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The intention of this study based on analysis of the series of European Value Study (1990, 1999, 2009 and 2018) is to investigate, using a comparative, diachronic approach, the relationship between modernization and the gender gap in religiosity in Italy. In line with the theoretical perspective which valorizes the role of culture in explaining this relationship, our hypothesis is that the most modernized areas demonstrate a more contained gender gap. We expect that differences of religiosity between men and women are more contained in the country's north-central zones - characterized by higher levels of modernization - compared with the south. Furthermore, since the distance between the levels of modernization in the two areas has not increased noticeably over the last three decades, we could be forgiven for expecting that the difference between them in the religious field would not reveal important changes. To our surprise, the findings of the analyses offer but limited support to our hypothesis.

The problem of linguistic reform in China is complicated by the fact that it has 2 aspects: (1) a uniform spoken language & (2) a written language. Efforts to universalize the use of pai hua (Pekinese, which is also the language of the classics) are closely connected with attempts to modernize the country itself. It is necessary to distinguish between the bourgeois (Hu Shis) & revolutionary reformers, such as the prophet Ch'en Tu-Hsin, who assigned to linguistic reform an important role In the Communist revolution. At this time, the success of the spoken language is almost attained, for pai hua is being used more & more throughout China. The promblem of the written language is more complex.- the knowledge of 2,000 characters (of some 40,000) is actually considered indispensable as a basic alphabet, posing not only a problem of scholarship, but also raising difficulties in the functioning of modern methods of communication & thought. Attempts to simplify it are not new; however, it was not until 1955 that a methodical plan of modernization was established. If linguistic reform is only one of the testing grounds of the new regime, its pol'al importance is still considerable. Tr from IPSA.

The development of industrialization in Italy appears to be strictly intertwined not only with the modernization of society, but with the growing role of institutions. This trend can be explained by the fact that, just after the kingdom of Italy was built in 1861, industry was limited to very few parts of the country. In the dominant free-trade context, the manufacturing basis was very narrow. Things changed in the Eighties of the 19th century, when the state began to strongly support the growth of industry. This pattern -- founded on a combination of state aid and entrepreneurial initiative -- had to last for about one hundred years, the period during which Italy established itself as one of the important industrial countries of the world. At the end of the 20th century, Italy had to change its distinctive economic pattern following the general lines of the European integration and so modifying its institutional framework, which turned to be financially very heavy. The crisis of the Italian mixed economy had the effect of transforming its industrial structure. Adapted from the source document.

In the aftermath of the European enlargement, the judicial systems of the new Member States exhibit a spectacular, & yet not fully investigated, similarity of institutions. Such a convergence toward a neo-Latin model of judicial governance does not correspond though to a similar pathway in the adoption of the judicial reforms after the fall of the communism. Moreover, similar strategies of modernization have been adopted in the judicial field by all candidate countries, in particular with respect to the court administration & the introduction of information communication technologies, right before the accession into the EU. Whereas the policies enacted by the EU during the enlargement have been widely studied, the parallel -- and, as the article is going to demonstrate, intertwined policy of judicial cooperation has been much less explored by scholars. This article tries to reach a better understanding how these two policies are intertwined. It points out the logic of change that drove the main judicial reforms in the post communist countries, the mechanisms of influence & the consequences of the European standards of quality of justice that have been used to address both new & old member States in the judicial field. In the last ten years European institutions have been leading actors in setting down standards & in creating windows & arenas of international communication & socialization, which one may expect have great impact upon the way justice will be administered in Europe in the very next future. Adapted from the source document.

Lipset is one of the most productive & innovative social scientists in the 20th century. Some of his many books & articles have become classic texts, in particular, his seminal book, Political Man (1960). Despite the broad scope of his work, Lipset's writings have one single focus -- the study of democracy. He has studied the social & political factors conducive to democratization & the stability of democracy, taking into account social structural conditions, the role of intermediary organizations, political culture, electoral behavior, & political leadership. His work is theoretical as well as empirical, & his perspective has always been a comparative one, referring to practically all major world regions. Lipset was the first to put forward the idea that socioeconomic development is an important precondition for democratic development & that economic success may in turn contribute to legitimize newly democratized regimes. He has also emphasized the central importance of a competitive party system for sustaining (intra-organizational) democracy. As an American, Lipset has finally always been intrigued by the exceptional character of American democracy, which he traces back to a historically unique combination of favorable circumstances at the time of its foundation, ie, social structural conditions (high levels of social mobility), a specific value system (individualism, equality of opportunities, religiosity), & the availability of political leaders intent on creating a republic based on popular sovereignty that was without precedent at the time. 2 Tables, 31 References. Adapted from the source document.

The 1970 was a tumultuous decade in the history of the CCP. Plagued by political extremism & acrimonious leadership infighting, the decade saw the demise of Lin Biao, the rise & fall of the radical Gang of Four (including another potential successor Wang Hongwen), the death of Zhou Enlai & Mao in 1976, the emergence of a complete outsider as leader in the shape of Hua Guofeng & the subsequent & rapid eclipse of Hua by Deng Xiaoping, returning from his second period of political exile. The emergence of Deng was of huge significance in that it marked the end of radical Maoism & the beginning of a new era of economic reform. After decades of political instability the party in effect turned its back on the discredited Maoist paradigms of mass mobilization & charismatic legitimacy & re-invented itself as the party of economic performance based on the program of the Four Modernization. Adapted from the source document.

This essay examines the processes of transformation & the progressive formalization of Chinese law, particularly civil & commercial law, which have taken place since the beginning of the reform-and-opening process in 1978. The article emphasizes the large-scale rehabilitation & strengthening of laws & procedures as necessary tools in view of the modernization & economic development of the country. Westernization & internationalization of legal norms, particularly in the field of international trade, the central role undertaken by private law, formal litigation, arbitration & third party decision are significant features of this process. The central part of the study focuses on four institutions, considered to be highly indicative of the abovementioned directions & transformations (market economy, private law): a) property, b) contracts, c) special legal vehicles of foreign investments (FIE), d) bankruptcy. Lastly, the study underlines the importance for future (market & western-oriented) developments of the Chinese legal system at large, & not only in the field of international trade, of the entrance of the PRC in the World Trade Organization. Adapted from the source document.

The Chinese reforms of state bureaucracy carried out during the period of economic modernization have tried to comply with prevailing approach in the international debate on this issue, even if the whole administrative framework of Chinese state keeps founding itself on principles as those of non neutrality of civil service & of subordination to social & political guidelines worked out by ruling Communist party. Some significant steps aimed at increasing the efficiency of bureaucracy were run in eighties & mainly in nineties. Having approved a separate career of state officials(gongwuyuan) & a set of measures which had the effect to streamline & rationalize the functioning of state administration undoubtedly helped China to conform to more advanced standards. Although the management of state cadres' career is still prerogative of party, nevertheless their recruitment based on competitions & intensive training programs have positively affected their quality & "neutrality." Another hard commitment consists actually in standardizing the procedures(guifanhua) in order to reduce the arbitrary interventions of state officials & party representatives. Adapted from the source document.

Since its inception in the late 1950s & for about three decades the process of European integration (EI) did not significantly interfere with the logic of functioning of the nation-based welfare states. EI had essentially to do with "market making" at a continental level. Solidarity, redistribution & social justice only concerned national communities & remained essentially a business of national governments. The 1990s have however witnessed the emergence of increasing strains in the relationship between "Europe" & "solidarity." With its emphasis on sound budgets, competition, market promotion, free circulation, etc, EI has increasingly transformed itself as a source of "threat" for the national social models. Competition rules & the four freedoms have started to interfere with various domestic practices of social sharing. This logic of "opening" tends to clash with the logic of "closure" which historically inspired the formation of welfare states & which still largely underpins their programs today. The tension between the two logics is clearly revealed by opinion surveys. So far, the "tightening" of the link between EI & the nation-based welfare state has been promoted by the former ("Brussels"), privileging "market making" & insisting on the need for reform & "modernization" of traditional social protection schemes at the domestic level. But some adaptation is needed also on the side of EI, i.e., of its overall mission, institutional logic & constitutional framework. This is admittedly a difficult task, but it is not beyond reach. The paper suggests a number of strategies for reconciling within the EU institutional framework the reasons & "logics" of the two prime drivers of progress on the European tradition, i.e. the marketplace & the welfare state. Tables, Figures, References. Adapted from the source document.