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In the 12th century, the Curonians dwelt in the east Baltic region between the Rīga area in the north and Klaipėda in the south. They reached the peak of their economic, political and cultural achievements in the 11th century and the first half of the 12th century. The roots of piracy as a phenomenon have a social character. The most active period of the Curonian Vikings begins in around the mid-tenth century, and lasts until the arrival of the Germans in the 13th century. The well-organised piracy of the Curonians became dangerous to navigation on an important maritime trading route along the east Baltic coast. The Curonians attacked traders' boats, robbed coastal churches, devastated Danish and Swedish coastal areas, and even stayed for a while. In the times of the Teutonic Order, in periods of diplomatic and military conflict or trading competition, even officials did not avoid robbery at sea. The Palanga coastal population used to plunder shipwrecked boats, and went marauding in coastal waters until the middle of the 18th century.

In the 12th century, the Curonians dwelt in the east Baltic region between the Rīga area in the north and Klaipėda in the south. They reached the peak of their economic, political and cultural achievements in the 11th century and the first half of the 12th century. The roots of piracy as a phenomenon have a social character. The most active period of the Curonian Vikings begins in around the mid-tenth century, and lasts until the arrival of the Germans in the 13th century. The well-organised piracy of the Curonians became dangerous to navigation on an important maritime trading route along the east Baltic coast. The Curonians attacked traders' boats, robbed coastal churches, devastated Danish and Swedish coastal areas, and even stayed for a while. In the times of the Teutonic Order, in periods of diplomatic and military conflict or trading competition, even officials did not avoid robbery at sea. The Palanga coastal population used to plunder shipwrecked boats, and went marauding in coastal waters until the middle of the 18th century.

In the article, the origin of the Balts' cavalry is analysed, based on the findings of archaeological researches and written sources. The opinion of the contemporary Lithuanian historiography that Lithuanian servicemen could not fight mounted in the 13th century and could perform the only function – transportation (from the three functions of a horseman – to create the break-through forces in a battle, to carry out reconnaissance and to perform transportation) is valued critically. Some researchers still assert that in the 13th century the Lithuanian military forces comprised only infantrymen, whereas cavalry as a separate tactical unit did not exist at that time. At present, this theoretical scheme is accepted as an axiom more often. The scheme is designed tendentiously ignoring obvious data of archaeological, paleozoological and historical sources. The written sources give direct evidence that Lithuanians could fight mounted and fought in this way (the conflict among the Lithuanians, the Livonian Brothers of the Sword and the Semigallians in 1208) and manoeuvred cleverly while using the distance weapons – throwing spears – during battles. The Lithuanians as well as their enemies fought not only mounted, they also jumped down from their horses if there was a need (e. g., battle in the forest). According to data of paleozoological and biometric researches, in the beginning of the second millennium, horses bred in the territory of Lithuania were perfectly suitable for the needs of light cavalry.[.]

In the article, the origin of the Balts' cavalry is analysed, based on the findings of archaeological researches and written sources. The opinion of the contemporary Lithuanian historiography that Lithuanian servicemen could not fight mounted in the 13th century and could perform the only function – transportation (from the three functions of a horseman – to create the break-through forces in a battle, to carry out reconnaissance and to perform transportation) is valued critically. Some researchers still assert that in the 13th century the Lithuanian military forces comprised only infantrymen, whereas cavalry as a separate tactical unit did not exist at that time. At present, this theoretical scheme is accepted as an axiom more often. The scheme is designed tendentiously ignoring obvious data of archaeological, paleozoological and historical sources. The written sources give direct evidence that Lithuanians could fight mounted and fought in this way (the conflict among the Lithuanians, the Livonian Brothers of the Sword and the Semigallians in 1208) and manoeuvred cleverly while using the distance weapons – throwing spears – during battles. The Lithuanians as well as their enemies fought not only mounted, they also jumped down from their horses if there was a need (e. g., battle in the forest). According to data of paleozoological and biometric researches, in the beginning of the second millennium, horses bred in the territory of Lithuania were perfectly suitable for the needs of light cavalry.[.]

In the article, the origin of the Balts' cavalry is analysed, based on the findings of archaeological researches and written sources. The opinion of the contemporary Lithuanian historiography that Lithuanian servicemen could not fight mounted in the 13th century and could perform the only function – transportation (from the three functions of a horseman – to create the break-through forces in a battle, to carry out reconnaissance and to perform transportation) is valued critically. Some researchers still assert that in the 13th century the Lithuanian military forces comprised only infantrymen, whereas cavalry as a separate tactical unit did not exist at that time. At present, this theoretical scheme is accepted as an axiom more often. The scheme is designed tendentiously ignoring obvious data of archaeological, paleozoological and historical sources. The written sources give direct evidence that Lithuanians could fight mounted and fought in this way (the conflict among the Lithuanians, the Livonian Brothers of the Sword and the Semigallians in 1208) and manoeuvred cleverly while using the distance weapons – throwing spears – during battles. The Lithuanians as well as their enemies fought not only mounted, they also jumped down from their horses if there was a need (e. g., battle in the forest). According to data of paleozoological and biometric researches, in the beginning of the second millennium, horses bred in the territory of Lithuania were perfectly suitable for the needs of light cavalry.[.]

In the article, the origin of the Balts' cavalry is analysed, based on the findings of archaeological researches and written sources. The opinion of the contemporary Lithuanian historiography that Lithuanian servicemen could not fight mounted in the 13th century and could perform the only function – transportation (from the three functions of a horseman – to create the break-through forces in a battle, to carry out reconnaissance and to perform transportation) is valued critically. Some researchers still assert that in the 13th century the Lithuanian military forces comprised only infantrymen, whereas cavalry as a separate tactical unit did not exist at that time. At present, this theoretical scheme is accepted as an axiom more often. The scheme is designed tendentiously ignoring obvious data of archaeological, paleozoological and historical sources. The written sources give direct evidence that Lithuanians could fight mounted and fought in this way (the conflict among the Lithuanians, the Livonian Brothers of the Sword and the Semigallians in 1208) and manoeuvred cleverly while using the distance weapons – throwing spears – during battles. The Lithuanians as well as their enemies fought not only mounted, they also jumped down from their horses if there was a need (e. g., battle in the forest). According to data of paleozoological and biometric researches, in the beginning of the second millennium, horses bred in the territory of Lithuania were perfectly suitable for the needs of light cavalry.[.]

In this paper, we examine archaeological bird remains from Klaipėda Castle (Ger. Memel), western Lithuania. The castle was built in 1252, and during the Middle Ages, it was the northernmost castle of the Teutonic Order in Prussia. The castle together with its adjacent town were subjected to wars and changing political situations over the centuries, but nevertheless represented a socially higher status. The studied bird remains were found during the excavations in 2016 and have been dated by context to the Middle Ages – from the end of the 13th to the beginning of the 14th century. Our aim is to introduce and discuss the bird remains with an emphasis on two species – the white-tailed sea-eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) and golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos). Most of all, we are interested in their role in expressing people's social status, use in material culture, and significance as a food source. Our analysis showed that in Klaipėda, the eagles were probably used for raw material and possibly for feathers, but not for hawking and food. Alternatively, they could have been killed for scavenging. Other species identified in the assemblage such as chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus), grey partridge (Perdix perdix), geese (Anser sp.), ducks (Anatinae), and great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) were mainly interpreted as food waste. This article presents the first concentrated study on bird remains from Klaipėda and is one of the first discussions about the meaning of eagles in the Baltic region.

In this paper, we examine archaeological bird remains from Klaipėda Castle (Ger. Memel), western Lithuania. The castle was built in 1252, and during the Middle Ages, it was the northernmost castle of the Teutonic Order in Prussia. The castle together with its adjacent town were subjected to wars and changing political situations over the centuries, but nevertheless represented a socially higher status. The studied bird remains were found during the excavations in 2016 and have been dated by context to the Middle Ages – from the end of the 13th to the beginning of the 14th century. Our aim is to introduce and discuss the bird remains with an emphasis on two species – the white-tailed sea-eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) and golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos). Most of all, we are interested in their role in expressing people's social status, use in material culture, and significance as a food source. Our analysis showed that in Klaipėda, the eagles were probably used for raw material and possibly for feathers, but not for hawking and food. Alternatively, they could have been killed for scavenging. Other species identified in the assemblage such as chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus), grey partridge (Perdix perdix), geese (Anser sp.), ducks (Anatinae), and great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) were mainly interpreted as food waste. This article presents the first concentrated study on bird remains from Klaipėda and is one of the first discussions about the meaning of eagles in the Baltic region.

In this paper, we examine archaeological bird remains from Klaipėda Castle (Ger. Memel), western Lithuania. The castle was built in 1252, and during the Middle Ages, it was the northernmost castle of the Teutonic Order in Prussia. The castle together with its adjacent town were subjected to wars and changing political situations over the centuries, but nevertheless represented a socially higher status. The studied bird remains were found during the excavations in 2016 and have been dated by context to the Middle Ages – from the end of the 13th to the beginning of the 14th century. Our aim is to introduce and discuss the bird remains with an emphasis on two species – the white-tailed sea-eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) and golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos). Most of all, we are interested in their role in expressing people's social status, use in material culture, and significance as a food source. Our analysis showed that in Klaipėda, the eagles were probably used for raw material and possibly for feathers, but not for hawking and food. Alternatively, they could have been killed for scavenging. Other species identified in the assemblage such as chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus), grey partridge (Perdix perdix), geese (Anser sp.), ducks (Anatinae), and great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) were mainly interpreted as food waste. This article presents the first concentrated study on bird remains from Klaipėda and is one of the first discussions about the meaning of eagles in the Baltic region.

In this paper, we examine archaeological bird remains from Klaipėda Castle (Ger. Memel), western Lithuania. The castle was built in 1252, and during the Middle Ages, it was the northernmost castle of the Teutonic Order in Prussia. The castle together with its adjacent town were subjected to wars and changing political situations over the centuries, but nevertheless represented a socially higher status. The studied bird remains were found during the excavations in 2016 and have been dated by context to the Middle Ages – from the end of the 13th to the beginning of the 14th century. Our aim is to introduce and discuss the bird remains with an emphasis on two species – the white-tailed sea-eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) and golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos). Most of all, we are interested in their role in expressing people's social status, use in material culture, and significance as a food source. Our analysis showed that in Klaipėda, the eagles were probably used for raw material and possibly for feathers, but not for hawking and food. Alternatively, they could have been killed for scavenging. Other species identified in the assemblage such as chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus), grey partridge (Perdix perdix), geese (Anser sp.), ducks (Anatinae), and great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) were mainly interpreted as food waste. This article presents the first concentrated study on bird remains from Klaipėda and is one of the first discussions about the meaning of eagles in the Baltic region.

In this paper, we examine archaeological bird remains from Klaipėda Castle (Ger. Memel), western Lithuania. The castle was built in 1252, and during the Middle Ages, it was the northernmost castle of the Teutonic Order in Prussia. The castle together with its adjacent town were subjected to wars and changing political situations over the centuries, but nevertheless represented a socially higher status. The studied bird remains were found during the excavations in 2016 and have been dated by context to the Middle Ages – from the end of the 13th to the beginning of the 14th century. Our aim is to introduce and discuss the bird remains with an emphasis on two species – the white-tailed sea-eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) and golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos). Most of all, we are interested in their role in expressing people's social status, use in material culture, and significance as a food source. Our analysis showed that in Klaipėda, the eagles were probably used for raw material and possibly for feathers, but not for hawking and food. Alternatively, they could have been killed for scavenging. Other species identified in the assemblage such as chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus), grey partridge (Perdix perdix), geese (Anser sp.), ducks (Anatinae), and great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) were mainly interpreted as food waste. This article presents the first concentrated study on bird remains from Klaipėda and is one of the first discussions about the meaning of eagles in the Baltic region.

In this paper, we examine archaeological bird remains from Klaipėda Castle (Ger. Memel), western Lithuania. The castle was built in 1252, and during the Middle Ages, it was the northernmost castle of the Teutonic Order in Prussia. The castle together with its adjacent town were subjected to wars and changing political situations over the centuries, but nevertheless represented a socially higher status. The studied bird remains were found during the excavations in 2016 and have been dated by context to the Middle Ages – from the end of the 13th to the beginning of the 14th century. Our aim is to introduce and discuss the bird remains with an emphasis on two species – the white-tailed sea-eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) and golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos). Most of all, we are interested in their role in expressing people's social status, use in material culture, and significance as a food source. Our analysis showed that in Klaipėda, the eagles were probably used for raw material and possibly for feathers, but not for hawking and food. Alternatively, they could have been killed for scavenging. Other species identified in the assemblage such as chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus), grey partridge (Perdix perdix), geese (Anser sp.), ducks (Anatinae), and great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) were mainly interpreted as food waste. This article presents the first concentrated study on bird remains from Klaipėda and is one of the first discussions about the meaning of eagles in the Baltic region.

Many Lithuanian historic city centres have deep historical roots reaching the Middle Ages and the formation of the Lithuanian state. In the 20th century many democratic and non-democratic countries faced the need to modernize and revitalize city centres damaged by wars and non-corresponding to the requirements of the modern living and wellbeing. In Lithuania the regeneration of the historic city centres has started under the communist rule. The main attention in literature and in practice was devoted to the improvement of the living conditions and to the issues of harmony between the historic buildings and new insertions. [.]

Many Lithuanian historic city centres have deep historical roots reaching the Middle Ages and the formation of the Lithuanian state. In the 20th century many democratic and non-democratic countries faced the need to modernize and revitalize city centres damaged by wars and non-corresponding to the requirements of the modern living and wellbeing. In Lithuania the regeneration of the historic city centres has started under the communist rule. The main attention in literature and in practice was devoted to the improvement of the living conditions and to the issues of harmony between the historic buildings and new insertions. [.]

Many Lithuanian historic city centres have deep historical roots reaching the Middle Ages and the formation of the Lithuanian state. In the 20th century many democratic and non-democratic countries faced the need to modernize and revitalize city centres damaged by wars and non-corresponding to the requirements of the modern living and wellbeing. In Lithuania the regeneration of the historic city centres has started under the communist rule. The main attention in literature and in practice was devoted to the improvement of the living conditions and to the issues of harmony between the historic buildings and new insertions. [.]