The article discusses the image of Poland, the Poles, and Russia-Poland relations, presented by the Russian mass media in recent years. To analyze this image, the authors reviewed a number of publications that appeared in Russian publications in 2014–2018. At the same time, it was necessary to recall the historical causes of the Russian-Polish contradictions, from the early Middle Ages to the 20th century. The authors assess the relevance of the historical heritage for the modern politics of the two countries and make an attempt to determine the influence of the image of Poland created in the Russian media on the everyday consciousness of the Russian students. For this, a survey of first-year students of the St. Petersburg State Technological Institute was conducted. The survey results and comments are provided in this article.
Galleys as the closed/ total institution, is regarding the whereabouts of the certain number of people isolated for a long stretch from the rest of society, remaining in the similar situation, of which the behaviour is under almost the total control of the staff of this institution. In the period of the antiquity slaves were the basic driving force of galleys but their fate resulted from the social status. In the period of the Middle Ages, galley slaves, called in Italian galeotti, they were free people, and their profession enjoyed the respect. Above all in France they have more and more often started with the 15th century to use galleys as the place of serving a penalty of imprisonment. This situation lasted to the mass scale till the XVIII century second-half, leaving in the social awareness stereotype of the galley slave.
The idea of the institutional autonomy of universities emerged in the Middle Ages. As a preserved tradition, it has become an important principle of a democratic society on which university activities are based. The Magna Charta Universitatum – signed by many universities around the world – the European University Association, and the European Union have developed a new concept of institutional autonomy for universities based on the belief that institutional autonomy is the best precondition for the efficiency of universities and societal progress. The Constitutional Court of the Republic of Lithuania examined 11 cases related to issues of the autonomy of higher education institutions. In examining these cases, the Court formed a Constitutional Doctrine, providing an interpretation of paragraph 3 of Article 40 of the Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania, which deals with the granting of autonomy to higher education institutions. In several rulings, the Court has held that legal acts adopted by the Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania and the Government of the Republic of Lithuania have unreasonably restricted the autonomy of higher education institutions and violated the Constitution. At the same time, the Court has repeatedly emphasized in its rulings that neither the autonomy of higher education institutions nor academic freedom are an end in themselves, and that the autonomy guaranteed to higher education institutions and the freedom of science and research are not absolute.
The article argues that universitas or Academia Europeana is, first and foremost, a category of value and not an economic, professional or political entity. Axiological structure that unites the university habitat is threefold. It consists of the three clusters of values coming from the different epochs. First, polylogue of the Middle Ages based on the principle of multicentrism and unmediated, face to face sharing of competence. Second, modern statism and scientism founded in the national monocentrism and a combination of mediated, written, and unmediated, verbal, sharing of competence. Third, modern economism and globalism supported by the national monocentrism and the instrumentation of mediated sharing of competence. It has been showed that Vilnius University possesses all three value clusters, while the idea of the millennium of Lithuania serves as an impetus to conceptually recapture the historic experiences of Vilnius University. The article shows that the three value formations of the Academia Europeana in the history of Vilnius University, which is posited as the extreme edge of the European university habitat, underwent an essential, even extreme, radicalization. It has been argued, that sustainable development of university education is unthinkable without the consonant development of all three historically formed clusters of values, the most important of which still continues to be centered around the tradition of classical polylogue – unmediated search for existential values that is carefully passed on from hands to hands and from generation to generation.
The article argues that universitas or Academia Europeana is, first and foremost, a category of value and not an economic, professional or political entity. Axiological structure that unites the university habitat is threefold. It consists of the three clusters of values coming from the different epochs. First, polylogue of the Middle Ages based on the principle of multicentrism and unmediated, face to face sharing of competence. Second, modern statism and scientism founded in the national monocentrism and a combination of mediated, written, and unmediated, verbal, sharing of competence. Third, modern economism and globalism supported by the national monocentrism and the instrumentation of mediated sharing of competence. It has been showed that Vilnius University possesses all three value clusters, while the idea of the millennium of Lithuania serves as an impetus to conceptually recapture the historic experiences of Vilnius University. The article shows that the three value formations of the Academia Europeana in the history of Vilnius University, which is posited as the extreme edge of the European university habitat, underwent an essential, even extreme, radicalization. It has been argued, that sustainable development of university education is unthinkable without the consonant development of all three historically formed clusters of values, the most important of which still continues to be centered around the tradition of classical polylogue – unmediated search for existential values that is carefully passed on from hands to hands and from generation to generation.
The article argues that universitas or Academia Europeana is, first and foremost, a category of value and not an economic, professional or political entity. Axiological structure that unites the university habitat is threefold. It consists of the three clusters of values coming from the different epochs. First, polylogue of the Middle Ages based on the principle of multicentrism and unmediated, face to face sharing of competence. Second, modern statism and scientism founded in the national monocentrism and a combination of mediated, written, and unmediated, verbal, sharing of competence. Third, modern economism and globalism supported by the national monocentrism and the instrumentation of mediated sharing of competence. It has been showed that Vilnius University possesses all three value clusters, while the idea of the millennium of Lithuania serves as an impetus to conceptually recapture the historic experiences of Vilnius University. The article shows that the three value formations of the Academia Europeana in the history of Vilnius University, which is posited as the extreme edge of the European university habitat, underwent an essential, even extreme, radicalization. It has been argued, that sustainable development of university education is unthinkable without the consonant development of all three historically formed clusters of values, the most important of which still continues to be centered around the tradition of classical polylogue – unmediated search for existential values that is carefully passed on from hands to hands and from generation to generation.
The article argues that universitas or Academia Europeana is, first and foremost, a category of value and not an economic, professional or political entity. Axiological structure that unites the university habitat is threefold. It consists of the three clusters of values coming from the different epochs. First, polylogue of the Middle Ages based on the principle of multicentrism and unmediated, face to face sharing of competence. Second, modern statism and scientism founded in the national monocentrism and a combination of mediated, written, and unmediated, verbal, sharing of competence. Third, modern economism and globalism supported by the national monocentrism and the instrumentation of mediated sharing of competence. It has been showed that Vilnius University possesses all three value clusters, while the idea of the millennium of Lithuania serves as an impetus to conceptually recapture the historic experiences of Vilnius University. The article shows that the three value formations of the Academia Europeana in the history of Vilnius University, which is posited as the extreme edge of the European university habitat, underwent an essential, even extreme, radicalization. It has been argued, that sustainable development of university education is unthinkable without the consonant development of all three historically formed clusters of values, the most important of which still continues to be centered around the tradition of classical polylogue – unmediated search for existential values that is carefully passed on from hands to hands and from generation to generation.
Prostitution is thought to be one of the oldest professions in the world that was started to be criminalized in the Middle Ages after the changes in the societies' value, attitudes to women, increasing power of churches. Nowadays prostitution is a complex and multiple phenomenons. This problem should be solved looking for the solutions in the causes of prostitution. Such an angle to prostitution reveals the relevance of the theme, making it clear through the legal aspects of this phenomenon in different EU members. The results of the research show that this research is quite new. There were 121 references used and about 50 more articles, books, reports analyzed in this research and the analysis allows concluding that different authors and different organizations research, analyze just the detached facts without any trends, not taking into account the whole phenomenon. That means that there are no comprehensive researches done in this field. The goal of this paper is to characterize prostitution as a criminal activity in the European Union. Seeking this goal allowed analyzing the multiplicity of prostitution, defining the causes and outcomes, presenting the spreading of this phenomenon, showing that prostitution has the elements of criminal activity even in the countries it is legal. The Paper consists of preface, three main parts and conclusions. In the first part of the Paper the theoretical aspects of prostitution are being analyzed. The second part presents the results of the criminological research and the third part reveals the prevent policy carried out in the European Union.
Prostitution is thought to be one of the oldest professions in the world that was started to be criminalized in the Middle Ages after the changes in the societies' value, attitudes to women, increasing power of churches. Nowadays prostitution is a complex and multiple phenomenons. This problem should be solved looking for the solutions in the causes of prostitution. Such an angle to prostitution reveals the relevance of the theme, making it clear through the legal aspects of this phenomenon in different EU members. The results of the research show that this research is quite new. There were 121 references used and about 50 more articles, books, reports analyzed in this research and the analysis allows concluding that different authors and different organizations research, analyze just the detached facts without any trends, not taking into account the whole phenomenon. That means that there are no comprehensive researches done in this field. The goal of this paper is to characterize prostitution as a criminal activity in the European Union. Seeking this goal allowed analyzing the multiplicity of prostitution, defining the causes and outcomes, presenting the spreading of this phenomenon, showing that prostitution has the elements of criminal activity even in the countries it is legal. The Paper consists of preface, three main parts and conclusions. In the first part of the Paper the theoretical aspects of prostitution are being analyzed. The second part presents the results of the criminological research and the third part reveals the prevent policy carried out in the European Union.
The beginning of Vilnius is often dated year 1323. When the grand duke of Lithuania Gediminas wrote inviting letters to the merchants and craftsmen of Western Europe. However archaeological material shows that before that there was a specific culture with its distinctive heritage. The main problem of this work is that the topic isn`t researched enough. And that in process of time many archaeological objects might have been destroyed. Although the period of this topic is problematic enough in many aspects saying that there was nothing in Vilnius area till middle- ages isn`t correct. Archaeological findings tell something else. First people in Vilnius area appeared in late Paleolithic. In various places of Vilnius some flint artefacts were found. In the Palace of President area, in some layers of barrows of Gudeliai – Lenkiskes traces of Stone Age people were found. As well as in the suburbs. The culture of lined pottery appeared in the territory of Eastern Lithuania. Including Vilnius. Later in the same area the culture of eastern Lithuanian burial mounds appeared. In modern Vilnius there were left few objects belonging to this culture: Gudeliu – Lenkiskiu burials, Staviskiu burials, Zvirbliu burials. Hoards found in the territory of Vilnius show that at 10th -12th centuries there already was developed money system. And some trade connections with merchants from far distant countries. The shrouds of Zvirbliai burials show far distant connections as well. In latest burials dated 9th – 11th centuries there were found iron and glassware from Scandinavia, Byzantium, Hungary. Therefore in the course of time from Stone Age village Vilnius had developed to a cultural, economical, political and trading center.
The beginning of Vilnius is often dated year 1323. When the grand duke of Lithuania Gediminas wrote inviting letters to the merchants and craftsmen of Western Europe. However archaeological material shows that before that there was a specific culture with its distinctive heritage. The main problem of this work is that the topic isn`t researched enough. And that in process of time many archaeological objects might have been destroyed. Although the period of this topic is problematic enough in many aspects saying that there was nothing in Vilnius area till middle- ages isn`t correct. Archaeological findings tell something else. First people in Vilnius area appeared in late Paleolithic. In various places of Vilnius some flint artefacts were found. In the Palace of President area, in some layers of barrows of Gudeliai – Lenkiskes traces of Stone Age people were found. As well as in the suburbs. The culture of lined pottery appeared in the territory of Eastern Lithuania. Including Vilnius. Later in the same area the culture of eastern Lithuanian burial mounds appeared. In modern Vilnius there were left few objects belonging to this culture: Gudeliu – Lenkiskiu burials, Staviskiu burials, Zvirbliu burials. Hoards found in the territory of Vilnius show that at 10th -12th centuries there already was developed money system. And some trade connections with merchants from far distant countries. The shrouds of Zvirbliai burials show far distant connections as well. In latest burials dated 9th – 11th centuries there were found iron and glassware from Scandinavia, Byzantium, Hungary. Therefore in the course of time from Stone Age village Vilnius had developed to a cultural, economical, political and trading center.
The beginning of Vilnius is often dated year 1323. When the grand duke of Lithuania Gediminas wrote inviting letters to the merchants and craftsmen of Western Europe. However archaeological material shows that before that there was a specific culture with its distinctive heritage. The main problem of this work is that the topic isn`t researched enough. And that in process of time many archaeological objects might have been destroyed. Although the period of this topic is problematic enough in many aspects saying that there was nothing in Vilnius area till middle- ages isn`t correct. Archaeological findings tell something else. First people in Vilnius area appeared in late Paleolithic. In various places of Vilnius some flint artefacts were found. In the Palace of President area, in some layers of barrows of Gudeliai – Lenkiskes traces of Stone Age people were found. As well as in the suburbs. The culture of lined pottery appeared in the territory of Eastern Lithuania. Including Vilnius. Later in the same area the culture of eastern Lithuanian burial mounds appeared. In modern Vilnius there were left few objects belonging to this culture: Gudeliu – Lenkiskiu burials, Staviskiu burials, Zvirbliu burials. Hoards found in the territory of Vilnius show that at 10th -12th centuries there already was developed money system. And some trade connections with merchants from far distant countries. The shrouds of Zvirbliai burials show far distant connections as well. In latest burials dated 9th – 11th centuries there were found iron and glassware from Scandinavia, Byzantium, Hungary. Therefore in the course of time from Stone Age village Vilnius had developed to a cultural, economical, political and trading center.
The beginning of Vilnius is often dated year 1323. When the grand duke of Lithuania Gediminas wrote inviting letters to the merchants and craftsmen of Western Europe. However archaeological material shows that before that there was a specific culture with its distinctive heritage. The main problem of this work is that the topic isn`t researched enough. And that in process of time many archaeological objects might have been destroyed. Although the period of this topic is problematic enough in many aspects saying that there was nothing in Vilnius area till middle- ages isn`t correct. Archaeological findings tell something else. First people in Vilnius area appeared in late Paleolithic. In various places of Vilnius some flint artefacts were found. In the Palace of President area, in some layers of barrows of Gudeliai – Lenkiskes traces of Stone Age people were found. As well as in the suburbs. The culture of lined pottery appeared in the territory of Eastern Lithuania. Including Vilnius. Later in the same area the culture of eastern Lithuanian burial mounds appeared. In modern Vilnius there were left few objects belonging to this culture: Gudeliu – Lenkiskiu burials, Staviskiu burials, Zvirbliu burials. Hoards found in the territory of Vilnius show that at 10th -12th centuries there already was developed money system. And some trade connections with merchants from far distant countries. The shrouds of Zvirbliai burials show far distant connections as well. In latest burials dated 9th – 11th centuries there were found iron and glassware from Scandinavia, Byzantium, Hungary. Therefore in the course of time from Stone Age village Vilnius had developed to a cultural, economical, political and trading center.
The Norwegian Tax Office constitutes an institution with a long tradition and history, but as well opened to the citizens' needs and meeting their expectations. It is an institution which is in a constant movement through modernisation and improvement of its services. The history of the tax system goes back to the medieval times. The tax policy has been developed since Middle Ages, when the main role was played by the church, then by the king or the state. In the next periods the tax offices were managed by the municipalities and at last, in the 60. were fully taken over by the state. A milestone in the Norwegian Tax Office's history was a reform from 1911, where the obligatory tax return was introduced and from 1957 where the current each-monthincome tax payment was implemented. For those running own businesses the advance tax payment was developed. These solutions have been applicable with success since then until now. The next big progress was made in the late 70. when the leadership was taken over by the economist, not a lawyer which was a rule then, Erling Ree-Pedersen, who started managing the organization and seeing it as a whole unity. Thanks to this approach the Tax Office has been moved closer to the tax payers and started to meet their expectations. The technological solutions, which occurred in the next years and have been developed since, have just proved that the institution which is so little popular can be helpful, friendly and approachable through the newest technologies. The Norwegian Tax Office is an institution which evokes trust among citizens, especially that the main aim of the tax policy is supporting the state with sufficient income level. Simultaneously the main aim of Norway as a welfare state is supplying the citizens with the appropriate life standard through, among others, efficient tax policy, allowing to finance the main fields within public policy.
Horses were of the greatest importance through out the Medieval Ages in Europe and Asia. Ever since their domestication by Indo-European tribes in approximately 4 thousand years BC, until the 19th c. technical achievements, the whole communication and thus – administration of countries, warfare, large scale constructions, agriculture and other activities were heavily dependent and based on the horse power. Especially technical achievements of Middle Ages, increased the importance of the cavalry. It became the basis of the knight culture, the only possible way for noblemen to participate in wars. Thus in order to be able to judge about every country's economical, military and technical state and potentials, the knowledge of its horse economy becomes inevitable. The Baltic Rim has old traditions of horse farming. The area where the Baltic tribes used to live is all covered by various ingravements with horses. They show, that here, like elsewhere, horse breeding was mostly encouraged by military needs. Riders played the central role in early military fellowship of the 9-12 c. although horses were used not for fighting, but for communication and transportation. Only formation of a state and better tax system enabled a real cavalry to appear. It aquired new horse breeds and special training of both - horses and riders. Other social field where horses played a vital role was communication system. Its maintenance and administration also aquired special services and duties of the subjects of the Grand Duke. There was a special group of road servants, who played a role of road guards, postmen and couriers. Finally, the horses also needed to be administrated and thus a whole range of special servants (grooms, horse feeders etc.) and craftmen were involved. At the top of them there were also special state officers. The goal of my work was to show the functioning of this multi-stage, miscellaneous system of maintenance and administration of the sovereign's horses and stables, to examine how far the horse farming in the 14-16 c. Grand Duchy of Lithuania was developed and what significance it had. The research demonstrated, that horse farming did not lose its' importance and value after the formation of the state. It expierienced different impacts both from the West (the German knight Order, later the kingdom of Poland) and from the East (the Golden Horde, tartars, Turkey and Arab tribes), but also continued to develope local breed of small steppe type horses - one of the oldest in the world.
