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The article examines the understanding of feudal land ownership as a fundamental institution of a feudal society. Drawing on the results of medieval studies in Russia we indicate the specific features of feudal property necessary for the retention by students. On this basis we provide the general definition of the bourgeois agrarian revolution and identify its different types. Finally, we consider the presence of classical signs of feudal property relations in agrarian Russia till 1861.

The Cambridge History of Seventeenth-Century Philosophy offers a uniquely comprehensive and authoritative overview of early-modern philosophy written by an international team of specialists. As with previous Cambridge Histories of Philosophy the subject is treated by topic and theme, and since history does not come packaged in neat bundles, the subject is also treated with great temporal flexibility, incorporating frequent reference to medieval and Renaissance ideas. The basic structure of the volumes corresponds to the way an educated seventeenth-century European might have organised the domain of philosophy. Thus, the history of science, religious doctrine, and politics feature very prominently

The Origins of Warfare -- Military Convergence and the Bronze Age Civilisations of Eurasia -- Military Divergence in Eurasia: Classical Greece against Persia -- The Era of Hybrid Military Machines: Macedonia, the Hellenistic Monarchies, India and China -- Military Divergence Again: Rome, Carthage, Parthia, India and the Far East -- Military Convergence in Medieval Eurasia -- Convergence or Divergence?: Naval Warfare in Medieval Eurasia -- Evolution of Warfare beyond Eurasia.

The Spanish consulado — or Catalan consolat de mar — emerged from the medieval economy of Mediterranean towns. From a simple maritime court, its prototype in thirteenth-century Valencia, the Consulado evolved into a permanent tribunal with appellate as well as original jurisdiction in mercantile disputes. Ultimately, the consular court constituted one of three divisions of the guild merchant. The matrícula, or guild membership, comprised resident merchants who met various qualifications of age, property, and vocation. In annual assemblies the guildsment elected the judges of their court, usually a prior and two consuls. The prior and consuls were at once judges, active merchants, and members ex-officio of an executive council or junta. This governing body represented the merchant class in negotiating with other groups, especially public officials. It administered customs and taxes, enforced trade regulations, carried out public works projects, and in many other ways intervened in the economic life of the community.

Reflections on a Life in Middle Eastern History -- Map -- Understanding Islam -- 1 An Introduction to Islam -- 2 The Foundations of State and Society -- 3 Does Pre-Modern Islamic Thought Allow for a Secular Realm? -- Islamic law and ethics -- 4 An Introduction to Islamic Law and Islamic Jurisprudence -- 5 Consultation and the Political Process in the Middle East of the 9th, 10th, and 11th Centuries -- 6 The Idea of the Jihād in Islam before the Crusades (with Ridwan al-Sayyid) -- 7 Friendship in Islamic Ethical Philosophy -- 8 Brother and Brotherhood in the Qur'ān -- Islamic societies -- 9 The Shu'ūbīya Controversy and the Social History of Early Islamic Iran -- 10 Bureaucracy and the Patrimonial State in Early Islamic Iran and Iraq -- 11 Some Attitudes towards Monarchy and Absolutism in the Eastern Islamic World of the 11th and 12th Centuries -- 12 Oaths and Public Vows in the Middle East of the 10th and 11th Centuries -- 13 Qur'ānic Commentary on the Verse of Khums (al-Anfāl VIII:41) -- Islamic education -- 14 The Transmission of Learning: The Role of the Islamic Northeast -- 15 Traditional Shi'ite Education in Qom -- 16 The Najaf Ḥawza Curriculum -- Islamic economics -- 17 A Note on the Tasbīb -- 18 The Economic Thought of al-Rāghib al-Iṣfahānī -- Islamic cities -- 19 Administration in Buyid Qazvin -- 20 Medieval Kashan: Crossroads of Commerce and Culture (with Mehrdad Amanat) -- 21 Faith and Practice: Muslims in Historic Cairo -- 22 Medieval Lexicography on Arabic and Persian Terms for City and Countryside -- Shi'ism -- 23 Keeping the Shi'ites Straight -- 24 Shi'ite Political Thought and the Destiny of the Iranian Revolution -- 25 The Quandaries of Emulation: The Theory and Politics of Shiʻite Manuals of Practice -- Recent history in the middle east.

[ita] L'obiettivo primario di questo lavoro è stato individuare documenti relativi alla Puglia nei registri emessi dalla cancelleria di Alfonso il Magnanimo, conservati presso l'Archivo de la Corona de Aragón. L'esistenza di documenti riguardanti l'Italia in questo archivio è gia da tempo conosciuta, eppure sono stati solo parzialmente utilizzati. D'altro canto tutti gli studiosi hanno segnalato gravi lacune nelle fonti storiche per la Puglia aragonese, in particolare in relazione al periodo di Alfonso il Magnanimo. Inoltre la Puglia era la provincia del regno di Napoli per la quale la cancelleria emise il maggior numero dei documenti dopo quelli per la Terra di Lavoro, in quanto economicamente più attiva e quindi al centro delle attenzioni del re. Tutto ciò giustifica la scelta del criterio territoriale per valorizzare una così preziosa fonte storica. In base ai documenti trovati si è stabilita la struttura della tesi: una prima parte introduce la situazione del Regno di Napoli e le circostanze che portarono alla conquista aragonese, segnalando in particolare il contenuto di documenti che rivela i primi contatti e gli accordi segreti del re aragonese con i feudatari pugliesi, principalmente il principe di Taranto e gli altri membri della famiglia Orsini-del Balzo, che poi presero attivamente parte alla guerra di conquista con alterne vicende. Questa sezione si conclude con il capitolo sui giuramenti di fedeltà e omaggio delle città pugliesi al nuovo re. La seconda parte è suddivisa in base alle diverse e nuove informazioni che si evincono dai documenti: ciascun capitolo inizia con l'introduzione dello specifico argomento e la rispettiva bibliografia fondamentale, per poi presentare il contenuto dei documenti. Si analizzano così aspetti del territorio, la situazione della regione dopo la lunga guerra, le comunicazioni; un nutrito capitolo riguarda le attività economiche, che comprendono la produzione e commercializzazione dei monopoli regi quali il sale e il grano, nonché le attività portuali e commerciali, nelle quali si inseriscono le relazioni con Venezia e Ragusa. Sono toccati anche alcuni aspetti giuridici e la riforma fiscale, ma naturalmente molto di più emerge sui feudatari e la sistemazione dei feudi e sulla famiglia Orsini. Un interessante capitolo riguarda alcuni componenti della società, come le comunità ebraiche, alle quali appartenevano mercanti e medici e che venivano angariate dalla Chiesa, e si è potuto dedurre anche qualcosa sulle donne di diverse condizioni sociali. Infine è dedicato un capitolo a ciascuna delle tre province, per analizzare più da vicino le situazioni specifiche, le città e alcuni personaggi. Si è dedicato ampio spazio alla Dogana della Mena delle pecore, che costituiva la principale fonte di ingressi per la casse regie, chiarendo questioni della sua creazione che si fa normalmente coincidere con la nomina a commissario del catalano Francesc Montlober. Per la Terra d'Otranto si sono analizzati in particolare la peculiare situazione del principato di Taranto e la figura di Giovanni Antonio del Balzo Orsini e due rari documenti di dote di donne dell'alta nobiltà, descritti nel contesto delle usanze dell'epoca. La terza parte contiene la descrizione di registri e serie, anche per facilitare ulteriori ricerche nell'archivio, la descrizione dei caratteri estrinseci e intrinseci, della struttura e delle varie tipologie di documenti. Mi sono soffermata in particolare sulla scrittura, descrivendo le diverse caratteristiche grafiche degli scrivani, e sulle lingue, il latino per le comunicazioni più formali, il catalano per quelle rivolte agli uomini del seguito di Alfonso e il volgare napoletano nelle sue varietà. I documenti trascritti sono stati scelti per rappresentare l'intero territorio della Puglia e le diverse tipologie: privilegi, lettere, istruzioni agli ambasciatori, capitoli di accordi, giuramenti, sentenze. Si sono trascritti sempre gli inserti redatti in Puglia, per lo più documenti notarili, ma anche una sentenza di un capitano e una donazione del principe di Taranto. Nella trascrizione si sono rispettate le norme stabilite dalla Commissione Internazionale di Diplomatica. È incluso un glossario e l'elenco dei documenti reperiti. ; [eng] This research aimed at provide the absence of documentary fonts from the Puglia' history in the period of Alfonso il Magnanimo. This hypothesis emerged from the documents founded at the aragonese' s chancellor's office conserved by the archive of Corona of Aragon from Barcelona (ACA). The analysis of the Aragonese's king take course with the research of Italian and Spanish documents fonts from the reports at that time to the most recently studies to search individual documents and integrate the information. So it was founded a lot of material organized in this thesis structure. The first part, rebuild events e diplomatic links from the aragonese's conquest since the first intervention of Alfonso from Aragona in Italy, carrying out ignored facts about the role of feudatories , cities and economic sources from Puglia. The second part, divided on the base of territorial, politics, economic and social aspects, described the documentaries content, comparing with the knowledge emerged from bibliography, dedicating special chapters to each one of the three provinces in which Puglia was divided. The third part brings out a description of registers and documents, of their extrinsic and intrinsic character with particular attention at the writings and the languages. In the appendix were reported hundred documents , with a transcription based on the international normative for edition and chosen for cover as full as possible different aspects of the whole region, and the totally list of the documents about Puglia founded at ACA. Understanding by this way to bring the scientific community a critical analyzed material and heuristic instruments to trace easily documents and information.

Virtually every account of European history after the fall of the Roman Empire identifies 'Europe' with Christian civilisation, echoing, consciously or otherwise, the universalist claims of the Byzantine emperors, the popes and the western Roman emperors. Yet it is also the case that Islam possessed a European presence from the eighth century onwards, first of all in Spain and the Mediterranean islands, and later, from the mid-fourteenth century, in the Balkans, where the Turks were able rapidly to establish an empire which directly threatened Hungary and Austria. The lands ruled by Islam on the European land mass have tended to be treated by historians as European only in geographical identity, but in human terms part of a victorious and alien 'oriental' civilisation, of which they were provincial dependencies, and from which medieval Spanish Christians or modern Greeks and Slavs had to liberate themselves. Yet this view is fallacious for several reasons. In the first place, there is a valid question about our use of the term 'civilisation', which Fred Halliday has expressed as follows:'Civilisations' are like nations, traditions, communities – terms that claim a reality and authority which is itself open to question, and appeal to a tradition that turns out, on closer inspection, to be a contemporary creation.

AbstractHistorical sociolinguistics has favoured the interest in tracing heterogeneity and vernacularity in the history of language, reconstructing the sociolinguistic contexts and directions of language change as well as socially based variation patterns in remote speech communities. But this treatment of language variation and change macroscopically, longitudinally, unidimensionally and focused on the speech community as a macro-cosmos can be revealingly complemented with other views microscopically, cross-sectionally, multidimensionally and privileging individuals and their community of practice as a micro-cosmos. This conveys a shift from the study of collectivity and inter-speaker variation to that of individuality, intra-speaker variation and authenticity. The aim of this paper is to show results of the microscopic investigation of intra-speaker variation and the use of stylistic choices as linguistic resources for persona management within the micro-cosmos of late Medieval England, through the application of current multidimensional socio-constructionist models to historical corpora of written correspondence. The study is carried out through the analysis of the behaviour of the orthographic variable (TH) in the letters written by members of the Paston family. In addition to tracing language change, the data obtained from private letters provide us with the possibility of reconstructing the sociolinguistic values in medieval times. Ultimately, this study's contribution is to account for the social meaning of inter- and intra-speaker variation in the sociolinguistic behaviour of speakers at the individual level as a linguistic resource for identity construction, representation, and even social positioning in interpersonal communication.