Maximilien Sully, the Cardinal de Richelieu, the Controller-General of Finances Jean-Baptiste Colbert.

German-Austrian cultural studies at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries are characterized by a "new interest" in medieval preaching. If earlier it was studied by theology, literary criticism, linguistics and history as a document fixing the status quo, the existing state of affairs in a particular area - ethical norms, genre features, functioning features (pragmatics), grammatical forms and evidence of events - now preaching explored in its orientation to the future, as a genre within which promising models of behavior are developed.

The article examines a unique case in the history of the Catholic Church: the execution of Archbishop of York Richard Scrope for his participation in a rebellion against the king in 1405. Conflicts between monarchs and prelates were common in medieval Europe. Occasionally, sovereigns imprisoned recalcitrant hierarchs and might even have physically eliminated them, but never by public execution. The author discusses the possible reasons that led Richard Scrope, who supported Henry Bolingbroke's ascent to the English throne in 1399, to raise an army against his king. Should the Archbishop's rebellion be seen in the context of the July 1403 mutiny of Henry and Thomas Percy with whom Scrope was related or should we look for an imitation of Thomas Becket, who openly opposed Henry II to protect the liberties of the English Church? In addition to attempting to find answers to these questions, the article examines the public outcry caused by the execution of the archbishop. First, it deals with the reaction of the papacy and the measures taken by the Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Arundel to conceal from the people information about the excommunication of those involved in the execution, including the king himself. Second, it deals with the rumors that circulated in English society about the nature of the illness that afflicted Henry immediately after Scrope's execution. The rumor referred to the king's illness as leprosy, believing it to be a punishment for shedding the blood of a servant of God. Finally, special attention is given to the cult of the executed Scrope, who was revered as saint and martyr in York. Despite royal prohibitions and even attempts to block access to Scrope's tomb in York Cathedral, the flow of pilgrims to his burial site continued unabated. The veneration of Richard Scrope was unexpectedly supported by the crown during the reign of the York kings, who saw the executed archbishop as an opponent of the House of Lancaster.

The ongoing turbulence in global politics has been accompanied by calls to shift the current order of international relations from a rules-based world towards a multipolar system rooted in international law. Political leaders and commentators, primarily of Russian origin, have often referred to those initiatives as a moral revolution in the current world order. This paper examines the theological and philosophical background behind the ideas that support such a change. The discussion argues that these proposals, though they sound revolutionary, echo the Abrahamic principles of international dialogue drafted by medieval Christian theologians, Reformation thinkers, and Jewish and Islamic religious philosophers. The account stresses that contemporary adherents of the replacement of the rules-based world do not openly refer to religious doctrines. However, the core tenets of the suggested reforms align well with those earlier ethical principles. This conclusion is purely scholarly and contributes to the history of ideas.

The collection analyzes medieval Russian literature in its most diverse
manifestations (The Tale of Bygone Years, the translated Legend of the Indian Kingdom, the message of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich to the Metropolitan, the future Patriarch Nikon, etc.), poetry of the 18th century (above all odes by Lomonosov and
the poem by N.A. Lvov Russian 1791), Russian literature of the 19th century (Tyutchev,
Leskov, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Chekhov), works for children, children's literature, the
history of the New Year holiday in Russia, Russian anthroponymy, including literary.
Research by E.V. Dushechkina is diverse, reflects the breadth of the author's scientific interests, the desire to consider literary phenomena in a cultural context. Another distinctive feature of E.V. Dushechkina — invariable attention to 'particulars':
to little-known works of the classics (for example, these are the stories by Leskov
Waste Dancers and Offended before Christmas), to such marginal genres in comparison with 'big' literature as the Christmas story and the 'dacha' text. Among the
grateful readers of this book, there will undoubtedly be philologists, and cultural
historians, and school teachers, and students, and university professors.

Following the example of Dante's apocalyptic images in the "Divine Comedy" and Vladimir Solovyov's "A Short Story of Antichrist", this article takes into consideration the ideological and artistic elements of the counterpoint – the latter being meant as a simultaneous confrontation and combination of styles from different historical epochs. For this purpose, a given stylistic version of the cross-cultural method is adopted. As a result of it, the author demonstrates that the "Divine Comedy" belongs to the Italian proto-Renaissance style, in which, along with the traditions of medieval culture, the stylistic features of Renaissance and Modern times are forming. The conclusion is that the authorial style of Dante's eschatology is the style of the prophet and judge of humanity who proclaims the continuation of its eternal life. In the same way, the authorial strategy of Solovyov's last work may be also attributed to a stylization of the prophetic genre that was typical of the Russian culture of the late 19th and early 20th century. Despite all this, Solovyov's apocalyptic images do not have a clearly formulated idea concerning the coming salvation – which should be mandatory for the Christian eschatology, – but they only formulate in a new way a prediction regarding the inevitable continuation of great wars, coups and civil strives on the path leading to the end of history. In this transitional stage full of malice, lies and deceit, only the traditional Christian ideal of unselfish love and spiritual unity, which Solovyov employs within the framework of a new artistic style, is endowed with the ability to preserve its timeless value. The overall result of the comparison of the historical style of John's Revelation with the two subsequent stylizations of apocalyptic images is a confirmation of the existence of a cultural self-development that manifests itself in the iconic works of the era of change.

Предметом непосредственного анализа является фонетическая система изолированного кизлярского (селения Кизляр, Предгорное и Малый Малгобек Северной Осетии - Алании) говора терского диалекта кумыкского языка. Данный говор еще не становился предметом специального рассмотрения как в отношении его синхронного описания, так и в исследуемом отношении. Цель настоящей публикации - диахронно ориентированный анализ фонетических особенностей кизлярского говора в широком ареальном и сравнительно-историческом контексте его взаимоотношений с другими кумыкскими диалектами и иными древними и новыми тюркскими языками, включая булгарский (чувашский). На основе положения о первичной локализации древних булгарских диалектов в северокавказской области было установлено более раннее, чем в чувашском, субстратное происхождение некоторых фонетических (вокалических и консонантных) особенностей данного говора. Они вкупе с некоторыми иными кумыкскими диалектами и отчасти карачаево-балкарскими говорами могут восходить к древним булгарским диалектам Северного Кавказа и Дагестана. В результате раннесредневековой и последующей миграции их носителей в Поволжье эти особенности отложились в чувашском языке на различных этапах его предыстории и истории. В говоре обнаруживаются и отдельные, возможно, более поздние черты, обязанные своим происхождением ареально смежным тюркским языкам.
The subject of the analysis is the phonetic system of the isolated Kizlyar (Kizlyar, Podgornoe and Maly Malgobek villages of North Ossetia-Alania) subdialect of the Terek dialect of the Kumyk language. This subdialect has not yet been the subject of special consideration, both with regard to its synchronous description and of the investigated relation. The purpose of this publication is a diachronically oriented analysis of the phonetic features of the Kizlyar subdialect in the wide areal and comparative-historical context of its relationship with other Kumyk dialects and other ancient and new Turkic languages, including Bulgar (Chuvash). Based on the provision on the primary localization of ancient Bulgarian dialects in the North Caucasus region, an earlier substrate origin of some phonetic (vocal and consonant) features of this dialect were established than in Chuvash. They, together with some other Kumyk dialects and partly Karachay-Balkarian subdialects, can go back to the ancient Bulgarian dialects of the North Caucasus and Dagestan. As a result of the early medieval and subsequent migration of their speakers to the Volga region, these features were deposited in the Chuvash language at various stages of its prehistory and history. In the subdialect, separate, possibly later features are also found, obligated by their origin to areally adjacent Turkic languages.