Suchergebnisse

Les relations entre civils et militaires en Turquie ont traversé récemment une période de transformation radicale. Le rôle dominant de l'armée turque dans la politique depuis 1960, par ses interventions directes et indirectes, ainsi qu'au travers de mécanismes institutionnels et non-institutionnels, a considérablement diminué. À partir du début des réformes liées à l'adhésion européenne visant à démocratiser les relations civiles-militaires, puis d'une série d'enquêtes baptisées Ergenekon et Balyoz, dans lesquelles des officiers militaires ont été accusés de planifier des interventions visant à renverser le gouvernement actuel, l'armée a perdu à la fois ses prérogatives en politique et sa crédibilité aux yeux de l'opinion publique. Bien que les relations entre civils et militaires semblent aller dans un sens plus démocratique, en soumettant fortement l'armée au contrôle civil, il semble cependant que les civils ne traitent pas les forces armées de façon juste dans les enquêtes en cours. Par conséquent, en dépit de tous ces changements positifs, il n'est pas clair que la Turquie s'oriente vraiment vers une gouvernance plus démocratique des relations entre civils et militaires.

Le développement et la consolidation de la coopération énergétique entre l'Azerbaïdjan, la Géorgie et la Turquie (AGT) au cours des années 1990 et 2000 ont marqué le début d'une coopération trilatérale qui, depuis lors, s'est transformée en un partenariat stratégique dans divers domaines entre les trois pays. Le partenariat trilatéral a commencé s'institutionnaliser au début des années 2010 sous la forme de réunions annuelles des dirigeants et des ministres des Affaires étrangères des pays participants. Si, au départ, la coopération était principalement axée sur la préparation militaire pour protéger l'infrastructure de transport d'énergie dans les cas d'urgence, elle s'est progressivement élargie à d'autres domaines. Le document examine les éléments clés de la raison d'être du partenariat de défense trilatéral Azerbaïdjan-Géorgie-Turquie, les obstacles existants et les opportunités qui s'offrent à l'avenir. Il propose d'autres mesures envisageables visant à tirer parti des possibilités offertes par le partenariat trilatéral.

The Privatization of Security and the Transformation of Conflicts by Sami Makki The increasing impact of new public management practices in the areas of defense and security through privatization and outsourcing has reduced the role of the State in managing security matters In the post-September environment US private military companies PMCs play major role in shaping and implementing the US defence policy for which they are being instrumental in waging asymmetric warfare abroad and in protecting the homeland As contributors to the US combat the PMCs are increasingly involved in support functions in expeditionary operations New security military and paramilitary actors have emerged to fill the gaps in internatio nal crisis response initiatives PMCs contribute to the privatization of peace opera tions and stimulate faster civil military integration by bluring traditionnal boundaries As they are involved in post-conflict security sector reform programs PMCs pro mote new security/military norms Transforming civilian actors becomes essential as the new US national military strategy plans for future integrated synchronized joint expeditionnary operations within US-led system of systems

The integration of various technologies, including computer and electronics, makes the nowadays designed systems increasingly complex. They have behaviors which are more elaborate and difficult to predict, they have a greater number of components in interaction and/or perform highest level functions. Parallel to this increasing complexity of these systems, the competitive of the global market imposes strong constraints of cost and time to the system developers. Other strong constraints deal with the quality of these systems, especially when they involve human risks or significant financial risks. Thus, developers are forced to adopt a rigorous design approach to meet the desired system requirements and satisfy the various constraints (cost, time, quality, dependability.). Several methodological approaches to guide the system design are defined through system engineering standards. Our work is based on the EIA-632 standard, which is widely used, especially in the aeronautical and military fields. It is to improve the systems engineering process described by the EIA-632, in order to incorporate a global and explicit consideration of dependability. Indeed, till now the dependability was achieved by reusing generic models after having studied and developed independently each function. So there was no specific consideration of the risks associated with the integration of several technologies. For this reason, we propose to concern ourselves with the dependability requirements at the global level and as early as possible in the development phase. Then, these requirements will be decline to lower levels. We based our approach on the processes of the EIA-632 standard that we expand. We also propose an original method for the declination of the dependability requirements based on fault trees and FMEAC, and an information model based on SysML in order to support our approach. An example from the aeronautical field illustrates our proposals. ; L'intégration de diverses technologies, notamment celles de l'informatique et ...

The integration of various technologies, including computer and electronics, makes the nowadays designed systems increasingly complex. They have behaviors which are more elaborate and difficult to predict, they have a greater number of components in interaction and/or perform highest level functions. Parallel to this increasing complexity of these systems, the competitive of the global market imposes strong constraints of cost and time to the system developers. Other strong constraints deal with the quality of these systems, especially when they involve human risks or significant financial risks. Thus, developers are forced to adopt a rigorous design approach to meet the desired system requirements and satisfy the various constraints (cost, time, quality, dependability.). Several methodological approaches to guide the system design are defined through system engineering standards. Our work is based on the EIA-632 standard, which is widely used, especially in the aeronautical and military fields. It is to improve the systems engineering process described by the EIA-632, in order to incorporate a global and explicit consideration of dependability. Indeed, till now the dependability was achieved by reusing generic models after having studied and developed independently each function. So there was no specific consideration of the risks associated with the integration of several technologies. For this reason, we propose to concern ourselves with the dependability requirements at the global level and as early as possible in the development phase. Then, these requirements will be decline to lower levels. We based our approach on the processes of the EIA-632 standard that we expand. We also propose an original method for the declination of the dependability requirements based on fault trees and FMEAC, and an information model based on SysML in order to support our approach. An example from the aeronautical field illustrates our proposals. ; L'intégration de diverses technologies, notamment celles de l'informatique et ...

The integration of various technologies, including computer and electronics, makes the nowadays designed systems increasingly complex. They have behaviors which are more elaborate and difficult to predict, they have a greater number of components in interaction and/or perform highest level functions. Parallel to this increasing complexity of these systems, the competitive of the global market imposes strong constraints of cost and time to the system developers. Other strong constraints deal with the quality of these systems, especially when they involve human risks or significant financial risks. Thus, developers are forced to adopt a rigorous design approach to meet the desired system requirements and satisfy the various constraints (cost, time, quality, dependability.). Several methodological approaches to guide the system design are defined through system engineering standards. Our work is based on the EIA-632 standard, which is widely used, especially in the aeronautical and military fields. It is to improve the systems engineering process described by the EIA-632, in order to incorporate a global and explicit consideration of dependability. Indeed, till now the dependability was achieved by reusing generic models after having studied and developed independently each function. So there was no specific consideration of the risks associated with the integration of several technologies. For this reason, we propose to concern ourselves with the dependability requirements at the global level and as early as possible in the development phase. Then, these requirements will be decline to lower levels. We based our approach on the processes of the EIA-632 standard that we expand. We also propose an original method for the declination of the dependability requirements based on fault trees and FMEAC, and an information model based on SysML in order to support our approach. An example from the aeronautical field illustrates our proposals. ; L'intégration de diverses technologies, notamment celles de l'informatique et ...

Issues regarding public policies and territorial differentiation have risen as a result of three contemporary phenomena: sectorial structural adjustments and their corresponding territorial impacts; the rescaling of political authority; and the emergence of a variety of local governance models. This dissertation analyses the evolution of six cities, historically modelled by national defence policy, in light of recent defence policy reforms and the rise in local government competencies. The scope of the analysis covers six cities, three in France and three in Italy. The dissertation demonstrates the need to analyse locally-specific forms of national and local public intervention; and their reciprocal interactions; in order to understand urban and social evolutions. It develops a framework inspired by historical sociology of the State that conceptualizes the links between public policy and territorial structuring and integration. On one hand, territorial retrenchment of national defence policy varies accross cities, as a result of negotiations between central defence and financial administrations, and increasing local government lobbying of the central State. On the other hand, it illustrates the varying degrees to which local governments are capable of organising and managing public intervention; and can transform spaces which are historically structured by the State. This capacity hinges upon the nature of urban political agendas; the existing means of institutionalised collective action; as well as upon the ways in which the State operates in cities. The dissertation helps redefine central/local relations in the context of decentralization and budgetary constraints. ; Les restructurations sectorielles et leurs différents effets localisés, le réétalonnage des échelles de l'autorité politique, les modes de gouvernement propres à chaque ville soulèvent une question sur les recompositions de l'action publique et la différenciation territoriale. Cette recherche prend pour objet le changement des villes ...

Issues regarding local policies and territorial differentiation have risen as a result of three contemporary phenomena: sectorial structural adjustments and their corresponding territorial impacts; the rescaling of political authority; and the emergence of a variety of local governance models. This dissertation analyses the evolution of six cities, historically modelled by national defence policy, in light of recent defence policy reforms and the rise in local government competencies. The scope of the analysis covers six cities, three in France and three in Italy. The dissertation demonstrates the need to analyse locally-specific forms of national and local public intervention; and their reciprocal interactions; in order to understand urban and social evolutions. It develops a framework inspired by historical sociology of the State that conceptualizes the links between public policy and territorial structuring and integration. On one hand, territorial retrenchment of national defence policy varies across cities, as a result of negotiations between central defence and financial administrations, and increasing local government lobbying of the central State. On the other hand, it illustrates the varying degrees to which local governments are capable of organising and managing public intervention; and can transform spaces that are historically structured by the State. This capacity hinges upon the nature of urban political agendas; the existing means of institutionalised collective action; as well as upon the ways in which the State operates in cities. The dissertation helps redefine central/local relations in the context of decentralization and budgetary constraints. ; Les restructurations sectorielles et leurs différents effets localisés, le réétalonnage des échelles de l'autorité politique, les modes de gouvernement propres à chaque ville soulèvent une question sur les recompositions de l'action publique et la différenciation territoriale. Cette recherche prend pour objet le changement des villes historiquement ...

Issues regarding public policies and territorial differentiation have risen as a result of three contemporary phenomena: sectorial structural adjustments and their corresponding territorial impacts; the rescaling of political authority; and the emergence of a variety of local governance models. This dissertation analyses the evolution of six cities, historically modelled by national defence policy, in light of recent defence policy reforms and the rise in local government competencies. The scope of the analysis covers six cities, three in France and three in Italy. The dissertation demonstrates the need to analyse locally-specific forms of national and local public intervention; and their reciprocal interactions; in order to understand urban and social evolutions. It develops a framework inspired by historical sociology of the State that conceptualizes the links between public policy and territorial structuring and integration. On one hand, territorial retrenchment of national defence policy varies accross cities, as a result of negotiations between central defence and financial administrations, and increasing local government lobbying of the central State. On the other hand, it illustrates the varying degrees to which local governments are capable of organising and managing public intervention; and can transform spaces which are historically structured by the State. This capacity hinges upon the nature of urban political agendas; the existing means of institutionalised collective action; as well as upon the ways in which the State operates in cities. The dissertation helps redefine central/local relations in the context of decentralization and budgetary constraints. ; Les restructurations sectorielles et leurs différents effets localisés, le réétalonnage des échelles de l'autorité politique, les modes de gouvernement propres à chaque ville soulèvent une question sur les recompositions de l'action publique et la différenciation territoriale. Cette recherche prend pour objet le changement des villes ...

Issues regarding public policies and territorial differentiation have risen as a result of three contemporary phenomena: sectorial structural adjustments and their corresponding territorial impacts; the rescaling of political authority; and the emergence of a variety of local governance models. This dissertation analyses the evolution of six cities, historically modelled by national defence policy, in light of recent defence policy reforms and the rise in local government competencies. The scope of the analysis covers six cities, three in France and three in Italy. The dissertation demonstrates the need to analyse locally-specific forms of national and local public intervention; and their reciprocal interactions; in order to understand urban and social evolutions. It develops a framework inspired by historical sociology of the State that conceptualizes the links between public policy and territorial structuring and integration. On one hand, territorial retrenchment of national defence policy varies accross cities, as a result of negotiations between central defence and financial administrations, and increasing local government lobbying of the central State. On the other hand, it illustrates the varying degrees to which local governments are capable of organising and managing public intervention; and can transform spaces which are historically structured by the State. This capacity hinges upon the nature of urban political agendas; the existing means of institutionalised collective action; as well as upon the ways in which the State operates in cities. The dissertation helps redefine central/local relations in the context of decentralization and budgetary constraints. ; Les restructurations sectorielles et leurs différents effets localisés, le réétalonnage des échelles de l'autorité politique, les modes de gouvernement propres à chaque ville soulèvent une question sur les recompositions de l'action publique et la différenciation territoriale. Cette recherche prend pour objet le changement des villes ...

Issues regarding local policies and territorial differentiation have risen as a result of three contemporary phenomena: sectorial structural adjustments and their corresponding territorial impacts; the rescaling of political authority; and the emergence of a variety of local governance models. This dissertation analyses the evolution of six cities, historically modelled by national defence policy, in light of recent defence policy reforms and the rise in local government competencies. The scope of the analysis covers six cities, three in France and three in Italy. The dissertation demonstrates the need to analyse locally-specific forms of national and local public intervention; and their reciprocal interactions; in order to understand urban and social evolutions. It develops a framework inspired by historical sociology of the State that conceptualizes the links between public policy and territorial structuring and integration. On one hand, territorial retrenchment of national defence policy varies across cities, as a result of negotiations between central defence and financial administrations, and increasing local government lobbying of the central State. On the other hand, it illustrates the varying degrees to which local governments are capable of organising and managing public intervention; and can transform spaces that are historically structured by the State. This capacity hinges upon the nature of urban political agendas; the existing means of institutionalised collective action; as well as upon the ways in which the State operates in cities. The dissertation helps redefine central/local relations in the context of decentralization and budgetary constraints. ; Les restructurations sectorielles et leurs différents effets localisés, le réétalonnage des échelles de l'autorité politique, les modes de gouvernement propres à chaque ville soulèvent une question sur les recompositions de l'action publique et la différenciation territoriale. Cette recherche prend pour objet le changement des villes historiquement organisées par la politique de défense (trois villes en France et trois villes en Italie) sous l'effet des réformes des armées et de l'augmentation des compétences urbaines. Elle développe un cadre analytique issu de la sociologie historique de l'État qui systématise les liens entre les politiques publiques et la structuration et l'intégration territoriales. Le changement des espaces et sociétés urbains exige pour être compris l'étude des modes d'intervention de l'État et des modes d'intervention des exécutifs urbains dans leur articulation réciproque et propre à chaque ville. D'une part, les négociations au sein de l'État entre administrations financières et militaires, ainsi que les mobilisations au centre national par les élus locaux différencient les modes de retrait des armées d'une ville à l'autre. D'autre part, les exécutifs urbains ont une capacité inégale à organiser l'action collective et à transformer les espaces historiquement structurés par l'État. Elle est liée aux agendas politiques urbains et aux modes d'action collective institutionnalisés dans le temps, ainsi qu'aux interventions de l'État qui sont elles-mêmes différenciées entre les deux pays et à l'intérieur de ceux-ci. Ceci amène à revenir sur les transformations des relations central/local entre décentralisation et politiques de la contrainte budgétaire.

Issues regarding local policies and territorial differentiation have risen as a result of three contemporary phenomena: sectorial structural adjustments and their corresponding territorial impacts; the rescaling of political authority; and the emergence of a variety of local governance models. This dissertation analyses the evolution of six cities, historically modelled by national defence policy, in light of recent defence policy reforms and the rise in local government competencies. The scope of the analysis covers six cities, three in France and three in Italy. The dissertation demonstrates the need to analyse locally-specific forms of national and local public intervention; and their reciprocal interactions; in order to understand urban and social evolutions. It develops a framework inspired by historical sociology of the State that conceptualizes the links between public policy and territorial structuring and integration. On one hand, territorial retrenchment of national defence policy varies across cities, as a result of negotiations between central defence and financial administrations, and increasing local government lobbying of the central State. On the other hand, it illustrates the varying degrees to which local governments are capable of organising and managing public intervention; and can transform spaces that are historically structured by the State. This capacity hinges upon the nature of urban political agendas; the existing means of institutionalised collective action; as well as upon the ways in which the State operates in cities. The dissertation helps redefine central/local relations in the context of decentralization and budgetary constraints. ; Les restructurations sectorielles et leurs différents effets localisés, le réétalonnage des échelles de l'autorité politique, les modes de gouvernement propres à chaque ville soulèvent une question sur les recompositions de l'action publique et la différenciation territoriale. Cette recherche prend pour objet le changement des villes historiquement organisées par la politique de défense (trois villes en France et trois villes en Italie) sous l'effet des réformes des armées et de l'augmentation des compétences urbaines. Elle développe un cadre analytique issu de la sociologie historique de l'État qui systématise les liens entre les politiques publiques et la structuration et l'intégration territoriales. Le changement des espaces et sociétés urbains exige pour être compris l'étude des modes d'intervention de l'État et des modes d'intervention des exécutifs urbains dans leur articulation réciproque et propre à chaque ville. D'une part, les négociations au sein de l'État entre administrations financières et militaires, ainsi que les mobilisations au centre national par les élus locaux différencient les modes de retrait des armées d'une ville à l'autre. D'autre part, les exécutifs urbains ont une capacité inégale à organiser l'action collective et à transformer les espaces historiquement structurés par l'État. Elle est liée aux agendas politiques urbains et aux modes d'action collective institutionnalisés dans le temps, ainsi qu'aux interventions de l'État qui sont elles-mêmes différenciées entre les deux pays et à l'intérieur de ceux-ci. Ceci amène à revenir sur les transformations des relations central/local entre décentralisation et politiques de la contrainte budgétaire.

New versions of Safran Electronics & Defense optronic products such as infrared binoculars or firearm sights are endowed with more and more functionalities. This leads to a need in the improvement of the user interface of those systems. The integration of eye-gaze bases interaction modalities seems interesting because of the speed, the naturalness and the availability of the eye. The eye-gaze based interaction is already well developed for impaired people but is not a mature technology for healthy people yet. During active eye-based interactions, which are explicit input from the user, a problem named Midas Touch arises. It consists in the in the incapacity of the system to differentiate scene analysis and voluntary user input. This is because the eye is a sensory organ over all. To overcome this problem, several interaction modalities have been designed: Dwell Time uses for example a minimum gaze dwell duration to trigger input, but the fixation area may also be located near the item to activate (relocated Dwell Time). It is also possible to associate the eye with another input modality such as a press button to indicate the intent from the user (multimodality eye-button). Each of these modalities has pros and cons and cherry-picking the most suitable to a given situation is not trivial. Moreover, the performances of the interaction modalities seem dependent from external variables, which represents the context of an interaction modality. To integrate eye-based interaction in systems and to choose which modality to use, it is necessary to identify what are the context characteristics and how they affect the modalities. Our goal is to propose an interaction modality context model,; that is to define all the external characteristics affecting the modality performances. From a state of the art of the eye-based interaction, we propose a description of the context following four axes: the user, the task, the system and the environment. Each of these axes decomposed in characteristics whose influence is justified ...

New versions of Safran Electronics & Defense optronic products such as infrared binoculars or firearm sights are endowed with more and more functionalities. This leads to a need in the improvement of the user interface of those systems. The integration of eye-gaze bases interaction modalities seems interesting because of the speed, the naturalness and the availability of the eye. The eye-gaze based interaction is already well developed for impaired people but is not a mature technology for healthy people yet. During active eye-based interactions, which are explicit input from the user, a problem named Midas Touch arises. It consists in the in the incapacity of the system to differentiate scene analysis and voluntary user input. This is because the eye is a sensory organ over all. To overcome this problem, several interaction modalities have been designed: Dwell Time uses for example a minimum gaze dwell duration to trigger input, but the fixation area may also be located near the item to activate (relocated Dwell Time). It is also possible to associate the eye with another input modality such as a press button to indicate the intent from the user (multimodality eye-button). Each of these modalities has pros and cons and cherry-picking the most suitable to a given situation is not trivial. Moreover, the performances of the interaction modalities seem dependent from external variables, which represents the context of an interaction modality. To integrate eye-based interaction in systems and to choose which modality to use, it is necessary to identify what are the context characteristics and how they affect the modalities. Our goal is to propose an interaction modality context model,; that is to define all the external characteristics affecting the modality performances. From a state of the art of the eye-based interaction, we propose a description of the context following four axes: the user, the task, the system and the environment. Each of these axes decomposed in characteristics whose influence is justified by previous works or theoretical reasonings. Then we studied three characteristics which appeared to us as critical for the integration in optronic products, and we compared the performances of precited modalities against these characteristics. The first one is the type of menu (linear or circular). Contrary to the mouse, the tested interaction modalities present no significative differences depending on the type of menu they are used on. The second characteristic is linked to the user task. The aim is to evaluate the adequacy of interaction modalities with one's ability to split his/her visual attention, that is, to fixate an area while being visually focused elsewhere. This skill is necessary during target following tasks. The fixation-based modalities seemed more permissive concerning this ability. The third characteristic is about peripheral visual alert detection in order to ensure that the user can be warned at all time. Fixation based modalities seemed to less reduce the visual field than others. Despite novice user preferences for the use of multimodality, we showed that fixation-based modalities may be more adequate for use in optronic systems. The further study of other characteristics of the context will allow to highlight the modality to use for each situation. ; Les nouvelles versions de produits optroniques de Safran Electronic & Defense comme les jumelles multifonctions ou les lunettes de visée disposent de plus en plus de fonctionnalités, ce qui rend nécessaire une amélioration des dispositifs d'interaction mis à disposition des utilisateurs. L'intégration du regard comme modalité d'interaction semble notamment intéressante en raison de son caractère rapide, naturel et disponible. Si pour des utilisateurs handicapés, l'interaction au regard est déjà bien développée, elle n'est pas encore une technologie mature pour des personnes valides. Lors d'interactions actives au regard, expressions explicites de l'intention d'agir d'un utilisateur, un problème appelé Midas Touch apparait : il s'agit de l'incapacité pour un utilisateur de dissocier les phases d'analyse et les phases d'action, parce que l'œil est avant tout un organe senseur. Plusieurs modalités d'interaction au regard cherchent à outrepasser ce problème : on peut par exemple utiliser un temps de fixation minimum sur un item pour l'activer (DwellTime) ou un temps de fixation minimum sur un item spécifique disposé à côté de l'item d'intérêt (DwellTime délocalisé) ou encore associer une autre modalité d'interaction pour spécifier l'intention d'activation (multimodalité oeil-bouton). Chacune de ces modalités dispose d'avantages et d'inconvénients spécifiques, et déterminer la modalité d'interaction la plus adaptée n'est pas une question triviale. C'est d'autant plus difficile que les performances des modalités semblent dépendre de facteurs extérieurs variables, c'est-à-dire du contexte d'utilisation de la modalité. Afin de mieux intégrer le suivi du regard dans des systèmes et de choisir quelle modalité utiliser, il est nécessaire de bien comprendre quels sont les éléments du contexte de l'interaction et comment ils agissent sur les modalités. Le but de cette thèse est de modéliser le contexte de la modalité d'interaction, c'est-à-dire de déterminer l'ensemble de éléments extérieurs à la modalité pouvant en influencer les performances. A partir d'un état de l'art et d'une étude de l'interaction au regard, nous proposons une séparation de ce contexte en quatre axes : l'utilisateur, la tâche, le système et l'environnement. Chacun de ces axes correspond à un ensemble de caractéristiques dont l'influence est justifiée par des travaux antérieurs ou par des raisonnements théoriques. Malgré une préférence des utilisateurs novices pour la multimodalité, en étudiant le contexte des modalités d'interaction, nous montrons qu'une interaction à base de temps de fixation est surement plus adaptée pour une intégration dans des systèmes optroniques. L'étude d'autres caractéristiques du contexte permettra d'affiner ces résultats et d'identifier la modalité d'interaction adéquate à une situation donnée.

Starting from 1415 when - after a previous and similar expedition that failed - they conquered the city of Ceuta , the Portuguese spread over the Iberian peninsula; interested, first of all, in the defence of their national borders, and, then, in the big trade routes, they built a row of fortified outposts along African and Asiatic coasts up to the Pacific Ocean.Lusitanian presence on the present Moroccan territory lasted till 1769, when they lost Mazagao, today's El Jadida. As a matter of fact, by the way, Portuguese military pressure reduced significantly already in the middle of XVI century, when most of the fortresses were captured by local populations. After, Portuguese period in Morocco started again with the opening of the kingdom to ocean wideness, includes the moments of his maximum richness and ends when the world's geopolitical balance of power had changed.An analysis of the luso-moroccan vestiges reveals a series of typology of action run down by countless actors and variables; even if, to describe them approximately, we can refer to a small number of major features. Those make reference to the physical condition of buildings, to the consideration they deserve in collective memory, to the typology of major actors intervening on these sites, to their interests and wills.While it sounds banal, we should not forget that an unescapable value is due to the socio-economical conditions of the involved area and, obviously, to the role and standing those sites can raise inside global economic gear. ; Nous proposons une lecture des dynamiques qui caractérisent les héritages matériels et monumentaux que la présence portugaise a laissés sur la côte atlantique du Maroc et leurs relations avec l'espace patrimonial actuel.L'objectif de ce travail est celui d'analyser le "phénomène patrimonial", c'est-à-dire l'ensemble des actions et des effets qui sont liés à un "objet" patrimonial, tel qu'il se présente dans l'environnement marocain, en tenant compte autant des liens directs des objets patrimoniaux avec leur ...