Suchergebnisse

Actual importance of research theme: Combating hunger and providing the Earth's population with sufficient amount of products is considered one of the strategic priorities of human civilization sustainable development by the UN up to 2030. The rapid growth of this planet's human population in the 21st century, estimated at 7.6. billion people, leads to the global demand for production and foodstuff. Simultaneously, traditional strategies of extensive development conventional in the 20th century and "target" intensification of agriculture do not take expected positive effect nowadays. World economy requires for new strategies of agricultural production, as well as promoting 'green revolution' based on the ground of IT technology advances and "Industry 4.0.". The generalization of world experience concerning development and implementing agricultural production strategies in the 21st century is of greater theoretical and practical importance for all countries which export agricultural production in mass scales, including Ukraine which focuses on the leadership in the world agricultural business. Thus, the urgency of the issue confirms the actual importance of this article. The problem statement. Foodstuff output in world economy is growing slowly and does not meet the increasing demand for food and agricultural products in industry in global scales. Under these conditions the manufacturers of agricultural products like farmers, agro-businesses and agro-holdings, as well as transnational corporation alter and modify agricultural strategies that were conventional in the 20th century. Among the new strategies transition to precision farming and innovational agriculture based on implementing IT technologies takes the leading role. The core and socio-economic consequences of such strategy implementation require further study. Analysis of latest studies and publication. The important contribution to the study of the core and dimensions of agricultural production strategies linked to innovation and investment development as well as to improvement property relations is made by such Ukrainian scholars as P. Makarenko, V. Pilyavskiy [1] and O. Shul'ga [2]. Foreign scientists like Smaller, C., andW. Speller, withH. Mirza, N. Bernasconi-Osterwalder, andG. Dixie [3] paid the specific attention to the study of strategic priorities concerning risks minimization and profit maximization by agro-businesses and TNC within the realization of agricultural contracts at world markets. Overseas researchers KeatingB., HerreroM., CarberryP. [4] emphasized on actual importance of compliance with strategy of foodstuff security in global environment in their studies. However, the issue of developing the strategy of precise agricultural production based on widespread use of innovation and IT technologies, research into socio-economic consequences accompanying their implementation in the 21st century remains poorly studied. Research challenge of general issue. The issue of studies the core and elements of agricultural production development process in world economy is highlighted in world economic literature pretty well. Nevertheless, the study of TNCs and agricultural businesses strategies and strategies concerning transition of TNCs to the development of precise agriculture is really meaningful. Besides, at present time the trends of direct foreign investments as for agricultural lands purchase and priorities analysis of their use by TNCs in developed and developing world countries are uncertain. Socio economic consequences of mass precise agriculture introduction for national economy in countries with agrarian specialization also require detailed researching. Problem statement, objective of research. The objective of research is to highlight the core and define the regularity of formation, as well as emphasize the basic expected socio-economic consequences of precise agriculture development strategy implementing on the grounds of generalization the world experience of agricultural TNC sactivity. To achieve the objective set the article aimed at solution the following tasks: to note the main 'players' at the world agricultural market and study the priorities of their economic activity; to study the core and the elements of 'green revolution' strategy, as well as strategy of transition to precise agricultural production based on implementing innovations and IT technologies; to define strategic goals of TNCs as for the use of acquiring land ( at the cost of direct foreign investments) on the grounds of generalization developed and developing countries experience; to point out the expected socio-economic consequences of mass implementation of precise agricultural production strategies by TNCs and national agro-businesses for the economy of the countries specialized in agriculture. Method and methodology of the study. While studying the world experience of implementation the precise agricultural production development strategies theoretical and empirical methods of scientific research were employed. Historical and logical methods, abstract and specific methods, methods of analysis and synthesis, as well as causal (cause-and-effect) method were applied in the article to define strategic priorities of agricultural business and agricultural TNC specialization, to point out expected socio-economic consequences of mass transition to precise agricultural production in the countries with agrarian specialization. Synergetic approach, method of expert estimates and casual methods were applied to ground "green revolution" strategy, as well as strategy of TNCs as for transition to precise agriculture based on innovations and IT technologies. The results of study. Agricultural production is presented by farmers, households, state agricultural sector, national agro-businesses and agro-holdings, international TNCs. As a rule, farms are focused on domestic market; they specialize in production of minor parties of manual crop production and horticulture, grow vegetables, fruit and berries, as well as they are engaged in poultry farming, beekeeping, dairy production, stockbreeding in rather small scales. The farmers in developed world countries, particularly EU countries, concentrate on organic production which is of high demand among middle-class representatives. In EU countries farming is traditionally supported by the state, as it bears both economic and social valuable functions, i.e. assists in rural development and creates workplaces in countryside. The main stakeholders at the mass agricultural market in the world are considered large national and international agro-holdings an TNCs specialized in agricultural production and its industrial processing. TNCs shaped the closed loop – from selection to agricultural production, from its processing to its manufacturing. At the cost of large production scales, as well as capital concentration and centralization it is the agricultural TNCs which leads in production and export of foodstuffs at world markets. TNCs ' leadership at world agriculture markets is grounded on 'green revolution' strategy implementing, which consists of such elements as innovations, bio-selection to produce performance breed, intensive growth in crop productivity, including the one using GMO which makes cropping insensitive to water shortage, high temperatures and droughts. Agrarian TNCs in the 21st century actively implement the strategies of transition to precise agriculture based on the use of innovations and IT technologies. As the world experience confirms, strategies of transition to precise agriculture combine the following innovations: astronaut and aviation technologies, unmanned technologies, unmanned aerial vehicles; mass transition to the use of apparatus to analyze the ground online; spreading of "agro-scouting" innovation technologies as for field information gathering concerning the condition and development of agriculture; implementation intellectual system of managerial decision-making support; introduction of monitoring and control auto-system and implementation of IT-system as for account of agriculture process elements. The development of precise agriculture for national world economies which are agriculture-based offers a lot of benefits, such as: increase in labor productivity in agriculture; the decrease in employment that saves working capital of agro-businesses; industrialization and technical renovation of agrarian sector which promotes the market for IT products, precise machine building; increase in commerce and export potential of the country, mainly, in the sphere of monostructural crop production (grain, corn, soya, raps, oilseeds etc.). Such strategies also provide revitalization of direct foreign investment processes by TNCsconcerning purchasing farmland in the developing countries with their further listing as raw materials supplier for TNCs. The latter shape and control international links of production value added to all kinds of agricultural products. Among the risks which implementation of precise agriculture strategies bear for national developing country's economy which are agriculture-based the following should be mentioned: risks concerning decrease in farms and decline in production of labor-intensive small-scale agriculture products (vegetables, fruit, honey etc.); risks of jobs recession and, respectively, the number of rural population and others. There are also other risks linked to these processes like risks of growing volumes of ready foodstuffs import, chronic scarcity of state budget and increase in internal debt, enhancing migration processes etc. In case of falling world prices for foodstuffs and worsening global conditions for agriculture products, including agrarian raw materials, in particular, due to another world economic crisis, the abandonment of occasional farmland purchased by TNCs in developing agrarian countries, their further freezing and ceasing the processing for better times should not be excluded. Under such circumstances the risks of famine for countries which could lose the managerial control over own land resources are also a threatening exercise as for implementing such TNC strategy. The field of results application. International economic relations and world economy, development of agriculture competitive strategies in world countries and agrarian TNCs in world economy. Conclusions. Farms, agro-businesses, agro-holdings and agrarian TNCs are the economic centres of mass agriculture production in all world countries. Farms are mainly specialized in labour-intensive small-scale agriculture production like horticulture, gardening, bee-keeping etc. Large agro-businesses and agrarian TNCs choose the strategy of specializing in mass monostructural agriculture production such as crop production (grain, corn, soya beans and industrial crops). In developed world countries TNCs apply the strategy of farmlands multi-purpose use, including the goals aimed at development and processing livestock and crop production; at development of renewable energy and bio-energy. In developed world countries TNCs focus on processing all kinds of agriculture products and foodstuffs production with high value added. Purchasing of farmlands by TNCs in developing countries, in particular, at the cost of direct foreign investment, provides for implementation the strategy of purchased lands engagement, mainly, to develop crop production as a raw basis for their further processing in the native countries for TNCs. The general world trend of agrarian TNCs development is use of innovation technologies, transition to precise agriculture based on IT technologies, aviation and astronautic technologies, unmanned aerial vehicles and other innovations which positively impact labor productivity and mass industrial production profitability, as well as choose transition to monostructural agrarian specialization as a priority, but bear a set of social risks for developing countries' economies. Transition of Ukrainian agro-businesses and agro-holdings to the strategy of precise agriculture development based on innovations and IT technologies provides Ukraine's competitiveness at the world agrarian markets. This process should go hand-in-hand with land reform taking into account Ukrainian farming interests. Establishing industrial processing of agriculture raw products and production of ready foodstuffs with high value added should be strategic for Ukraine.

Con excelentes conferencistas y una participación dinámica, se llevó a cabo el segundo panel del Foro Nacional Estudiantil de Economía y Finanzas, en el que se trataron temas bancarios dados la coyuntura de Covid-19. En la actualidad, el gobierno colombiano se ha centrado en aplanar la curva de contagios del Covid-19, sin embargo, esto ha ocasionado una baja de productividad, ingresos y liquidez dentro de las empresas. A partir de esto, el FNE, invitó a Andrés Albán, presiente de Colombia Fintech y CEO de Punto Red, Carlos Ernesto Lora, economista y socio de Giros y Finanzas, Camilo Pérez, Gerente de Investigaciones Económicas del Banco de Bogotá, y a Carlos Castro, profesor investigador, para tratar el tema a profundidad. En primer lugar, se habló de la responsabilidad del sector bancario en la recuperación de la economía frente a la reapertura del comercio y el consumo. Todos los conferencistas estuvieron de acuerdo en que, aunque la situación nos tomó a todos por sorpresa, la banca ha trabajado de manera adecuada, eficaz y prudente, ya que ha puesto diferentes mecanismos a la mano de empresas y clientes para poder seguir en funcionamiento. Además, afirmaron que el choque ha sido tan veloz que quienes no han recibido apoyo, no es porque no haya recursos, sino porque el tiempo ha sido muy corto para la cantidad de solicitudes. En resumen, según los panelistas, la banca se encuentra sólida, con problemas técnicos y operativos, pero con la capacidad de apoyo para la productividad del país a través del mejoramiento y el trabajo mancomunado entre las empresas de tecnología y la banca. Durante el panel, a los conferencistas también se les preguntó si era posible que llegara una crisis financiera que se uniera a la crisis sanitaria de la pandemia. En cuanto a esto, los conferencistas también concluyeron que dado a que las oficinas y establecimientos no cerramos por temas económicos, sino por las estrictas medidas de prevención del contagio como la cuarentena, no se puede hablar de una crisis financiera, ya que este no fue su origen. Agregaron, además, que se debe poner especial cuidado en la "cultura del no pago" que estamos teniendo, ya que muchas personas y entidades, aprovechando la pandemia y aún teniendo los recursos, se niegan a pagar. Esto se convierte en una cadena, y, por supuesto, afecta la economía. También se les preguntó sobre los principales retos que debe enfrentar la banca para mejorar la inclusión financiera durante y después de la pandemia. A esto, todos coincidieron en que existe mucho desconocimiento sobre la banca, como el uso de las páginas web y sus diferentes metodologías y servicios, y es justamente, el aprovechamiento de los canales digitales, lo que ayudará a superar la crisis, además de garantizar la construcción de relaciones con los clientes. Sin embargo, para nuestros expertos, para perder el miedo y lograr la digitalización bancaria, se requiere de apoyo gubernamental para campañas de conocimiento, y mejoramiento de infraestructura que faciliten el acceso a internet en todo el país, para que así, poco a poco se logre cambiar la mentalidad y el temor al sistema financiero. Finalmente, la conferencia terminó con una pregunta especial para cada uno de los panelistas que respondieron según su experiencia y área de conocimiento. Carlos Ernesto Lora, habló sobre las remesas que reciben los colombianos del exterior, y de cómo se verían afectadas por la recesión global. "Las remezas en Colombia y en países subdesarrollados son sumamente importantes, para el 2019 recibimos de 6.773 millones, un equivalente al 2.2% de nuestro PIB. Para el primer trimestre del 2020, ya habían decrecido un 15%, sin embargo, el Banco de la República había diagnosticado una baja del 40%, lo que evidencia que no se han visto muy afectadas", afirmó Lora. Camilo Pérez, se refirió a los sectores más afectados por la coyuntura y a los esquemas de financiación para los mismos. "Los servicios que no son de primera necesidad, como la recreación, el turismo y diversión. El comercio de vehículos, por ejempló, cayó en casi un 100%. Los restaurantes también se ven muy golpeados, principalmente por la cuarentena. Sin embargo, la pregunta es si la crisis de esos sectores se va a mantener, seguramente no, va a haber una recuperación, ya que la banca tiene grandes proyectos de apoyo, que dependerán también de cómo el gobierno permita que lleguen estos recursos para garantizar la sostenibilidad", concluyó Pérez. Carlos Castro, tocó el tema de la ley de borrón y cuanta nueva, y del impacto que esto puede tener en el sector financiero, sobre todo en aquellos que se benefician de los créditos en Colombia. "La motivación de la ley es trata de que, en últimas, no se castigue tanto el fracaso de las iniciativas empresariales, y de que la gente pueda, de alguna manera, reinventarse financieramente y generar otro proyecto. Muchas empresas fracasan o quiebran, y se quisiera que eso no fuera impedimento para seguir intentando. Aquí el tema, es encontrar información alternativa con la que se pueda tener información crediticia y así no afectar a la banca, es reinventar el score que conocemos actualmente", dijo Castro. Andrés Albán, habló sobre el papel de las Fintech, que a pesar de la crisis podrían verse menos afectadas. "Aquellos sectores que se centran en la tecnología u ofrecen una mayor digitalización, se verán beneficiadas en la medida de que las empresas empiecen a implementar sus servicios como pagos y metodologías digitales", finalizó Albán. Para la Facultad de Economía y el comité del FNE, fue un honor contar con estos excelentes panelistas y poder poner sobre la mesa temas tan relevantes en la actualidad, además de plantear posibles soluciones. ; With excellent speakers and dynamic participation, the second panel of the National Student Forum of Economics and Finance was held, in which banking issues were discussed given the situation of Covid-19. Currently, the Colombian government has focused on flattening the contagion curve of Covid-19, however, this has caused a drop in productivity, income and liquidity within companies. From this, the FNE invited Andrés Albán, president of Colombia Fintech and CEO of Punto Red, Carlos Ernesto Lora, economist and partner of Giros y Finanzas, Camilo Pérez, Manager of Economic Research at Banco de Bogotá, and Carlos Castro , research professor, to deal with the subject in depth. In the first place, the responsibility of the banking sector in the recovery of the economy in the face of the reopening of trade and consumption was discussed. All the speakers agreed that, although the situation took us all by surprise, the bank has worked in an adequate, efficient and prudent manner, since it has put different mechanisms at the hands of companies and clients to be able to continue operating. In addition, they affirmed that the shock has been so fast that those who have not received support, it is not because there are no resources, but because the time has been very short for the number of requests. In summary, according to the panelists, the banking system is solid, with technical and operational problems, but with the capacity to support the country's productivity through improvement and joint work between technology companies and banks. During the panel, the speakers were also asked if it was possible for a financial crisis to come along that would join the health crisis of the pandemic. Regarding this, the speakers also concluded that given that the offices and establishments we do not close due to economic issues, but due to strict contagion prevention measures such as quarantine, it is not possible to speak of a financial crisis, since this was not its origin. They also added that special care should be taken in the "culture of non-payment" that we are having, since many people and entities, taking advantage of the pandemic and still having the resources, refuse to pay. This becomes a chain, and of course it affects the economy. They were also asked about the main challenges that banks must face to improve financial inclusion during and after the pandemic. To this, they all agreed that there is a lot of ignorance about banking, such as the use of web pages and their different methodologies and services, and it is precisely the use of digital channels that will help to overcome the crisis, in addition to guaranteeing building customer relationships. However, for our experts, to lose fear and achieve bank digitization, government support is required for awareness campaigns, and infrastructure improvement that facilitate internet access throughout the country, so that, little by little, I managed to change the mentality and fear of the financial system. Finally, the conference ended with a special question for each of the panelists who answered according to their experience and area of knowledge. Carlos Ernesto Lora, spoke about the remittances that Colombians receive from abroad, and how they would be affected by the global recession. "Recollections in Colombia and in underdeveloped countries are extremely important, for 2019 we received 6,773 million, equivalent to 2.2% of our GDP. For the first quarter of 2020, they had already decreased by 15%, however, the Banco de la República had diagnosed a drop of 40%, which shows that they have not been greatly affected, "said Lora. Camilo Pérez, referred to the sectors most affected by the situation and the financing schemes for them. "Services that are not essential, such as recreation, tourism and entertainment. Vehicle trade, for example, fell by almost 100%. Restaurants are also hit hard, mainly by quarantine. However, the question is whether the crisis in these sectors will continue, surely not, there will be a recovery, since the banks have large support projects, which will also depend on how the government allows these resources to arrive to guarantee sustainability ", concluded Pérez. Carlos Castro, touched on the issue of the new smear law and the impact that this can have on the financial sector, especially on those who benefit from credits in Colombia. "The motivation of the law is that, ultimately, the failure of business initiatives is not so punished, and that people can, in some way, reinvent themselves financially and generate another project. Many companies fail or go bankrupt, and it is hoped that this was not an impediment to continue trying. Here the issue is to find alternative information with which to have credit information and thus not affect the bank, it is to reinvent the score that we currently know, "said Castro. Andrés Albán spoke about the role of Fintech companies, which, despite the crisis, could be less affected. "Those sectors that focus on technology or offer greater digitization, will benefit as companies begin to implement their services such as payments and digital methodologies," concluded Albán. For the Faculty of Economics and the FNE committee, it was an honor to have these excellent panelists and to be able to put such relevant issues on the table today, in addition to proposing possible solutions.

The Government White Paper on day care provision presented in December 1999 announced a three-year program to improve quality. Starting in 2001, all Norwegian day care centres were to establish tools and systems designed to further develop and safeguard the quality of day care centres. The program was to be finalised by 2003. A survey conducted at the end of the period showed that only one in five managers felt that their day care centre had attained the goals. The program to improve quality coincided with an increasing focus on strong price reductions in child care services and a commitment to make day care centres available to all families who wanted this type of child care. Since 2003, there has been a vast expansion in child care coverage rates in Norway. At the end of 2003, 205 000 children were enrolled in day care centres. By January 2008 about 265 000 children were enrolled. The biggest increase was seen for children below three, and during 2008 almost 40 000 one-year olds were enrolled in day care centres. We have compared the results from 2004 and 2008 in order to explore whether this expansion has happened at the expense of quality. On average, there are more children per day care centre in 2008 compared to 2004. This is especially true for the new centres that started up after 2004, but also the older ones have expanded. Day care centre managers are typically stable employees. More than half had managed the same day care centre for more than five years, and almost 40 percent had been in the same position for more than eight years. Since 2004 there has been a small increase in turnover of employees. In 2004, half of the day care centres reported that none of their employees had left their position within the last 6 months, while in 2008 this was reduced to 40 percent. As in 2004, the small day care centres reported the lowest turn over rates. A smaller portion of those who were educated as pre-school teachers had ended their position compared with those without such education. Ninety percent of the managers are women, and 92 percent are educated pre-school teachers. Approximately two percent have additional education. Three percent of the day care centres have managers who do not meet the educational requirement. In 14 percent of the child care centres there is at least one employee who is undertaking education to become a preschool teacher. In every fourth day care centre there is more than one preschool teacher per unit. In 16 percent of the day care centres there are at least one male pre-school teacher, and 34 percent of the day care centres had at least one male assistant. The number of day care centres with at least one male employee has increased from 33 percent in 2002 to 51 percent in 2008. The percentage of educated preschool teachers in day care centres varies a lot. In one in four day care centres 27 percent, or fewer, of the staff had preschool teacher education. In another fourth of the day care centres 43 percent, or more, were educated preschool teachers. Compared to 2004 there has not been any decrease in the proportion of preschool teachers. The proportion of preschool teachers has increased more in the private day care centres than in municipal day care centres. Nine out of ten day care centres have annual appraisal talks with their staff. Eight out of ten employ internal vocational training schemes for their staff, and more than half of the day care centres have a separate budget for such training. In this area there has been a small increase since the last evaluation in 2004. The size of the day care centre is the most decisive factor determining whether all three measures to improve the staff are set. Norwegian day care centres operate within the framework of a national curriculum (Rammeplanen). Since last survey in 2004 the number of subjects to be covered according to the national curriculum havebeen expanded from five to seven. In 2008 most day care centres emphasised the area "Communication, language and texts". Emphasis on this subject has increased steadily since 2002. Similar to what has been reported in earlier periods there was least interest for the area "Ethics, religion and philosophy". In 2008 fewer day care centres work with all areas compared to 2004, but we observed a tendency that bigger private day care centres work with more areas. The vast majority of day care centres have established formal routines for informing parents and new employees. This applies above all to what we define as «start-up information». Since 2004 the day care centres have increased their formal routines for writing down information to and from care givers. At least eight out of ten day care centres have routine parent-staff conversations, parent-staff meetings and liaison committee meetings twice a year. More day care centres employ user surveys, but not as frequent as in 2004. The existence of formal information routines depends heavily on a day care centre's size, bigger centres have more formal routines. Children's well-being and development are commonly evaluated in a traditional manner, i.e. by observation, followed by educational documentation. About half of the day care centres make little or no use of methods such as systematic conversations or interviews with children. There is however a small increase in the use of child interviews. The number of day care centres where children participate in assessment work has increased since 2002, in 2008 59 percent of the day care centres involved children in the assessment work. Children are also being drawn more and more into the process of planning the day care centre's activities, and children are now participating more than their parents in such planning. Even though participation has increased considerably there are still a high number of day care centres where there is little or no child or parental participation. The general opinion among managers is that the physical environment such as buildings and outdoor areas are satisfactory and suitably adapted for all the children in the day care centre. In 2002 every third day care centre achieved top score on this measure. In 2008 half of the day care centres did the same. This is especially true for the biggest and newest day care centres. In half of the day care centres the owners have made plans for training or post-qualifying education facilities for their staff, and two out of three are already providing such training. Municipal day care centres are still ahead of their private counterparts both in terms of planning and providing training and post-qualifying education facilities for their staff. As regards the extent of contact and collaboration between the individual day care centre and the municipality in its role as local day care centre authority, no positive change can be seen from 2002 to 2008. The contact between them is slightly lower than in earlier surveys, and we find this problematic as contact is decisive for the municipal authority in order to have control. Our survey for 2008 revealed that the municipal authority have more intensive contact with municipal day care centres than with private day care centres, which makes us question their equal treatment. Compared to 2004 there are slightly more managers who report that bullying never occurs in their day care centre in 2008. Still the majority of day care centre managers report instances of bullying during last year, but at the same time they state that this happens only very rarely. The most common method to reduce bullying is the programme entitled «You and I and the two of us», which is used by half of the day care centres. The program that has increased most since 2004 is «Step by step», this program is now used in one third of theday care centres. The measures and routines for preparing the transition between day care centres and schools have been considerably improved since last survey. Such preparations for five-year olds are now established in almost every day care centre. However, it is problematic that more measures are in place in municipal day care centres than in private day care centres. It is most common to organize day care centres in units. 80 percent of the day care centres are organised in this way, while 13 percent are not divided into units. It is most common to have units divided by age. 60 percent of the day care centres have established formal routines for assessing all the children's language development, while a third has no regular routine for doing this. Those without formal routines report they assess only children who appear to have special needs in this area. 56 percent of the day care centres have at least one child with reduced functional ability. Almost all of these get additional support in order to employ extra staff. 87 percent have established formal contact with other municipal authorities to be able to give the child maximum support. As in the two earlier surveys the day care centre managers are generally satisfied with their framework conditions. We could also find that private day care managers are more satisfied with the conditions in which they operate than the managers of municipal day care centres. Most managers state that the localities are suitable for the children and for the purpose to which they are used. This opinion is especially strong among managers of new day care centres, for big day care centres, and is even more common in private than in municipal day care centres. A joint comparison of 30 different quality indicators in 2004 and 2008 indicate that day care centres in 2008 on average get a higher score than in 2004. ; Denne rapporten er en oppfølging av to tidligere NOVA-rapporter om kvalitetssatsingen i barnehagene i årene 2001-2003. Siden den gang har arbeidet med økt kvalitet måttet skje parallelt med et stadig større fokus på full dekning og lavere barnehagepriser. Sammenlignet med år 2003 har antallet barn i barnehagene økt med 60 000 nye barn, de fleste under tre år. Hovedmålet med rapporten har vært å finne svar på hvordan denne økningen har påvirket kvaliteten sammenlignet med tidligere år. Rapporten fokuserer på barnehagenes oppfølging av rammeplanen, rutiner og arbeidsmåter, fysisk miljø, samarbeid med eier og lokal myndighet, mobbing, overgang til skole, organisering, språkstimulering og støtte til barn med ekstra behov. Undersøkelsen, som bygger på et spørreskjema til styrerne i barnehagene, viser at den sterke veksten i barnehagesektoren har funnet sted uten at det har gått på bekostning av barnehagenes kvalitet.

The Government White Paper on day care provision presented in December 1999 announced a three-year program to improve quality. Starting in 2001, all Norwegian day care centres were to establish tools and systems designed to further develop and safeguard the quality of day care centres. The program was to be finalised by 2003. A survey conducted at the end of the period showed that only one in five managers felt that their day care centre had attained the goals. The program to improve quality coincided with an increasing focus on strong price reductions in child care services and a commitment to make day care centres available to all families who wanted this type of child care. Since 2003, there has been a vast expansion in child care coverage rates in Norway. At the end of 2003, 205 000 children were enrolled in day care centres. By January 2008 about 265 000 children were enrolled. The biggest increase was seen for children below three, and during 2008 almost 40 000 one-year olds were enrolled in day care centres. We have compared the results from 2004 and 2008 in order to explore whether this expansion has happened at the expense of quality. On average, there are more children per day care centre in 2008 compared to 2004. This is especially true for the new centres that started up after 2004, but also the older ones have expanded. Day care centre managers are typically stable employees. More than half had managed the same day care centre for more than five years, and almost 40 percent had been in the same position for more than eight years. Since 2004 there has been a small increase in turnover of employees. In 2004, half of the day care centres reported that none of their employees had left their position within the last 6 months, while in 2008 this was reduced to 40 percent. As in 2004, the small day care centres reported the lowest turn over rates. A smaller portion of those who were educated as pre-school teachers had ended their position compared with those without such education. Ninety percent of the managers are women, and 92 percent are educated pre-school teachers. Approximately two percent have additional education. Three percent of the day care centres have managers who do not meet the educational requirement. In 14 percent of the child care centres there is at least one employee who is undertaking education to become a preschool teacher. In every fourth day care centre there is more than one preschool teacher per unit. In 16 percent of the day care centres there are at least one male pre-school teacher, and 34 percent of the day care centres had at least one male assistant. The number of day care centres with at least one male employee has increased from 33 percent in 2002 to 51 percent in 2008. The percentage of educated preschool teachers in day care centres varies a lot. In one in four day care centres 27 percent, or fewer, of the staff had preschool teacher education. In another fourth of the day care centres 43 percent, or more, were educated preschool teachers. Compared to 2004 there has not been any decrease in the proportion of preschool teachers. The proportion of preschool teachers has increased more in the private day care centres than in municipal day care centres. Nine out of ten day care centres have annual appraisal talks with their staff. Eight out of ten employ internal vocational training schemes for their staff, and more than half of the day care centres have a separate budget for such training. In this area there has been a small increase since the last evaluation in 2004. The size of the day care centre is the most decisive factor determining whether all three measures to improve the staff are set. Norwegian day care centres operate within the framework of a national curriculum (Rammeplanen). Since last survey in 2004 the number of subjects to be covered according to the national curriculum havebeen expanded from five to seven. In 2008 most day care centres emphasised the area "Communication, language and texts". Emphasis on this subject has increased steadily since 2002. Similar to what has been reported in earlier periods there was least interest for the area "Ethics, religion and philosophy". In 2008 fewer day care centres work with all areas compared to 2004, but we observed a tendency that bigger private day care centres work with more areas. The vast majority of day care centres have established formal routines for informing parents and new employees. This applies above all to what we define as «start-up information». Since 2004 the day care centres have increased their formal routines for writing down information to and from care givers. At least eight out of ten day care centres have routine parent-staff conversations, parent-staff meetings and liaison committee meetings twice a year. More day care centres employ user surveys, but not as frequent as in 2004. The existence of formal information routines depends heavily on a day care centre's size, bigger centres have more formal routines. Children's well-being and development are commonly evaluated in a traditional manner, i.e. by observation, followed by educational documentation. About half of the day care centres make little or no use of methods such as systematic conversations or interviews with children. There is however a small increase in the use of child interviews. The number of day care centres where children participate in assessment work has increased since 2002, in 2008 59 percent of the day care centres involved children in the assessment work. Children are also being drawn more and more into the process of planning the day care centre's activities, and children are now participating more than their parents in such planning. Even though participation has increased considerably there are still a high number of day care centres where there is little or no child or parental participation. The general opinion among managers is that the physical environment such as buildings and outdoor areas are satisfactory and suitably adapted for all the children in the day care centre. In 2002 every third day care centre achieved top score on this measure. In 2008 half of the day care centres did the same. This is especially true for the biggest and newest day care centres. In half of the day care centres the owners have made plans for training or post-qualifying education facilities for their staff, and two out of three are already providing such training. Municipal day care centres are still ahead of their private counterparts both in terms of planning and providing training and post-qualifying education facilities for their staff. As regards the extent of contact and collaboration between the individual day care centre and the municipality in its role as local day care centre authority, no positive change can be seen from 2002 to 2008. The contact between them is slightly lower than in earlier surveys, and we find this problematic as contact is decisive for the municipal authority in order to have control. Our survey for 2008 revealed that the municipal authority have more intensive contact with municipal day care centres than with private day care centres, which makes us question their equal treatment. Compared to 2004 there are slightly more managers who report that bullying never occurs in their day care centre in 2008. Still the majority of day care centre managers report instances of bullying during last year, but at the same time they state that this happens only very rarely. The most common method to reduce bullying is the programme entitled «You and I and the two of us», which is used by half of the day care centres. The program that has increased most since 2004 is «Step by step», this program is now used in one third of theday care centres. The measures and routines for preparing the transition between day care centres and schools have been considerably improved since last survey. Such preparations for five-year olds are now established in almost every day care centre. However, it is problematic that more measures are in place in municipal day care centres than in private day care centres. It is most common to organize day care centres in units. 80 percent of the day care centres are organised in this way, while 13 percent are not divided into units. It is most common to have units divided by age. 60 percent of the day care centres have established formal routines for assessing all the children's language development, while a third has no regular routine for doing this. Those without formal routines report they assess only children who appear to have special needs in this area. 56 percent of the day care centres have at least one child with reduced functional ability. Almost all of these get additional support in order to employ extra staff. 87 percent have established formal contact with other municipal authorities to be able to give the child maximum support. As in the two earlier surveys the day care centre managers are generally satisfied with their framework conditions. We could also find that private day care managers are more satisfied with the conditions in which they operate than the managers of municipal day care centres. Most managers state that the localities are suitable for the children and for the purpose to which they are used. This opinion is especially strong among managers of new day care centres, for big day care centres, and is even more common in private than in municipal day care centres. A joint comparison of 30 different quality indicators in 2004 and 2008 indicate that day care centres in 2008 on average get a higher score than in 2004. ; Denne rapporten er en oppfølging av to tidligere NOVA-rapporter om kvalitetssatsingen i barnehagene i årene 2001-2003. Siden den gang har arbeidet med økt kvalitet måttet skje parallelt med et stadig større fokus på full dekning og lavere barnehagepriser. Sammenlignet med år 2003 har antallet barn i barnehagene økt med 60 000 nye barn, de fleste under tre år. Hovedmålet med rapporten har vært å finne svar på hvordan denne økningen har påvirket kvaliteten sammenlignet med tidligere år. Rapporten fokuserer på barnehagenes oppfølging av rammeplanen, rutiner og arbeidsmåter, fysisk miljø, samarbeid med eier og lokal myndighet, mobbing, overgang til skole, organisering, språkstimulering og støtte til barn med ekstra behov. Undersøkelsen, som bygger på et spørreskjema til styrerne i barnehagene, viser at den sterke veksten i barnehagesektoren har funnet sted uten at det har gått på bekostning av barnehagenes kvalitet.

Abstract: This research devoted to analyze relationship between social media political marketing through trust, knowledge & voting intention of youth voters, regarding with Indonesia Presidential Election 2019. In total hundreds of respondents, with 51 women and 49 men, thus majority are Tanjungpura University students. With age 17-35 as young adults, actively on social media, indeed aware with presidential candidates 2019 of political marketing, for at least six months. By using online questionnaire and spread through social media, the data processed with SmartPLS 3.2.8. software. The methods is a causal research, based on Likert seven-point scale. Results, however revealed no significant relationship between social media political marketing with youth voting intention (H3). 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As a cradle of ancient Chinese civilization, the Yellow River Basin has a very long human-environment interrelationship, where early anthropogenic activities re- sulted in large scale landscape modifications. Today, the impact of this relationship has intensified further as the basin plays a vital role for China's continued economic development. It is one of the most densely-populated, fastest growing, and most dynamic regions of China with abundant natural and environmental resources providing a livelihood for almost 190 million people. Triggered by fundamental economic reforms, the basin has witnessed a spectacular economic boom during the last decades and can be considered as an exemplary blueprint region for contemporary dynamic Global Change processes occurring throughout the country, which is currently transitioning from an agrarian-dominated economy into a modern urbanized society. However, this resourcesdemanding growth has led to profound land use changes with adverse effects on the Yellow River social-ecological systems, where complex challenges arise threatening a long-term sustainable development. Consistent and continuous remote sensing-based monitoring of recent and past land cover and land use change is a fundamental requirement to mitigate the adverse impacts of Global Change processes. Nowadays, technical advancement and the multitude of available satellite sensors, in combination with the opening of data archives, allow the creation of new research perspectives in regional land cover applications over heterogeneous landscapes at large spatial scales. Despite the urgent need to better understand the prevailing dynamics and underlying factors influencing the current processes, detailed regional specific land cover data and change information are surprisingly absent for this region. In view of the noted research gaps and contemporary developments, three major objectives are defined in this thesis. First (i), the current and most pressing social-ecological challenges are elaborated and policy and management instruments towards more sustainability are discussed. Second (ii), this thesis provides new and improved insights on the current land cover state and dynamics of the entire Yellow River Basin. Finally (iii), the most dominant processes related to mining, agriculture, forest, and urban dynamics are determined on finer spatial and temporal scales. The complex and manifold problems and challenges that result from long-term abuse of the water and land resources in the basin have been underpinned by policy choices, cultural attitude, and institutions that have evolved over centuries in China. The tremendous economic growth that has been mainly achieved by extracting water and exploiting land resources in a rigorous, but unsustainable manner, might not only offset the economic benefits, but could also foster social unrest. Since the early emergence of the first Chinese dynasties, flooding was considered historically as a primary issue in river management and major achievements have been made to tame the wild nature of the Yellow River. Whereas flooding is therefore largely now under control, new environmental and social problems have evolved, including soil and water pollution, ecological degradation, biodiversity decline, and food security, all being further aggravated by anthropogenic climate change. To resolve the contemporary and complex challenges, many individual environmental laws and regulations have been enacted by various Chinese ministries. However, these policies often pursue different, often contradictory goals, are too general to tackle specific problems and are usually implemented by a strong top-down approach. Recently, more flexible economic and market-based incentives (pricing, tradable permits, investments) have been successfully adopted, which are specifically tailored to the respective needs, shifting now away from the pure command and regulating instruments. One way towards a more holistic and integrated river basin management could be the establishment of a common platform (e.g. a Geographical Information System) for data handling and sharing, possibly operated by the Yellow River Basin Conservancy Commission (YRCC), where available spatial data, statistical information and in-situ measures are coalesced, on which sustainable decision-making could be based. So far, the collected data is hardly accessible, fragmented, inconsistent, or outdated. The first step to address the absence and lack of consistent and spatially up-to-date information for the entire basin capturing the heterogeneous landscape conditions was taken up in this thesis. Land cover characteristics and dynamics were derived from the last decade for the years 2003 and 2013, based on optical medium-resolution hightemporal MODIS Normalized Differenced Vegetation Index (NDVI) time series at 250 m. To minimize the inherent influence of atmospheric and geometric interferences found in raw high temporal data, the applied adaptive Savitzky-Golay filter successfully smoothed the time series and substantially reduced noise. Based on the smoothed time series data, a large variety of intra-annual phenology metrics as well as spectral and multispectral annual statistics were derived, which served as input variables for random forest (RF) classifiers. High quality reference data sets were derived from very high resolution imagery for each year independently of which 70 % trained the RF models. The accuracy assessments for all regionally specific defined thematic classes were based on the remaining 30 % reference data split and yielded overall accuracies of 87 % and 84 % for 2003 and 2013, respectively. The first regional adapted Yellow River Land Cover Products (YRB LC) depict the detail spatial extent and distribution of the current land cover status and dynamics. The novel products overall differentiate overall 18 land cover and use classes, including classes of natural vegetation (terrestrial and aquatic), cultivated classes, mosaic classes, non-vegetated, and artificial classes, which are not presented in previous land cover studies so far. Building on this, an extended multi-faceted land cover analysis on the most prominent land cover change types at finer spatial and temporal scales provides a better and more detailed picture of the Yellow River Basin dynamics. Precise spatio-temporal products about mining, agriculture, forest, and urban areas were examined from long-trem Landsat satellite time series monitored at annual scales to capture the rapid rate of change in four selected focus regions. All archived Landsat images between 2000 and 2015 were used to derive spatially continuous spectral-temporal, multi-spectral, and textural metrics. For each thematic region and year RF models were built, trained and tested based on a stablepixels reference data set. The automated adaptive signature (AASG) algorithm identifies those pixels that did not change between the investigated time periods to generate a mono-temporal reference stable-pixels data set to keep manual sampling requirements to a minimum level. Derived results gained high accuracies ranging from 88 % to 98 %. Throughout the basin, afforestation on the Central Loess Plateau and urban sprawl are identified as most prominent drivers of land cover change, whereas agricultural land remained stable, only showing local small-scale dynamics. Mining operations started in 2004 on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, which resulted in a substantial loss of pristine alpine meadows and wetlands. In this thesis, a novel and unique regional specific view of current and past land cover characteristics in a complex and heterogeneous landscape was presented by using a multi-source remote sensing approach. The delineated products hold great potential for various model and management applications. They could serve as valuable components for effective and sustainable land and water management to adapt and mitigate the predicted consequences of Global Change processes. ; Der Gelbe Fluss - in der Landessprache Huange He genannt - ist für die Ausprägung und Entwicklung der chinesischen Kultur von großer Bedeutung. Aufgrund der frühen Einflussnahme auf die natürlichen Ökosysteme in dieser Region durch den Menschen, entwickelte sich dort eine ausgeprägte Interaktion zwischen Mensch und Umwelt. Diese Wechselbeziehung hat sich infolge der gegenwärtigen rapiden sozioökonomischen Veränderungen in den letzten Jahrzehnten weiter intensiviert. Das Einzugsgebiet des Gelben Flusses bildet die Lebensgrundlage für fast 190 Millionen Menschen, die zum Großteil von natürlichen Ressourcen abhängig sind. Zudem gehört es zu den wirtschaftlich bedeutendsten und am schnellsten wachsenden Regionen in ganz China. Durch weitreichende Reformen wurde ein wirtschaftlicher Aufstieg forciert, um den Agrarstaat China zu einem modernen Industrie- und Dienstleistungsstaat weiterzuentwickeln. Ein derartiges rasantes wie auch ressourcenintensives Wirtschaftswachstum führte schließlich zu einem enormen Wandel in den Bereichen der Landbedeckung und Landnutzung. Hinzu kamen neue und komplexere wirtschafts-, sozial- und umweltpolitische Herausforderungen, die bis heute eine langfristige und nachhaltige Entwicklung der Region gefährden. Aus diesem Blickwinkel kann das Becken des Gelben Flusses als regionales Spiegelbild der durch den Globalen Wandel bedingten, gegenwärtigen Veränderungsprozesse in ganz China gelten. Eine wichtige Voraussetzung für den adäquaten Umgang mit den Herausforderungen des Globalen Wandels sind kontinuierliche Informationen über aktuelle sowie historische Veränderungen von Landbedeckung und Landnutzung. Infolge der technologischen Entwicklung steht heute eine Vielfalt an Satellitenbildsystemen mit immer höherer zeitlicher und räumlicher Auflösung zur Verfügung. In Verbindung mit kostenfreien und offenen Datenzugriffen ist es möglich, daraus neue Forschungsperspektiven im Bereich der Landoberflächenkartierung - insbesondere für heterogene Landschaften - zu entwickeln. Zur Generierung thematischer Karten werden häufig Klassifikationen entlang verschiedener räumlicher und zeitlicher Skalen vollzogen. Daraus können zusätzlich die nötigen Informationen für lokale wie auch regionale Entscheidungsträger abgeleitet werden. Trotz dieser neuen Möglichkeiten sind regionalspezifische Informationen, die einem besseren Verständnis der Dynamiken von Landoberflächen im Bereich des Gelben-Fluss-Beckens dienen, noch rar. Dieses Forschungsdesiderat wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit aufgegriffen, wobei folgende Schwerpunkte gesetzt werden: (i) Zunächst werden die vorherrschenden sozioökologischen Herausforderungen für das gesamte Einzugsgebiet des Gelben Flusses dargestellt sowie verschiedene Management- sowie Politikmodelle für eine nachhaltigere Ressourcennutzung diskutiert. (ii) Darauf aufbauend wird die fernerkundliche Ableitung von Landbedeckungs- und Landnutzungsveränderungen der letzten Dekade im Gebiet des gesamten Gelben Flusses flächendeckend durchgeführt und anschließend interpretiert. (iii) Im letzten Schritt werden basierend auf den zuvor abgeleiteten Informationsprodukten die dominierenden Landoberflächendynamiken in höherer zeitlicher und räumlicher Auflösung detailliert untersucht. Insbesondere die dynamischen Prozesse der Minenausbreitung, Landwirtschaft, Waldgebiete und der urbanen Räume rücken in den Fokus. Aufgrund jahrzehntelanger Übernutzung der natürlichen Ressourcen im Gebiet des Gelben Flusses in Verbindung mit politischen Entscheidungen, der vorherrschenden kulturellen Prägung wie auch der Entwicklung der dort ansässigen Institutionen ist eine vielschichtige Problematik entstanden, die für die gesamte Region eine große Herausforderung darstellt. Durch frühzeitige Maßnahmen der Flutbekämpfung und Flussregulierung konnte den zahlreichen Überflutungen der Vergangenheit entgegengewirkt und das Risiko großflächiger Überschwemmungen minimiert werden. Trotz dieser Erfolge ergeben sich laufend neue, komplexere Herausforderungen mit verheerenden Auswirkungen auf Ökologie und Gesellschaft, wie zum Beispiel Boden- und Wasserdegradation, Entwaldung, Rückgang der Artenvielfalt, Ernährungsunsicherheiten und ein steigendes soziales Ungleichgewicht. Durch den anthropogenen Klimawandel werden diese negativen Probleme noch weiter verstärkt. Zwar wurden sie von der chinesischen Regierung als solche erkannt, dennoch scheiterten die Versuche, mit zahlreichen Gesetzen und Verordnungen die genannten Folgen einzudämmen, an unkonkreten Formulierungen, so dass diese der Komplexität der Herausforderungen nicht gerecht wurden. Die in jüngster Zeit verfolgten modernen und deutlich flexibleren, marktorientierten Ansätze (z.B. Subventionen, Wasserzertifikate), die speziell an die lokalen Gegebenheiten angepasst wurden, zeigen bereits Erfolge. Mit Hilfe einer gemeinsamen Daten- und Informationsplattform, beispielsweise in Form eines Geographischen Informationssystems (GIS), wäre eine integrierte und holistische Flussmanagementstrategie für den Gelben Fluss leichter realisierbar. Auf diese Weise könnten alle verfügbaren statistischen-, räumlichen- und Feldaufnahmen gespeichert, harmonisiert und geteilt und so die bisher noch unvollständigen und veralteten Daten laufend aktualisiert werden. Die Flussbehörde des Gelben Flusses (Yellow River Conservancy Commission) böte sich an, ein solches System zu verwalten. In dieser Arbeit wird die heterogene Landbedeckungsstruktur für das gesamte Einzugsgebiet des Gelben Flusses für die Jahre 2003 und 2013 erfasst und interpretiert. Die fernerkundlichen Eingangsdaten für die einzelnen Klassifikationen bestehen aus optischen MODIS NDVI-Zeitserien, aus denen jährlich phänologische Parameter berechnet werden. Da die Qualität optischer Satellitenbilder häufig durch Wolken und Schatten beeinträchtigt ist, müssen die betroffenen Flächen maskiert und entfernt werden. Die so entstandenen Lücken in der Zeitserie werden durch einen Filteralgorithmus (SavitskyGolay) aufgefüllt und geglättet. Die verwendeten RandomForest-Klassifikationsverfahren ermöglichen die Ableitung von Landbedeckungen und -dynamiken. Diese neuen und räumlich detaillierten Produkte unterscheiden insgesamt 18 verschiedene Landbedeckungsund Landnutzungsklassen. Erstmals liefern diese eine regional spezifische Charakterisierung der vorherrschenden Landbedeckung im Gebiet des Gelben Flusses. Darauf aufbauend erfolgt eine sowohl zeitlich als auch räumlich detailliertere Untersuchung der wichtigsten Veränderungen im Bereich der Landbedeckung, die auf dichten Landsat-Zeitserien basiert. Jährliche Informationen über Dynamiken von Minenabbaugebieten, Landwirtschaft, Waldgebieten und urbanen Räumen zeigen präzise lokale Veränderungen im Einzugsgebiet des Gelben Flusses. Die daraus abgeleiteten Ergebnisse lassen insbesondere auf dem Lössplateau die Auswirkungen ökologischer Restorationsmaßnahmen erkennen, bei denen degradierte Flächen in Waldsysteme umgewandelt wurden. Auf dem Qinghai-Tibet-Plateau zeigt sich eine dramatische Ausbreitung von Kohletagebau zu Lasten der besonders anfälligen alpinen Matten und Feuchtgebiete. Auch der anhaltende Trend zur Urbanisierung spiegelt sich in den hier gewonnenen Ergebnissen deutlich wider. Durch die Kombination von Fernerkundungsdaten unterschiedlicher räumlicher und zeitlicher Auflösungen liefert diese Arbeit neue und bisher einzigartige Einblicke in historische und aktuelle Landbedeckungsdynamiken einer heterogenen Landschaft. Die regionalen Analysen wie auch die thematischen Informationsprodukte besitzen somit großes Potential zur Verbesserung der Informationsgrundlage. Die Ergebnisse dienen außerdem als aussagekräftige Entscheidungsgrundlage mit dem Ziel eines angemessenen und nachhaltigen Land- und Wassermanagements für die natürlichen Ökosysteme im Becken des Gelben Flusses.

L'attività di ricerca descritta nella presente tesi di dottorato nasce dalla prima esperienza in Regione Campania di Dottorati in Azienda, finanziata con fondi Por Fse 2007-2013. In particolare, l'azienda che ha accolto con fervente entusiasmo e altrettanta professionalità l'attività di dottorato è l'Associazione Costruttori Edili di Napoli (ACEN). L'ACEN è un'associazione tra aziende private che opera nel settore delle costruzioni con finalità di salvaguardia e tutela dell'imprenditoria, di sviluppo e progresso dell'industria delle costruzioni, di qualificazione professionale delle imprese del settore e del loro avanzamento tecnologico. Date le finalità dell'Associazione, gli obiettivi dell'attività di dottorato sono stati definiti durante diversi mesi di confronto e collaborazione tra il Dipartimento di Strutture per l'Ingegneria e l'Architettura e l'ACEN. Perseguendo il fine di un progetto vasto e comune, i costruttori hanno manifestato l'esigenza di implementare e indagare nuovi metodi e procedure che potessero rendere più efficiente il processo edilizio e che fornissero strumenti per il monitoraggio e il controllo dei tempi e dei costi degli interventi edilizi. Il Dipartimento universitario, d'altro canto, seguendo il crescente interesse scientifico riferito allo sviluppo sostenibile nel settore delle costruzioni, hanno diretto le scelte verso lo studio e l'approfondimento di materiali e tecniche per l'edilizia con basso impatto ambientale. Pertanto si è cercato di interpretare le esigenze dei diversi soggetti coinvolti, stabilendo di approfondire alcune tematiche che, attualmente, governano la scena mondiale del settore delle costruzioni, quali la progettazione integrata e lo sviluppo sostenibile. Quest'ultimi principi rappresentano, appunto, i due fili conduttori che hanno ispirato le diverse attività descritte nei capitoli di cui la tesi si compone nonché, chiaramente, il titolo del presente lavoro: "Metodologie BIM per la progettazione integrata di interventi di riqualificazione e rinforzo strutturale orientati alla sostenibilità ambientale". Il Building Information Modeling (BIM), è una metodologia di progettazione e gestione delle opere civili che permette l'integrazione in un modello 3D, unico e condiviso, di tutti i livelli di progettazione quali architettonico, strutturale ed impiantistico, mediante una modellazione parametrica ad oggetti. Ogni oggetto non è più una mera rappresentazione grafica, riconoscibile per mezzo di dettagli o legende, ma un elemento 3D ricco di informazioni di vario genere che descrivono il comportamento meccanico, termico e funzionale dell'oggetto fino ad arrivare a dettagli specifici come il costo, il produttore, la provenienza e lo stato manutentivo dello stesso. Le forti potenzialità del BIM nell'archiviazione e gestione delle informazioni generate durante tutto il processo edilizio, dalla fase di ideazione di un'opera, passando per la progettazione e la realizzazione fino alla sua fase di uso, identifica tale metodologia come strumento a supporto della gestione di tutto il ciclo di vita delle opere civili. Il BIM risponde a pieno alle esigenze delle imprese di costruzioni che oggi si trovano ad affrontare realizzazioni di opere sempre più complesse con una richiesta di prestazioni sempre più elevata in uno scenario di crisi del settore. Pertanto, il controllo accurato delle quantità, dei costi e il monitoraggio contestuale dei tempi, tramite la gestione del cronoprogramma integrata con il modello BIM, sono le potenzialità che maggiormente hanno catturato l'interesse da parte di ACEN nell'affrontare questo tema di ricerca. L'attività di studio e ricerca sul BIM è stata integrata al tema dello sviluppo sostenibile del settore delle costruzioni, incentrato sull'implementazione di strumenti a supporto dei professionisti per facilitare il processo di decision making in un'ottica di riduzione degli impatti ambientali delle opere civili. La sostenibilità e l'eco-compatibilità dei materiali e dei processi produttivi dell'edilizia, sono oggi criteri che influenzano tutto il settore, a partire dalle strategie politiche di investimento fino a diventare parametri di preferenza per l'aggiudicazione di gare d'appalto. Da alcuni anni si sono infatti sviluppati diversi strumenti per la valutazione e la certificazione della sostenibilità nel campo dell'edilizia, come i sistemi di rating (es. LEED e Itaca), che risultano molto utilizzati anche nella pratica professionale. Un'altra metodologia che sta avendo una forte affermazione nel settore edilizio, soprattutto nell'industria di prodotto, è il Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). Tale strumento permette di valutare gli impatti sull'ambiente di un prodotto o un processo, durante tutto il suo ciclo di vita, tenendo conto della fase di estrazione dei materiali, della fase di produzione e/o realizzazione, della fase di uso e, infine, della fase di dismissione o riciclo. Tale approccio alla valutazione degli impatti ambientali è anche noto come "from cradle to grave", espressione anglosassone che evidenzia in maniera esaustiva la filosofia life cycle-oriented. La metodologia LCA è dunque molto diffusa per la valutazione degli impatti sull'ambiente dei singoli materiali o dei processi produttivi industriali, ma non è ancora molto utilizzata per valutare gli impatti di sistemi complessi come le opere civili. Quest'aspetto, approfondito durante la trattazione, è determinato dalla forte complessità nel condurre tali analisi e dall'enorme quantità di dati e di informazioni da reperire e gestire. La gestione della complessità delle analisi LCA attraverso gli strumenti offerti dalla progettazione integrata BIM rappresenta sicuramente il minimo comune denominatore di tutte le attività seguite, svolte ed infine rappresentate nel presente elaborato. L'obiettivo di gestire valutazioni di impatto ambientale LCA-based con la metodologia BIM è quello di ampliare il campo delle ipotesi progettuali e del decision making degli operatori del settore delle costruzioni in modo tale da progettare e realizzare opere volte al minor impatto sull'ambiente. Un altro caso applicativo, di tale integrazione, è stato trattato con riferimento al consolidamento degli edifici esistenti ed in particolare alla valutazione di LCA di diverse tecniche di intervento per il rinforzo sismico per il raggiungimento del miglioramento e adeguamento sismico. E' ben noto che in Italia il patrimonio edilizio è caratterizzato da un'elevata vulnerabilità e gli ultimi eventi sismici, che hanno interessato il territorio nazionale, hanno confermato tale stato di degrado. Sebbene alcune aree italiane siano state classificate come sismiche già dalle ultime decadi del ventesimo secolo, negli edifici esistenti, si riscontrano sistematicamente regole sismiche di progetto obsolete che non sono in grado di assicurare un adeguato livello di sicurezza. Le strutture in cemento armato, realizzate prima delle moderne norme antisismiche, che rappresentano una parte significativa dell'edilizia italiana, sono state progettate per resistere primariamente ai carichi verticali, il che comporta scarsa qualità dei materiali, mancanza di cura nei dettagli costruttivi e soprattutto una ridotta quantità di armatura trasversale. I dati ISTAT del 14° censimento della popolazione e degli edifici hanno rilevato che per il solo costruito in cemento armato il 35% degli edifici sono stati costruiti prima dell'emanazione della Legge 2/2/74 n.64, in cui compaiono le prime disposizioni in materia antisismica. Il dato diventa ancora più allarmante se si considera che solo nel 2003, con l'emanazione dell'O.P.C.M. 3274, è stata effettuata una riclassificazione sismica del territorio italiano e sono comparse prescrizioni sismiche di moderna concezione. E' lecito ritenere che la maggior parte delle strutture esistenti soffrono di carenze strutturali e quindi necessitano di interventi di rinforzo sismico. Tuttavia il forte interesse per la riqualificazione degli edifici esistenti non nasce solo da una spingente necessità strutturale ma anche dall'andamento degli investimenti nell'industria delle costruzioni. In Italia, infatti, l'industria delle costruzioni mostra una diminuzione degli investimenti di circa il 32,1% dal 2008 al 2014 destinati alla realizzazione di nuove opere; di contro, si registra un aumento di investimenti per il recupero delle costruzioni esistenti di circa il 17% dal 2008 al 2014 [1] (CRESME ricerche SPA, 2014). Per tali motivi si è scelto di dedicare una particolare attenzione allo studio della vulnerabilità sismica di un edificio esistente che rispecchia le caratteristiche di una parte del costruito presente sul territorio italiano; lo studio è stato corredato da valutazione di LCA delle tecniche di rinforzo sismico con l'obiettivo di condurre un'analisi comparativa delle stesse. Quest'ultimo aspetto ha conferito alla parte di adeguamento e miglioramento sismico una connotazione innovativa e assolutamente in linea con le nuove necessità di protezione e controllo dell'ambiente. L'elaborato di tesi si articola, quindi, in cinque capitoli di cui si riporta una breve discussione del contenuto. Il Capitolo 1 illustra nel dettaglio la metodologia BIM, le sue potenzialità e i campi di applicazioni nella gestione della progettazione, nella realizzazione dell'opera, nell'organizzazione del cantiere e nella fase di gestione post operam (Facility Management). Si affrontano, inoltre, i diversi livelli di dettaglio della modellazione BIM comparandoli con i livelli di progettazione previsti dalla normativa italiana. Il Capitolo 2 affronta la modellazione di oggetti BIM, in particolare, della categoria di elementi strutturali e non strutturali. Per i primi si illustra come caso applicativo quello di un pilastro caratterizzato dai parametri relativi alle caratteristiche meccaniche e geometriche; mentre per gli elementi non strutturali si descrive la modellazione di un serramento per esterni e stratigrafia di una pavimentazione. Il Capitolo 3 descrive un caso di studio rappresentato da un'opera di nuova costruzione progettata in maniera tradizionale mediante un approccio CAD-oriented e riprogettata mediante un approccio BIM-oriented. Il progetto fa riferimento alla costruzione della Cassa Edile di Napoli inserita nel contesto della Cittadella dei Servizi degli Enti Paritetici di Napoli. Tale intervento prende vigore dalle intuizioni di Luigi Cosenza che progettò la Cittadella circa cinquant'anni fa, ma che fu realizzata solo in parte. Il progetto e tutta la documentazione sono stati messi a disposizione da ACEN. Il Capitolo 4 descrive un framework per integrare nella metodologia BIM analisi di impatto ambientale LCA-oriented. Dopo un'articolata disamina della procedura LCA, è descritta la metodologia d'interpretazione dei risultati IMPACT2002+. In tale attività si è sviluppato un prototipo di tool software che permette di effettuare analisi di LCA direttamente dal computo metrico dei materiali e delle lavorazioni necessarie per la realizzazione di un'opera. Tale attività nasce dalla collaborazione tra il Dipartimento di Strutture per l'Ingegneria e l'Architettura dell'Università Federico II di Napoli, il Consorzio TRE (Tecnologie per il Recupero Edilizio), il centro di ricerca AMRA (Analisi e Monitoraggio del Rischio Ambientale) e la società ACCA Software nell'ambito del progetto VINCES (Valutazione Integrata del Ciclo di vita per l'Edilizia Sostenibile). Nel Capitolo 5 si presenta una metodologia BIM-based di valutazione degli impatti ambientali relativi a diverse strategie progettuali di rinforzo sismico su una struttura esistente. La metodologia è applicata ad un caso di studio, per il quale, si è condotto preliminarmente un progetto simulato per ottenere tutti i dati necessari alla valutazione di vulnerabilità sismica di un edificio tipo mediante analisi statica non lineare. Note le crisi strutturali è stato realizzato il progetto di consolidamento strutturale mediante l'utilizzo di diverse tecniche di rinforzo sismico volte all'ottenimento sia del miglioramento sia dell'adeguamento sismico. Una volta noti gli interventi di rinforzo necessari, sono state condotte analisi di LCA degli stessi e sono state effettate analisi comparative che hanno consentito di individuare, tra tutte le tipologie di intervento, quella con il minor impatto ambientale.

Poverty alleviation strategies in developing countries have long focused on the monetary aspects of this phenomenon by promoting "pro-growth" measures as the most reliable and credible way to eradicate extreme poverty. But given the complexity of poverty phenomenon and especially facing the insufficiency of results observed after more than two decades of funding efforts, one have witnessed in the early 2000s, a reorientation of the strategies to multidimensional considerations of poverty. Since that time, poverty is not apprehended only from income, but also from a set of elements related to the capacity of individuals, their potentialities as well as opportunities available to them. This new paradigm, based on the notion of poverty of capability, finds one of its operational translations into the intervention strategy of "Multifunctional Platforms Program" (MFP). This program is currently implemented in several Sub-Saharan Africa countries and is supported by many development actors given its potential role in achieving the MDGs. Intervening in a "Community Driven Development" approach, the MFP concept aims to provide elements of response to the multiple problems associated with the low energy access in rural areas. Through the development of the small units of energy production in the villages, the MFP program focuses on gender-based approach, women capacity building and economic empowerment. Although launched in the 1990s in Mali, this program had, hitherto, been subject to no rigorous impact evaluation while efficiency and results requirement become fundamental criteria in the selection and the funding of development programs. By adopting an evaluation gait, this thesis aims, first, to question the effectiveness of MFP program in the fight against poverty. The potential impact of the program on poverty theoretically pass through time saving on productive activities, which can be allocated to income generating activities (for women) and to human capital formation for children (health and education). For evaluating relevance and effectiveness of such intervention approach requires first to understand individual's time allocation behaviors and choices. Hence, the thesis is organized in two parts. The first two chapters are devoted to the estimation of the impact of MFP program on women's economic activity indicators and children's health and education indicators. Given the history and the design of program's implementation in Mali, two approaches are used, the pipeline approach and the Double-Difference. In each of these approaches, we identify two types of effects: the effect expected from the presence of program (Intent-To-Treat Effect) and the participation effect (Treatment Effect on Treated). The different estimations made in this chapter validate the time saving hypothesis associated with program utilization. Indeed, we find a very significant impact of program on time spent by women in economic activities. Also, we can identify a significant impact on the probability of schooling and learning time of school-age children. However, the impact on nutritional status indicators of children under five years is not conclusive because of the ambiguity of the direction of causality of these indicators with our various treatment variables. It appears that neither the time saved from the use of platforms nor the potential increase in mother's income are significantly favorable nutritional status of children. 9 In the second part, we prolong the analysis beyond the scope of impact evaluation in order to explore and better understand the mechanisms driving the choice of time allocation within the households. In the third chapter, we examine the relationship between schooling and child labor, which are two distinct choices of time allocation of children (between human capital formation and labor force for household productive needs). The chapter aims to empirically test the degree of trade-off between these two choices taking into account the living conditions of household. Our results show very strong negative correlation between decisions of schooling and child work, thus showing an inherent competition between these choices. Concerning the influence of living conditions on child labor, we find that, contrary to economic activities that appear very flexible to change in household wealth, child time allocation to non-economic work is much more rigid to this changes. By deepening analysis on gender disparities in access to education and in the demand of child labor, we show, by Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition method that disparities between girls and boys in the allocation time are mainly due to unobservable parental preference for educating of boys rather than girls. In the last chapter presented as case study, we analyze the socioeconomic determinants of women's time allocation. We find that women's decision to participate in the labor market depends heavily on the level of access to basic infrastructure. Although the economic rationality hypothesis in the allocation of time is not rejected (wage rate signal), we find that time allocation choices are strongly influenced by purely social and cultural considerations. The main results of this thesis support the idea on the importance of infrastructure in poverty alleviation. The positive effect of MFP program on indicators of economic activity of women and on children education justifies the relevance of the "MFP" initiative in the fight against poverty. The PTFM program is a development tool that plays a similar role to that of classical infrastructures. However, the positive impact detected here from MFP program is also subject to the complexity of time allocation choices in the households, particularly for women and children. It appears necessary to accompany the implementation of platforms by more stringent educational policies or conversely more incentives to permit that time savings obtained through access energy can be translated into more important choices for schooling particularly for girls. ; Les stratégies de lutte contre la pauvreté dans les pays en développement ont été longtemps axées sur les dimensions monétaires de celle-ci en prônant des mesures " pro-croissance " comme la voie la plus fiable et la plus crédible pour éradiquer l'extrême pauvreté. Mais compte tenu de la complexité du phénomène de pauvreté et surtout face à l'insuffisance des résultats constatée après plus de deux décennies d'efforts de financement, on a assisté, au début des années 2000, à une réorientation de l'approche de la pauvreté vers des considérations multidimensionnelles. Depuis lors, la pauvreté n'est plus appréhendée à partir seulement du revenu, mais aussi à partir d'un ensemble d'éléments relatifs aux capacités des individus, aux potentialités ainsi qu'aux opportunités à leur portée. Ce nouveau paradigme, fondé sur la notion de pauvreté des capacités, trouve une traduction opérationnelle dans la stratégie d'intervention du programme " Plateformes Multifonctionnelles " (PTFM). Ce programme est aujourd'hui implanté dans plusieurs pays d'Afrique Sub-Saharienne et soutenu par de nombreux acteurs du développement compte tenu de son rôle potentiel dans la réalisation des OMD. S'inscrivant dans une démarche de "Community Driven Development ", le concept PTFM vise à apporter un élément de réponse aux nombreuses problématiques associées à la faiblesse d'accès à l'énergie. A travers le développement de petites unités de production énergétique en milieu rural, le programme PTFM privilégie une approche fondée sur le genre, le renforcement des capacités et l'autonomisation des femmes. Bien que lancé dans les années 1990 au Mali, ce programme n'avait, jusque-là, fait l'objet d'aucune évaluation d'impact rigoureuse alors que l'exigence d'efficacité est un critère fondamental dans la sélection et le financement de programmes de développement. Partant ainsi d'une démarche d'évaluation, cette thèse vise d'abord à questionner l'efficacité du programme PTFM dans la lutte contre la pauvreté. L'impact potentiel du programme PTFM sur la pauvreté passe théoriquement par un gain de temps qui est ensuite alloué à des activités génératrices de revenus (pour les femmes) et à la formation du capital humain des enfants (santé et éducation). Evaluer la pertinence et l'efficacité d'une telle approche amène à s'interroger en amont sur la nature des comportements et les choix des individus en matière d'allocation du temps. La thèse est organisée en deux parties. Les deux premiers chapitres sont consacrés à l'estimation de l'impact du programme PTFM sur des indicateurs de l'activité économique des femmes et des indicateurs de santé et de scolarité des enfants. Compte-tenu de l'histoire de l'implantation du programme au Mali, deux approches sont utilisées, celle des entrées-échelonnées (pipeline approach) et celle de la Double-Différence. Dans chacune des approches, nous identifions deux types d'effets: l'effet espéré du programme (Intention-To-Treat Effect) et l'effet de la participation au programme (Treatment Effect on Treated). Les différentes estimations réalisées permettent de valider l'hypothèse de gain de temps lié à l'utilisation des plateformes. Nous trouvons, en effet un impact très significatif du programme sur le temps consacré par les femmes aux activités économiques. Nous pouvons également identifier un impact significatif sur la probabilité de scolarisation et le temps 7 d'apprentissage des enfants en âge scolaire. En revanche, l'impact sur les indicateurs du statut nutritionnel des enfants de moins de cinq ans n'est pas concluant du fait de l'ambiguïté du sens de la causalité de ces indicateurs avec nos différentes variables de traitement. Il apparait que ni le gain de temps tiré de l'utilisation des PTFM, ni l'accroissement potentiel de revenus des mères ne sont significativement favorables à l'état nutritionnel des enfants. Dans la seconde partie, nous prolongeons le cadre de l'évaluation pour mieux explorer les mécanismes de choix d'allocation de temps au sein des ménages. Dans le troisième chapitre, nous examinons la relation entre scolarisation et travail des enfants qui sont deux choix distincts d'allocation du temps des enfants entre formation du capital humain et main d'oeuvre pour des besoins productifs du ménage. Le chapitre vise à tester empiriquement le degré d'arbitrage entre ces deux choix compte-tenu du niveau de vie du ménage. Nos résultats montrent une corrélation très fortement négative entre les deux décisions, montrant ainsi une concurrence intrinsèque entre ces choix. S'agissant de l'influence du niveau de vie sur la demande de travail des enfants, nous trouvons que, contrairement aux activités économiques qui apparaissent très flexibles à la variation du niveau de vie du ménage, l'allocation de temps pour les travaux non-économiques est beaucoup plus rigide. Approfondissant la nature des disparités de genre dans l'accès à la scolarisation et la demande de travail des enfants, nous montrons, par une méthode de décomposition à la Oaxaca-Blinder que les disparités observées entre les filles et les garçons dans l'allocation du temps sont essentiellement dues à une préférence inobservable des parents pour la scolarisation des garçons plutôt que des filles. Dans le dernier chapitre, nous analysons les déterminants socioéconomiques de l'allocation du temps des femmes à partir d'une étude de cas. Nous trouvons que la décision des femmes de participer au marché du travail dépend très fortement du niveau d'accès aux infrastructures de base. Bien que l'hypothèse de rationalité économique dans l'allocation de temps ne soit pas rejetée (signal du taux de salaire), nous trouvons que les choix sont fortement influencés par des considérations purement sociales et culturelles. Les principaux résultats obtenus dans cette thèse accréditent l'importance des infrastructures dans la lutte contre la pauvreté. L'effet positif du programme PTFM sur les indicateurs d'activité économique des femmes et sur la scolarisation des enfants justifie la pertinence de l'initiative " PTFM " dans la lutte contre la pauvreté. Le programme PTFM est un outil de développement qui joue un rôle équivalent à celui des infrastructures. Cependant, l'impact positif du programme PTFM est subordonné à la complexité des choix d'allocation de temps dans les ménages, notamment en ce qui concerne les femmes et les enfants. Il apparaît nécessaire d'accompagner l'implantation des PTFM par des politiques éducatives plus contraignantes ou au contraire plus incitatives, afin que les gains de temps obtenus par l'accès à l'énergie mécanique puissent se traduire en des choix en faveur de la scolarisation plus importante des filles.

This work focuses on a subject that has been of constant interest and continuing centrality in the political agendas of different national legal systems: the procedural simplification that can be ascribable to the species of interventions that belong to the broader genus of the change of public administration'. Since the '70s, the transformation of public administration, among other different possibilities, chose the ambiguous and winding path of simplification. It has been taken as a guiding principle for the entire legal system and as a prevailing logic for the process of redesigning and restructuring the administrative organization and action. Administrative simplification was a 'fashionable' topic in the '90s, and since then a 'central block' and 'driving force' of both EU and national public policies, thus becoming a technical and cultural process for reforming administration. Its aim is 'to give it a more suitable shape that is tailored to the needs of society' for which its services are indeed intended. The procedural simplification is a topic of overnational interest that in several jurisdictions has been gradually occupying larger and larger spaces in the definition of public policies, according to the shared view that the simplification of the regulatory and administrative system is a fundamental condition for of socio-economic growth. Thanks to the awareness of the notion of 'administrative risk', or rather, the sensitive 'mutual dependence' between political-administrative and economic system, as Borruso noted in the preface to the European Commission Communication Europe 2020. A strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth, the administrative simplification measures and, in particular, administrative procedures, have been dominating for a long time the political, legal, economic and social debates. Moreover, they are intended to occupy significant spaces in the near future, inasmuch as they are directed to keep within a threshold of 'tolerance' the inevitable organizational and functional complexity of an administration built on the principles of institutional pluralism, subsidiarity, competence and specialization, indispensability journalistic intervention, not to say of binding formalism. By establishing itself as a legal and social requirement to guarantee an administrative action that would be 'simpler, more effective, more efficient and more economical' for citizens, and by changing its status from mere collective aspiration to legal claim, the simplification of administrative procedures is an multi-faceted and poly-dimensional objective that the national legislature has pursued through different strategic actions, among which, the computerization process has been taking a central role. Not surprisingly, the development of digital administration has been considered by many as the most effective tool to simplify administrative action and respond to the issue of procedural complication. It has been sees as a process of 'review of the administrative structures and their organizational links, [.] redefinition of tasks and optimization of the capacity for work in the offices, thus achieving a reduction of the steps and the time required for the performance of administrative acting, which is what the simplification of procedures consists of. A theme which, in the first instance, concerns the balance between interests and principles. Inevitable corollary to administrative impartiality, organizational structure and the distribution of skills, the procedural complexity, which is questioned for the number of its steps and intra-procedures activities, for the time taken to achieve them and the red tape that affects citizens, it is a challenge to be answered, in general, through the use of computerization and communication tools. It is a challenge to be carried out with the accurate use of computerization and communication technologies. First of all, as its digitization is able to give an adequate response to the need to combine functional demands and requirements of simplification and rebalance the relationship between the end-protection guarantee of the interest and the duty of non-compression 'effectiveness, efficiency and economy of action that is traditionally made explicit while making the decision. From this remark, the added value that the process of computerization has shown in the policies of simplification can be understood precisely by evaluating in a negative way, how, the simplification of the administrative proceedings 'cannot be prosecuted by dequotando (non so cosa vuol dire) and debunking the rules of procedure whose positivization has represented a civilized procedural achievement. The extra value of the process of computerization among the techniques of procedural simplification – we have already said – is 'integration' between the principles of effectiveness, efficiency and economy, of certainty of timing, transparency of administrative action; the ability to overcome the limits that are connected to this principle and process of public administration reform, summarized in the principle of 'contradictory', participation, impartiality, and the necessary complete investigation; in the introduction of better modes of interaction, enabling faster and more effective relationships with participants and a greater guarantee of legal claims. In short, it consists of the ability to re-balance, at the procedural level, the relationship between the needs of the function and the requirements of guarantee of the action, often 'unbalanced ' in favor of one or the other. The 'revolutionary' aspect that we identify in the electronic administrative procedure is actually the result of a process that first passes through the definition of new information systems. The object of technological revolution is indeed information. The revolutionary aspect of computerization administration is the dynamic management of information and the possible reality of interconnected information systems that are integrated and shared, which does not mean less safe. And the verbal synthesis of a technological simplified action is the digital administrative proceedings . The digital simplification of the administrative procedure is the product of different methods of collection, use, access, transmission and communication of information, all technology-based. And administrative digital procedure is nothing but a decision-making process that takes advantage of the tools that technology puts at governments and citizens disposal. 'Neutral' tools that the legislature adopts for political purposes aiming at simplification and exercise of the rights. Tools that, precisely because they are neutral, will act in terms of reducing procedural complexity according to the quantum assumed while legislative determining, on the one hand, and enforcement by public authorities on the other. From this perspective we must look at the tools that legislators, Italian as well as Spanish, have outlined in order to give the electronically processed work the same effectiveness as the one carried out traditionally and in order to fulfill the obligation of information management procedures: from the discipline of electronic documents and the electronic signature, to the discipline of registering incoming and outgoing communications through an automated system; from the rules of the communications of documents between public administrations through the use of electronic mail to the rules for the direct acquisition of data and documents in the digital archives of public administrations; and again, to the provisions of a computer file, taken in the path as the 'centerpiece of the new mode of conducting administrative proceedings'. From this remark, the same computer file, created by national legislature as 'informative base' needed for a contextual work and shared between different subjects, 'fulfilled' with the expectations of simplification of the action and relationships, of the 'right to be known' of action both on the domestic side as on the external side, suggests, of course, a 'new' management process, but it remains only in the domain of attempt to reform if not accompanied by concrete implementation by individual administrations. It is their duty to start the processes of re-organization in order to manage the 'new' procedure based on shared information and transparent activities; on direct and immediate relationships; on a different value of time and space; on a simpler, more effective, efficient and economical, and at the same time, more able to guarantee rights and interests. The practical and proper application of these tools remains responsibility of each administration, asked to face the real challenge of procedural innovation. The following research is based on this fundamental interpretation and its methodological approach is developed, at first, starting from the acknowledgement of the legal category of the administrative procedure, the reconstruction of the lines of development and legal aspects that make of this administrative point as both action and organization, the place and the best opportunity to study the topic. Secondly, the working hypothesis is outlined. Starting from the construction of the simplification of the administrative procedure as recognition of a 'right' balance between complexity and simplicity of the action, the work continues by electing computerization as a 'form' of simplification that is able to envisage a possible solution for the problem of quality decision-making, resulting from the balance between the quantum and guarantees of effectiveness and efficiency of the action. In a third passage, we deal with the administrative digital proceedings, with particular attention to the developments which, from different management information mechanisms can derived in terms of modes of action that can develop horizontally, network-like or shared among stakeholders of the exercise of power. Finally, on the same lines, the work is enriched by the experience of the Spanish structure, in order to strengthen the thoughts on digital simplification of the procedure from a comparative perspective, which is always essential for the development of the research. From this point of view, the analysis of different time frequency of the stages of computerization in the two systems is an important key. The comparative analysis, despite showing an initial protagonism of the Italian legislator who, with the adoption of Digital Administration Code, anticipated a correct vision of modernization and initiated the 'transformation' of digital government, displays, in a second stage, a slowdown in the process, whereas it has a reverse path in the Spanish system, which, after assimilating the Italian model, proved able to proceed to the state of implementation with a more sustained dynamism and in shorter time. In the Spanish system what played an important role was the 'codification' of the awareness of the need for a transition phase, in which the digital system coexisted side by side with the paper-based system rather than automatically superseding it. This phase based on flexibitly proved to be effective for the change in the administrative system. First as a system of relations of public and private entities. Precisely this relational paradigm, in the analysis that is proposed here, has been the core of the thesis. This paradigm is both a thread of the investigation and the space where all the different approaches and issues related to procedural matters converge. The democratic nature of the administrative action, the implementation of the principles of impartiality and the participation in the Administrative Procedure Law, the introduction and the vindication of private sector criteria of efficiency, effectiveness and economy of the public actions are the background to the conclusion that the procedural simplification is primarily 'simplification of the interaction'. All these elements also frame the structural and functional reorganization that the digitization process requires, and, at the same time, develops, in an eminently relational perspective; of a 'new' way of building and developing inner relationships within the administration, between different administrations and between them and the citizens.

This report covers basic descriptions and characteristics of the equine sector, including statistics on number of horses, horse farms, employment, current structure and recent dynamics in the horse sector in Finland, Latvia and Sweden and also the mobility (e.g. trade, import, export and tourism) within the Central Baltic Region. The information was gathered through literature reviews, round table discussions and interviews with equine organisations and stakeholders, and through visits to farms with equine business activities in each of the three countries. Horses in Finland, Latvia and Sweden At the moment the horse population in Finland is growing steadily. In 2010 there were about 75 000 horses. Most of these are warm-blooded trotting horses, but riding horses are becoming increasingly popular as riding as a hobby increases in popularity. Approximately 35 000 people own at least one horse and co-ownership is becoming a common way of owning a horse with relatively small costs and responsibilities, especially among trotting sports. There are approximately 16 000 stables, of which over 3 000 are business orientated. These numbers are still only estimates, because Finland is lacking a comprehensive register of stables and stable enterprises. Although statistical data on the number of horses, breeds, herds, stables etc. are being collected and are available in Latvia, there is still a lack of statistical data that characterise the sector in relation to employment, provide an idea of the financial results, and characterise horse uses for tourism or therapy purposes. For example, there are no data on the number of people working with horses. This is perhaps related to the perception of the sector as being located within the context of horse breeding. Statistical data show that the number of horses in Latvia in general has decreased, from 15 250 in 2005 to 11 476 in 2012, and the current trends indicate that it could decrease even more. The number of livestock has decreased correspondingly, from 9814 in 2005 to 5577 in 2012. More than 84% of all farms have 1 to 5 horses, and only a few farms have more than 100 horses. The number of horses in Sweden decreased in the early 1920s from about 700 000 to about 70 000 in the 1970s. During the past 30 years the number of horses has increased tremendously, but the trend seems to be stagnated the last few years. Today there are approximately 362 700 horses and about 20% of all horses in Sweden are within business establishments. The number of horses per 1 000 habitants is 39 for the whole country and Sweden is now estimated to have the second highest density of horses per capita in Europe. There are approximately 77 800 establishments involving horses in Sweden. The equine businesses have on average 4.7 horses and provide full-time or part-time work for a total of 25 000 people. About two-thirds of those working with horses are women. Horse related legislation in Finland, Latvia and Sweden Environmental legislation is one of the broadest judicial systems in Finland. It consists of a number of different laws and regulations, relating to waste disposal, water protection, environmental protection, land use and construction. After EU membership, environmental legislation in Finland was harmonised with EC (European Community) legislation, especially in the case of environmental protection and conservation. The main environmental legislation concerning the horse sector in Finland consists of following laws, directives and regulations: 1) Environmental protection law and regulation, 2) Waste law and regulation, 3) EU waste incineration directive, 4) By-product regulation, 5) Nitrate regulation, 6) Law concerning dead animals in remote areas, 7) The law on processing household water in remote areas, 8) Health protection law and regulation, 9) Fertilizer law, 10) Conservation law, 11) Land use and construction law and 12) Law about neighbourliness. According to the requirements of the Ministry of Agriculture, the policy of the horse breeding sector in Latvia is based on: a) Horse breeding is performed according to the targets stated in the breeding programme, which are based on production of high quality animals, preservation and improvement of the genotype through purposeful use of the breeding stock and improvement of horse monitoring, b) The importance of the development of horses and equestrian sports within the framework of the common agricultural policy is emphasised in order to encourage development of the rural environment, and c) Horse breeding is compliant with welfare regulations. National and European Union aid for the development of the agricultural sector is allocated to horse breeding too. Most of it consists of aid for breeding measures in the equine sector. Currently there are no specific regulations in Latvia which define requirements for keeping horses. Horse breeding is not distinguished separately within the field of animal welfare in Latvia and therefore the main document is the Animal Protection Law. Its norms are general, while Cabinet Regulation No 959 ´Welfare Requirements for the Keeping and Training of Sport, Work and Exhibition Animals and Use Thereof in Competitions, Work or Exhibitions´ does not specify actions with horses and can easily be interpreted in different ways. There is no measurable evaluation system to assess fulfilment of the requirements in the Cabinet Regulations. The law stipulates the actions and activities which may be undertaken with an animal and those which are strictly forbidden and lists the institutions that should supervise compliance with the law and the welfare requirements. Latvia lacks the basis of normative documents that would specifically regulate personal safety in the horse breeding sector and in businesses related to horse use. Therefore the common normative basis has to be considered, the foundation of which is the ´Labour Protection Law´. The foundation of Swedish environmental legislation is the Swedish Environmental Code. The purpose of the Swedish Environmental Code is to promote sustainable development which will assure a healthy and sound environment for present and future generations. The Code is a legislative framework based on a number of fundamental principles permeating international environmental protection and resource management. These include the "precautionary" principle, the "polluter pays" principle, the "product choice" principle and principles governing resource management, natural cycles and appropriate siting of industrial (and other) operations and remedial measures. The main environmental legislation in Sweden concerning the horse sector consists of the following laws, directives, ordinances and regulations: 1) Environmental Code, 2) Ordinance concerning environmentally hazardous activities and the protection of public health, 3) Ordinance on environmental consideration in agriculture, 4) Nitrate directive, 5) Water directive, 6) Swedish guidance on storage and spreading of manure, 7) Regulation on environmental consideration in agriculture as regards plant nutrients, 8) Ordinance on inspection and enforcement according to the Environmental Code, 9) Ordinance on self-inspection by operators, 10) Ordinance on animal by-products, 11) Ordinance on fees for examination and supervision under the Environmental Code and the fees ordinance, 12) Regulations on the protection of the environment, in particular the soil, when sewage sludge is used in agriculture, 13) Regulations on consideration for natural and cultural values in agriculture, 14) Ordinance on environmental penalty charge, 15) The Planning and Building Ordinance, 16) The Land Code. In Sweden the occupational safety and health issues in general are regulated in the Work Environmental Act (SFS 1977:1160), in the Work Environmental Ordinance (SFS 1977:1166) and in several provisions. There is no specific legislation regarding occupational health and safety in the horse sector. However, these issues are included in the provision Working with animals (SFS 2008:17). Some results of the round table discussions in Finland, Latvia and Sweden In general, the participants in round table discussions in Finland were hoping for concrete solutions and examples of low-cost and easy help for everyday businesses. Entrepreneurs with lower profitability need more support, but the challenge is to get them involved in education or advisory events. The riding sector at least is much divided, with some businesses having as many customers as they can serve, and others who are constantly on the edge of bankruptcy. To help those small and medium-sized enterprises that need help the most, the project should produce advice that can immediately be used in practice, and concrete results and solutions. The problem with small and medium-sized businesses is the lack of capital and the related impossibility of investing large amounts of money in new technologies or large-scale facilities. In this sector the profitability and competitiveness are often low, but small changes in operations could improve these. Many business owners are still lacking business skills and they may not see what they could use as a competitive advantage. The current understanding of the equine sector in Latvia has to be reconsidered or a better understanding has to be created. Therefore the policy guidelines and the aid to the sector will have to be reviewed. For example, according to the view of the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Latvia, the equine sector only concerns breeding and accordingly state aid is predominantly provided for this purpose. The Latvian Horse Breeding Association also considers breeding to be its priority, but several representatives of the tourism industry expressed the opinion that horse breeding should be reconsidered, paying special attention to the Latvian horse breed, which could be interesting for foreign and local tourists as a special feature of Latvia. Latvian breed horses possess a nature and traits that make them suitable for tourism and also therapeutic riding purposes. The equine sector in Latvia in general lacks a clear direction for orientation, what should be bred, what might be a profitable product or an exportable product. Since this is not clear on a national scale, it is difficult to discuss aid instruments. The people working in the sector often lack skills in project preparation, they do not have time to learn and study it all, and therefore it is difficult to apply for and to receive the aid. In order to solve this, it is usual practice to involve companies that prepare the project application. Other entrepreneurs try to master these skills themselves. The horse sector in Sweden is now on a downward trend, pointing out the decreased number of served mares. The horse businesses need to streamline their business ideas, look for better locations (closer to customers) and the activities offered must be more adapted to customer needs and demands, such as different types of activities and livery stables with more specialist services or diversified food production. In general, horse stables will have a lot of opportunities in the sector if they can keep up with the changes in the sector. The interest in Sweden regarding keeping horses and attending riding sports was perceived to be decreasing and it was thought that there is a system change underway. The way to keep horses in the future may not be the same as it used to be. People are not willing to sacrifice time and efforts to keep on with horses any more, people are getting older and there is limited recruitment of young people into the sector. The horse activities mainly take place in urban and periurban areas.

Work shown as part of 'Mind Rhymes', curated by Tom Benson at Hidde van Seggelen Gallery, London Mind Rhymes Curated by Tom Benson 24 July – 31 August 2013 This show is about ideas, likes and dislikes. And as far as we can know anything about anyone else, it's dependant on how much we can put ourselves in the place of the other, of their likes and dislikes. It's more or less a form of collaboration. Tom Benson: So, two characters in the background would be Marcel Duchamp and John Cage. John Cage having written a piece of music called Music for Marcel Duchamp for a film by Hans Richter, with a little excerpt in it on Duchamp. It was one of the very, very early prepared piano pieces by Cage and it's a relatively short piece, but in it. I've thought for a long time that it encapsulates a particular quality, which is a quality of thought happening rather than having happened. There are points, in the way that the rhythm is built up and held, where it hovers before some sort of direction is taken. I didn't think to look up very much about the piece when I first heard it, but when I finally did, years later, I was surprised to discover that it was one of the first pieces that Cage had written where he deliberately tried to explore silence in a structured way. So there are bars of silence and bars of sound. These gaps, or these spaces, were spaces that I felt somehow offered me the ability to enter into the piece with my own thinking. Spaces for thought, if you will, within the music, rather than a wall of sound that is all-invading. And also with Cage, as we know, there is an interest in the I Ching and various strategies that were used to generate musical compositions that would remove him to some extent from a more authoritative position of his own subjectivity. The idea of the grid—I was struggling with how to bring a number of disparate works together into a space and give them the same space. It was a question of how to address the space as well as the works within it, in a subtle but determined way. I was thinking about devising a band system, so there would be three bands, a tripartite division running horizontally around the space. It could be black, white, grey, whatever. It would give me different tiers to include works that could exist above, along side, in parallel, askance from other works. But I thought that that would almost be too crude. A much, much simpler way was just a very lightly drawn, using a 4H pencil, linear grid that would run across all the wall surfaces from floor to ceiling, that would give a more planular space, a more extensive space, so that it didn't feel—because of the proportion, because it's 50 centimetres across every facet of the space—it wouldn't feel like, 'that's at the top, and that's at the bottom'. Just, 'it's located on the grid'. It equalises the space. For the name of the show, I was first thinking along the lines of 'rhyme and reason', rather than 'rhyme or reason', to include the analytic and conceptual as well as the emotive and the subjective. Because it seems to me that some of the most interesting works do that - however obdurate they might be, there is a sort of feeling of a mind at work, the mind that brought that thing into existence. But in having a dialogue with so many artists about their work and realising that I was being shown things I wouldn't have thought about otherwise, and also in being slightly worried that 'rhyme and reason' sounded almost too clear and understandable. to come across this term 'mind rhyme'—which does exist—I thought was fantastic, because it included both the conceptual and the poetic, the rhyme and the reason, but in a much more interesting way. A mind rhyme is a situation set up through language, poetry, rhyming, where the mind will anticipate the word that's coming next. So it's possible to have a joke, a pun, an innuendo. A lot of these things revolve around a mind rhyme. But I was more thinking about, if you like, a visual mind rhyme, where you are presented with one artist's work, and you might begin to develop an understanding of that work, but because of what else is situated with it, you are somewhat confounded, or are lead to a point where there's a kind of bifurcation, or split, and the directions are unpredictable. It creates another type of gap for the mind to work with, a space between what might have been anticipated and all kinds of unexpected associations. In thinking about another person's work, it enters into my frame of reference and it becomes sort of a touchstone, and an important thing. It influences my own thinking. It's a form of collaboration. — As told to Kyra Kordoski Jenna Bliss uses video, performance, sound and text, to navigate public spheres intimately through letter writing and ambivalent fandom. Dreaming of singularity and collectivity simultaneously, she creates and then destroys her singular voice. Much of this work began by performing at pub open mic nights in London. Bliss recently exhibited at Woburn Slade Research Centre, London (2012); White Building [SPACE], London (2012); Piet Zwart Institute, NL (2012); and Camden Arts Centre, London (2012). She was born in Yonkers, New York, USA and currently lives and works in London. Joey Bryniarska's practice is concerned with technology, ornament, subjection, power, vitality. Within the self-reflexivity of reprographic mediums, she creates parallels between this technological food-chain and a larger system of parasitical dependency, reproduction, ornamental deceit and conditions of spectatorship. Bryniarska has exhibited at Post Box Gallery, London (2012); Collective Gallery, Edinburgh (2010); Complesso Monumentale Santo Spirito, Rome, IT (2010); and Royal Academy of Arts, London (2008). Born in Swindon, she currently lives and works in London. Céline Condorelli works, broadly speaking, with art and architecture, combining a number of approaches such as developing possibilities for 'supporting' the work of others, resulting in projects merging exhibition, politics, fiction, public space and whatever else feels urgent at the time. One of her long-term projects, Support Structure (in collaboration with Gavin Wade), has been exhibited at the Institute of Contemporary Arts, London (2008); GIL, Guangzhou, Beijing, CN (2007); and Chisenhale Gallery, London (2003). Other recent exhibitions include: Centre d'Art Contemporain de Brétigny, FR (2013); Nottingham Contemporary (2012); Victoria & Albert Museum, London (2011); Tate Modern, London (2011); and Centre Pompidou, Paris, FR (2010). Condorelli lives and works in London. Claudia Doms runs a graphic design studio and frequently collaborates with artists and editors from the UK and abroad. Since 2010 she has made a drawing a day and uses these as formal spurs for her songs, music, videos and paintings. Her work has been shown at: London Design Week (2011); Cream Espai Creatiu, Barcelona, ES (2011); Bulthaup Gallery, St. Petersburg, RU (2010); Witzenhausen Gallery, New York, USA (2010); Red October, Moscow, RU (2010); City Gallery, Tallinn, EE (2010); Meneer de Wit Gallery, Amsterdam, NL (2009); and Fondazione Sandretto Re Rebaudengo, Turin, IT (2007). Born in Germany, Doms currently lives and works in London. Kati Kärki's explorations in art have taken her through a combination of media, encompassing photography, printmaking, sculptural furniture, writing and spoken word. She has arranged discursive events, providing intimate settings for discussions about and around art. Recently she performed at Art13 London (2013), and organized a daylong event at Whitechapel Gallery, London (2013). Kärki was born in Finland and currently lives and works in London. Elizabeth McAlpine works with video, film, installation and photography. Her work often engages with ideas of temporality, the passage of time, its tones and textures, and various ways of registering it. Recent solo exhibitions include: Laura Bartlett Gallery, London (2012); Laurel Gitlen, New York, USA (2012); Eastside Projects, Birmingham (2010); and Ballina Arts Centre, IE (2007). Her work is currently on view at The Metropolitan Museum, New York, USA. Recent group exhibitions include: Royal Standard, Liverpool (2013); Perth Institute of Contemporary Arts, AU (2013); deCordova Sculpture Park and Museum, Lincoln, USA (2012); and Barbican Centre, London (2010). Born in London, McAlpine currently lives and works in London. Fay Nicolson's practice spans a set of associations around educational structures, material understanding and knowledge while approaching the difficulties of recording, coding and distributing presence and experience as information. Recent solo exhibitions include: Künstlerhaus Wien, Vienna, AT(2013); and PLAZAPLAZA, London (2012). Current group exhibitions include White Cube, Masons Yard, London (2013); and The Newbridge Project, Newcastle (2013). Other group exhibitions in 2013 include: Overgaden Institute of Contemporary Art, Copenhagen; Limoncello; and The London Art Fair, Art Projects. Born in Derby, Nicolson currently lives and works in London. Philomene Pirecki works across painting, photography, drawing, sculpture, projected image and language. Her work addresses memory, time, perception, and their representations. Pirecki often physically and conceptually references her existing works and considers how they can adapt and respond to new conditions and change over time. Recent solo exhibitions include: Green on Red Gallery, Dublin, IE (2013); MOTInternational, Brussels, BE (2012); Clockwork Gallery, Berlin, DE (2012); and Laure Genillard, London (2011). Selected group exhibitions include: Wilfried Lentz Gallery, Rotterdam, NL (2013); Wysing Art Centre, Cambridge, (2013); Supplement, London (2012); Cristina Guerra Gallery, Lisbon, PT (2012); Chelsea Space, London (2011); and The Barbican Art Gallery, London, (2010). Born in Jersey, and currently living and working in London, Pirecki founded the curatorial platform, Occassionals, a peripatetic project for artists, writers and curators to make their work public, usually over a single day or an evening. Laure Prouvost's approach to filmmaking, often situated within atmospheric installations, employs story-telling, quick cuts, montage and deliberate misuse of language to create surprising and unpredictable work. Recent solo exhibitions include the Max Mara Prize for Women at Whitechapel Gallery, London (2013); and Collezione Maramotti, Reggio Emilia, IT (2013). Her works have also been on view at Morra Greco Foundation, Naples, IT (2013); Tate Britain, London (2013); MOTInternational, London (2012); Sculpture Center, New York, USA (2011); and The Serpentine Gallery, London (2010). Born in Lille, France, and currently living and working in London, she is a Turner Prize 2013 nominee and was the winner of the Max Mara Prize for Women in 2011. Chooc Ly Tan's practice is multi-disciplinary and incorporates sculpture, video, installations and performances. Through her work she attempts to see beyond the physical constants that govern people's lives, their significance, and to make the possibility of their subjugation all the more fantastic. She asks, "what would a world devoid of physical laws, such as gravity and frames of references, geometry and time, be like"? Selected solo and group exhibitions include: Circa Projects, Newcastle (2012); Carlos/Ishikawa Gallery, London, (2012); Drawing Room, London (2012); Transmission Gallery, Glasgow (2011); and The Royal Society, London (2011). Tan was born in La Roche sur Yon, France and currently lives and works in London.

[ES] Esta tesis es un estudio sobre la clemencia ejercida por los soberanos durante el período omeya andalusí (ss.II/VIII-V/XI). Se trata del primer trabajo dedicado al estudio del perdón en un contexto arabo-islámico, desde una perspectiva no solo religiosa de este concepto, sino atendiendo a la dimensión política y social del mismo. El estudio se basa principalmente en el análisis de fuentes cronísticas árabes medievales relativas a este período, en las que se han localizado los episodios en los que se narran manifestaciones de perdón, tratando de comprender los procesos políticos, económicos, sociales o religiosos que subyacen a la narración de esos relatos. Hemos comprobado que el estudio del perdón es una herramienta válida para el análisis de los procesos políticos, religiosos y sociales de este período, como son las relaciones que se establecen entre los distintos grupos que se mueven en el entorno del gobernante, los mecanismos mediante los cuales se reestablecen los vínculos rotos durante el transcurso de rebeliones o tras muestras de desobediencia o el valor simbólico de determinados lugares o edificios. Asimismo, la clemencia juega un papel fundamental en la recreación de los acontecimientos y en la descripción de los soberanos, desde un punto de vista retórico. Hemos dedicado una extensa parte de este trabajo al análisis de la institución del amán o pacto de protección, tanto en su variante dirigida a un no musulmán - con carácter temporal o permanente ("pacto de la dhimma") - como en el dirigido a los individuos musulmanes que se rebelaban contra el poder establecido, a los que se les permite volver a la obediencia sin sufrir ningún daño, a cambio de su sumisión y el cumplimiento de ciertas condiciones. El análisis de este último caso, que hasta el momento no había recibido una atención exhaustiva, nos ha permitido determinar qué caracterizó a esta práctica y qué clases de condiciones estuvieron presentes en las negociaciones. Así, hemos visto que además del intercambio de mensajeros entre los rebeldes y el soberano para negociar la paz, se producía a menudo la estancia de los rebeldes sometidos en la capital cordobesa, la entrega de rehenes, así como la concesión por parte del soberano a los antiguos rebeldes de ciertos beneficios sociales y económicos, como la entrega de concesiones territoriales (iqta'), títulos de propiedad (tasyil), exenciones fiscales o la inscripción en el registro del ejército (diwan al-yund). Por otro lado, nos hemos centrado también en el estudio del perdón del soberano a los individuos de su entorno más cercano, tanto familiares como las élites de la corte cordobesa. Hemos visto que es fundamental prestar atención a los vínculos personales establecidos entre los distintos individuos y el soberano, ya que muchos de los miembros de esta elite pertenecían a las familias más influyentes de al-Andalus y, por tanto, los soberanos debían hacer un cuidadoso cálculo de ganancias y pérdidas a la hora de decidirse por el castigo o el perdón cuando alguno de estos individuos cometían una falta. También hemos prestado atención a las redes que servían de apoyo para los individuos, dentro de un contexto "faccional" como el de la corte. Gracias a estas redes de apoyo, lograban hacer frente a las intrigas palaciegas, así como la arbitrariedad de los soberanos a la hora de castigar o perdonar. En la tercera parte de esta tesis, nos hemos centrado en el contexto religioso del perdón. Después de dedicar un capítulo a la revisión de los conceptos religiosos asociados con el perdón, tales como el arrepentimiento, la intercesión o la distinción entre pecados mayores y menores (al-kaba'ir wa-l-saga'ir), y su tratamiento en las fuentes fundamentales del Islam (Corán, Sunna y escritos teológicos), hemos abordado el análisis de los ejemplos obtenidos en las fuentes sobre el perdón de conductas heterodoxas (apostasía, blasfemia o herejía, principalmente). Esto nos ha permitido ver hasta qué punto el contexto influyó en la definición en cada momento de lo que era considerado o no heterodoxo, haciendo que ciertos delitos fueran castigados con mayor o menor dureza según la época o incluso pasados por alto. Asimismo, se ha demostrado que los lazos personales y los contactos con los que contaba cada individuo influyeron también en el resultado de algunos de estos procesos sobre delitos religiosos. En la cuarta y última parte de esta Tesis, se ha prestado especial atención a la dimensión retórica de las prácticas clementes, puesta de manifiesto en los lugares y prácticas vinculadas con el perdón, así como con el castigo. Hemos revisado los principales lugares donde se llevaron a cabo las manifestaciones públicas de castigo y perdón, entre las cuales destaca la Puerta de al-Sudda y, en general, todo el entorno del alcázar cordobés, junto a la mezquita aljama. Las muestras de perdón que encontramos en las súplicas dirigidas a los soberanos, así como en sus propias manifestaciones orales y escritas han recibido también una especial atención en esta parte. Se ha analizado el modo en que las fuentes reflejan la puesta en marcha de las peticiones de perdón, tanto a través de poemas, cartas o gestos de súplica, lo que nos ha permitido ver hasta qué punto estas manifestaciones se insertan en los rituales islámicos de poder. Asimismo, los cronistas caracterizaron a los soberanos como gobernantes clementes a través del recurso historiográfico de poner en su boca ciertas palabras que reflejan sus propias intenciones, de modo que los gobernantes omeyas aparecen manifestando su preferencia por el perdón frente a la violencia y destacando la naturaleza clemente que habría caracterizado a los omeyas. Finalmente, se ha dedicado un capítulo a las prácticas violentas como contrapunto del perdón, viendo en ambos casos una concepción de las mismas de carácter "vertical", es decir, que tanto los castigos como el perdón de los soberanos en esta vida aparecen vinculados directamente con el perdón de Dios en el Más Allá. ; [EN] This thesis is a study of the clemency exercised by the sovereign during the Andalusian Umayyad period (ss.II / VIII-V / XI). This is the first work devoted to the study of forgiveness in Arab-Islamic context, not only from a religious perspective of this concept, but considering the political and social dimension of it. The study is based mainly on the analysis cronísticas medieval Arabic sources for this period, which have been located in episodes narrated demonstrations of forgiveness, trying to understand the political, economic, social or religious underlying the telling of those stories. We found that the study of forgiveness is a valid tool for the analysis of the political, religious and social of this period, as are the relationships that exist between the various groups that move in the vicinity of the ruler, the mechanisms by which broken links are re-established during the course of rebellion or disobedience or samples after the symbolic value of certain places or buildings. Also, forgiveness plays a role in the recreation of the events and the description of the sovereigns, from a rhetorical point of view. We have dedicated a large part of this work the analysis of the institution of aman or covenant of protection, both in its variant aimed at a non-Muslim - temporarily or permanently ("dhimma pact") - as in targeting the Muslim individuals who rebelled against the establishment, who are allowed to return to obedience unharmed in exchange for their submission and compliance with certain terms. The analysis of this case, which so far had not received extensive attention has allowed us to determine which characterized this practice and what kinds of conditions present at the negotiations. Thus, we have seen that besides the exchange of messengers between the rebels and the sovereign to negotiate peace, there was often subjected rebels stay in Cordoba, the delivery of hostages, and the grant by the sovereign former rebels of certain social and economic benefits, such as delivery of territorial concessions (iqta '), title (tasyil), tax exemptions or registration Army (Diwan al-Jund). On the other hand, we have also focused on the study of forgiveness of sovereign individuals from their immediate environment, both familiar and court elites Cordoba. We have seen that it is essential to pay attention to personal ties established between individuals and the sovereign, since many of the members of this elite belonged to the most influential families of al-Andalus and, therefore, the rulers should make a careful calculating gains and losses when deciding on the punishment or forgiveness when one of these individuals committed a foul. We have also paid attention to the networks that supported for individuals, within a context "factional" as the court. Thanks to these support networks, could not withstand the intrigues and the arbitrariness of rulers when punish or forgive. In the third part of this thesis, we have focused on the religious context of forgiveness. After devoting a chapter to a review of religious concepts associated with forgiveness, such as repentance, intercession or the distinction between major and minor sins (al-wa-l-kaba'ir saga'ir), and treatment on the fundamental sources of Islam (Quran, Sunna and theological writings), we have analyzed the examples obtained in the sources about forgiveness unorthodox behavior (apostasy, blasphemy or heresy, mainly). This allowed us to see how the context influenced the definition in every moment of what was considered unorthodox or not, so that certain crimes were punished with varying hardness depending on the time or even overlooked. It has also been shown that personal ties and contacts with which each individual had also influenced the outcome of some of these processes on religious offenses. In the fourth and last part of this thesis, special attention has been paid to the rhetorical dimension lenient practices, evidenced in places and practices associated with forgiveness, as well as punishment. We have reviewed the main places where performed public displays of punishment and forgiveness, among which is the Gate of al-Sudda and, in general, the whole environment of the palace of Cordoba, next to the mosque. Samples of forgiveness we find in the prayers addressed to the sovereign, as well as in their own spoken and written, have also received special attention in this part. We analyzed how the sources reflect the implementation of requests for forgiveness, both through poems, letters or gestures of supplication, which has allowed us to see how far these statements are inserted into Islamic rituals power. Also, the writers characterized the lenient ruling sovereign as through the use historiographical put in your mouth certain words that reflect their own intentions, so Umayyad rulers are expressing a preference for forgiveness from violence and highlighting the nature Clement would have characterized the Umayyads. Finally, a chapter is dedicated to the violent practices of forgiveness counterpoint, seeing both a conception of the same character "vertical", ie that both punishment and forgiveness of sovereign in this life are linked directly with God's forgiveness in the hereafter.

435 p. ; Tabl as, Gráficos, ; Libro Electrónico ; Over the last decade, worldwide initiatives from the private sector have turned the legal and regulatory environment for food businesses upside down. Litigation is no longer solely framed by legislative requirements, but ever more by private standards such as GlobalGAP, BRC, IFS, SQF and ISO. Private standards incorporate public law requirements, thus embedding them in contractual relations and exporting them beyond the jurisdiction of public legislators. Private standards are used to remedy shortcomings in legislation, to reach higher levels of consumer protection than the ones chosen by the EU legislature, to impose new obligations on contracting parties, to manage risks and liability beyond the traditional limits of food businesses and inally to give substance to corporate social responsibility. Private standards also play a role in deining speciic markets of growing importance and in self-regulating the commercial communication/advertising for foods and beverages. Organic standards have found an interesting symbioses with public law. Halal standards express the demands of some two billion consumers worldwide. Food businesses are inspected more often by private auditors than by public inspectors. Effects in terms of receiving or being denied certiication often far outweigh public law sanctions. In short, based on private law, an entire legal infrastructure for the food sector emerges, in parallel to, and sometimes complementing, the public law regulatory infrastructure. ; Durante la última década, las iniciativas a nivel mundial en el sector privado se han convertido el entorno jurídico y reglamentario para las empresas de alimentos al revés. Litigio ya no es el único enmarcado por los requisitos legales, pero cada vez más por las normas privadas como GlobalGAP, BRC, IFS, SQF y la ISO. Las normas privadas incorporar los requisitos de derecho público, lo que les inserción en las relaciones contractuales y su exportación fuera de la jurisdicción de los legisladores públicos. Las normas privadas se utilizan para corregir las deficiencias en la legislación, para alcanzar mayores niveles de protección al consumidor que los elegidos por el poder legislativo de la UE, a imponer nuevas obligaciones a las partes contratantes, para gestionar los riesgos y responsabilidades más allá de los límites tradicionales de las empresas alimentarias y inalmente dar a sustancia a la responsabilidad social corporativa. Las normas privadas también juegan un papel importante en los mercados Deining speciic de creciente importancia y en la auto-regulación de la comunicación comercial / publicidad de alimentos y bebidas. Los estándares orgánicos han encontrado una simbiosis interesante con el derecho público. Las normas Halal expresar las demandas de unos dos mil millones de consumidores en todo el mundo. Las empresas alimentarias son inspeccionados con mayor frecuencia por los auditores privados que por los inspectores públicos. Efectos en términos de recibir o ser certiication les negaba a menudo son muy superiores a las sanciones de derecho público. En resumen, basado en el derecho privado, toda una infraestructura legal para el sector de la alimentación surge, de forma paralela a, y algunas veces complementar, la infraestructura de ley de regulación pública. ; About the authors 15 Foreword 21 Abbreviations 23 1. Private food law 29 The emergence of a concept Bernd van der Meulen 1.1 The irst book on private food law 29 1.2 Private food law 30 1.3 Cover 32 1.4 Food law 32 1.5 Classiications in private food law 37 1.6 Topics covered in this book 38 1.7 Law and governance 48 1.8 Last but not least 49 Acknowledgements 49 References 50 2. Quasi-states? The unexpected rise of private food law 51 Lawrence Busch 2.1 Introduction 51 2.2 Building neoliberalism 51 2.3 Transformation of the global economy 55 2.4 Rise of the Tripartite Standards Regime (TSR) 59 2.5 Can governance be plural? Legitimacy and markets revisited 62 2.6 Conclusions 68 Acknowledgements 70 References 70 3. The anatomy of private food law 75 Bernd van der Meulen 3.1 Introduction 75 3.2 The history of private standards 77 3.3 Chain orchestration 78 3.4 Owning a standard 78 3.5 Enforcement 79 3.6 Adjudication 79 8 Private food law Table of contents 3.7 Audits 79 3.8 Certiication mark 80 3.9 Accreditation 80 3.10 Beyond accreditation 82 3.11 Standard setting 83 3.12 Structure of private food law 83 3.13 Interconnected private schemes 84 3.14 Public – private interconnections 85 3.15 Motives 88 3.16 Examples 89 3.17 Underlying concepts 92 3.18 EurepGAP/GlobalGAP 93 3.19 BRC 97 3.20 IFS 98 3.21 SQF 99 3.22 FS22000 102 3.23 GFSI 103 3.24 Public law on private food law 105 3.25 WTO 106 3.26 Conclusions 108 References 109 4. Inventory of private food law 113 Theo Appelhof and Ronald van den Heuvel 4.1 Introduction 113 4.2 Controlling food safety by quality management system/standard 119 4.3 Description of commonly used Standards 124 4.4 To conclude 147 References 147 5. Codex Alimentarius and private standards 149 Spencer Henson and John Humphrey 5.1 Background 149 5.2 Nature of private food safety standards 151 5.3 Trends in the development and functions of private food safety standards 157 5.4 Role of Codex in the context of private standards 162 5.5 Do private standards jeopardise the work of Codex? 165 5.6 Challenges and opportunities for Codex 168 5.7 Conclusions 170 References 171 Private food law 9 Table of contents 6. Private retail standards and the law of the World Trade Organisation 175 Marinus Huige 6.1 Introduction 175 6.2 What are private standards? 176 6.3 Private standards, what drives them? 177 6.4 Private standards and the WTO SPS Committee 178 6.5 The current discussion on applicability of the SPS Agreement 181 6.6 Food for thought 184 References 185 7. Private law making at the round table on sustainable palm oil 187 Otto Hospes 7.1 Introduction 187 7.2 The normative content of the RSPO 189 7.3 Principle(d) actors 192 7.4 Compliance and complaints 195 7.5 How voluntary are the RSPO principles and criteria? 196 7.6 Governments as consultative cheerleaders or competitive law makers 198 7.7 Conclusion 199 References 201 8. GlobalGAP smallholder group certiication 203 Challenge and opportunity for smallholder inclusion into global value chains Margret Will 8.1 Challenge or opportunity? An introduction to GlobalGAP option 2 smallholder certiication 203 8.2 Challenge and opportunity! The GlobalGAP smallholder pilot project 208 8.3 Turning challenges into opportunities: conclusions from the GlobalGAP smallholder pilot project 213 8.4 GlobalGAP: challenge and opportunity! Conclusions and recommendations 221 References 226 9. Towards the self-regulation code on beer advertising in Italy 229 Steps on the long lasting path of competition/co-operation of public and private food law Ferdinando Albisinni 9.1 The peculiar relation between innovation and food law 229 9.2 Private regulatory law 230 9.3 The IAP – Institute of self-regulation in Marketing Communication (1963) 231 9.4 Legislative reforms in the 1990's: cooperative competition between public and private law 233 9.5 The Beer Advertising Code: private regulation as tool to expand and anticipate consumer protection 236 9.6 Some open questions 238 References 239 10. Self-regulation code on beer advertising 241 Alessandro Artom 10.1 Introduction 241 10.2 Underlying principles 242 10.3 The Code 246 10.4 The Code as Private Food Law 253 References 254 11. Franchising strengthens the use of private food standards 255 Esther Brons-Stikkelbroeck 11.1 Introduction 255 11.2 Private food standards 255 11.3 Vertical agreements and franchising 257 11.4 Conclusion 264 References 264 12. On the borderline between state law and religious law 265 Regulatory arrangements connected to kosher and halal foods in the Netherlands and the United States Tetty Havinga 12.1 The developing supply of halal foods 265 12.2 Regulating halal and kosher food 266 12.3 Kosher certiication in the Netherlands 269 12.4 Halal certiication in the Netherlands 270 Private food law 11 Table of contents 12.5 Religious slaughter in the Netherlands 271 12.6 Regulation of kosher food in the United States 273 12.7 Religious slaughter in the United States 276 12.8 Comparative conclusions 277 12.9 Explaining the different position of the government 282 References 285 13. Organic food 289 A private concept's take-over by government and the continued leading role of the private sector Hanspeter Schmidt 13.1 Introduction 289 13.2 'Bio' and 'Eco' and 'Regular'? 289 13.3 Comprehensive protection of organic terminology 290 13.4 The friendly take-over by government in the 1990s 290 13.5 Contaminants 291 13.6 2011: still the same concept 291 13.7 Positive lists for farming and processing 292 13.8 The friendliness of the take-over 293 13.9 Take-over of norms, but not of controls 293 13.10 Toxins from non-regulated sources 295 13.11 BNN orientation values 295 13.12 Pesticide traces as misleading labelling 297 13.13 The statutory role of doubt 298 13.14 Conclusion on the role of private organic food regulation 298 References 299 14. Food online 301 Reconnaissance into a consumer protection no-man's land between food law and the Civil Code Lomme van der Veer 14.1 Introduction 301 14.2 The distance contract, buying food online 302 14.3 Information and expectations about the product 308 14.4 Conformity 309 14.5 Conformity requirement and distance contracts 313 14.6 Conclusions 317 References 318 12 Private food law Table of contents 15. National public sector and private standards 319 Cases in the Netherlands Irene Scholten-Verheijen 15.1 Public law and private standards 319 15.2 Public procurement and private standards 323 15.3 Public enforcement and private standards 326 15.4 Conclusions 328 Postscript 328 References 329 16. The outside of private food law 331 The case of braided private regulation in Dutch dairy viewed in the light of competition law Maria Litjens, Bernd van der Meulen and Harry Bremmers 16.1 Introduction 331 16.2 Background 332 16.3 Private regulation structured in the food chain 336 16.4 The big picture 342 16.5 Developments in competition law 345 16.6 Conclusions and discussion 349 Acknowledgements 351 References 351 17. The limit of private food law 353 Competition law in the food sector Fabian Stancke 17.1 Introduction 353 17.2 The requirements of competition law compliance 354 17.3 Addressees of competition law in the food sector 354 17.4 The restrictions on anticompetitive conduct 355 17.5 The restrictions on non-collusive / unilateral conduct by market dominant companies 357 17.6 Groups of cases relevant under competition law in the food sector 358 17.7 Concluding remarks 376 References 377 18. EU 'new approach' also for food law? 381 Nicole Coutrelis 18.1 What is the 'new approach' 381 18.2 Is the 'new approach' unknown in EU Food Law? 383 Private food law 13 Table of contents 18.3 Public/private – regulation/standards: present situation and questions 384 18.4 Is the 'new approach' now possible/desirable in EU Food Law? 386 References 388 Appendix 1. Commission Communication – EU best practice guidelines for voluntary certiication schemes for agricultural products and foodstuffs 391 Appendix 2. Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament and the European Economic and Social Committee 401 Keyword index 423

Biogaasi tootmise populariseerimine rohelise majanduse kontekstis suureneb nii Eestis kui ka teistes riikides iga aastaga ja sellest tulenevalt on üha enam hakatud Eesti tasandil rääkima biogaasi tootmisest kui uuest alternatiivsest võimalusest energia tootmisel. Eestis on biogaasi tootmise käigus saadud soojus- ja elektrienergia osakaal viimastel aastatel oluliselt kasvanud, vaatamata riigipoolsetele madalatele dotatsioonidele, mis pärsivad tegelikult selle valdkonnaga tegelema hakkamist. Kui võrrelda välisriikide näidetel Eestis makstavaid toetusi taastuvenergia kasutamiseks, siis on täiesti mõistetav, miks Eestis rajatud biogaasijaamade arv on väga väike. Biogaasi tootmise valdkonnas on Eestis läbi viidud mitmeid väga põhjalikke uuringuid, mis kõik annavad kinnitust biogaasist toodetava energia potentsiaalile just põllumajandusettevõttes tekkivatest jääkidest, mida Eesti põllumajanduses tekib üldjuhul piisavas koguses. Sellele vaatamata leidub siiski veel vähe ettevõtteid, kes toodaksid biogaasi ja suudaksid biogaasist toodetud energiaga konkureerida ka energiaturul. Selleks, et kinnitada biogaasi tootmise potentsiaalikust ja olulisust põllumajandusettevõttes, sooritati sotsiaal-majanduslike aspektide analüüs konkreetse piirkonna ja ettevõtte näitel, mille tulemusel selgus, kas biogaasijaama rajamine on majanduslikult otstarbekas või mitte. Baltic Biogas OÜ ja põllumajandusettevõtte Aravete Agro OÜ ühise projekti tulemusel valmis Aravetele, Mägise suurfarmi, biogaasijaam, mis hakkab toodetud soojusenergiaga varustama kohalikku kaugküttesüsteemi ja elektrienergiaga hakatakse konkureerima energiaturul. Investeeringu tasuvusanalüüsist selgus, et biogaasi tootmine Aravete Biogaas OÜ näitel on otstarbekas ja omab potentsiaali. Kahe võimaliku esitatud stsenaariumi puhul kujunesid tasuvusnäitajad stsenaarium 1 puhul positiivseteks, mis kujutas endast ka Aravete biogaasijaama rajamisega analoogset projekti. Stsenaarium 2 ei olnud otstarbekas projekt, sest kõik tasuvusnäitajad ja rahavood kujunesid negatiivseteks. Uurimustöös selgus, et majanduslikeks aspektideks, mis kindlustavad biogaasi tootmise võimaluse konkreetses põllumajandusettevõttes, on vajalike sisendite olemasolu ning riigipoolne finantsiline abi dotatsioonide näol. Takistuste hindamisel selgus, et jätkusuutlikku biogaasi tootmisprotsessi võib pidurdada energiaturu avanemine aastal 2013, mille tulemusel kallineb elektri hind nii tööstustarbijatele kui ka kodumajapidamistele. Samuti võib takistuseks osutuda dotatsioonide kaotamine, mille tulemusel ei ole biogaasijaama edasine opereerimine majanduslikult tasuv ning mille tulemusel ületavad ettevõtte kulud oluliselt tulusid. Kohalikus piirkonnas läbi viidud ankeetküsitluse analüüsil statistikaprogrammis SPSS selgus, et valdav osa inimestest on teadlikud kodukohta rajatavast biogaasijaamast ja on jaama rajamise suhtes positiivselt häälestatud. Kasutades !2-testi, selgus, et jaama rajamisest mitteteadlikke inimesi esines enam just noorte seas, mis on tingitud eelkõige nende liikuvamast eluviisist – mujal maakonnas õppimist või töötamisest. Sotsiaalseteks aspektideks, mis mõjutavad kõige enam kohalike inimeste rahulolu biogaasijaama rajamise suhtes, olid ebameeldiv lõhn ja võimalik sooja hinna vähenemine. Vähem tähtsateks peeti transpordikoormust ja müra taset, mis jääb tõenäoliselt samale tasemele. Biogaasijaamast pärinev soojusenergia hakkab kaugküttesüsteemi kaudu soojendama sellega ühendatud tarbijaid ja selle tulemusel on planeeritud müüa soe tarbijale 20% odavamalt, kui see siiani inimestele kättesaadav on olnud. See on ka üks peamisi põhjuseid, miks sooja hind on üheks olulisemaks mõjutajaks elanike rahulolu kujunemisel. Korrelatsioonimaatriksi analüüsimisel leiti, et sotsiaalsete aspektide (müra, sooja hind ehk jäätmete kasutamine, transpordikoormus ja õhusaaste) muutumine ei ole seotud elanike hoiaku kujunemisega biogaasijaama rajamise suhtes. Biogaasi tootmise valdkonna arengu soodustamiseks ja võimalike takistuste ületamiseks teeb magistritöö autor järgmised järeldused ja ettepanekud: 1. Selleks, et praegust Eesti energiatootmise sõltuvust põlevkivist vähendada, tuleks kindlasti tagada põllumajandusettevõtetele võimalus tegeleda biogaasi tootmisega, mis praegusel hetkel jääb pigem suurte esialgsete investeeringukulude taha seisma. Seega tuleks tõsiselt üle vaadata ja läbi mõelda toetuste süsteemid põllumajandusettevõttes tekkivatest jääkidest soojus- ja elektrienergia tootmiseks, mis ei seaks takistusi ettevõtjatele. Näiteks on PRIA poolt seatud põllumajandusettevõtjatele ülempiirangud, millest rohkem nad teatud aastate jooksul enam toetust taotleda ei saa. 2. Aasta pärast biogaasijaama töötamist tuleks kohalike elanike seas läbi viia uus küsitlus sotsiaalsete aspektide muutuste kohta, et selgitada välja, kuidas on muutunud inimeste arvates sotsiaalsed aspektid (transpordikoormus, müratase, lõhn ja sooja hind) tegelikult ning samuti selgitada välja võimalikud tekkinud murekohad. Oluline on, et uute biogaasijaamade investeeringute läbiviimisel oleks kaasatud ka kohalikud elanikud, mis lõppkokkuvõttes tõstab piirkonna ja seal asuvate ettevõtete mainet. 3. Kuigi biogaasi valdkonna uurimisega tegeletakse Eestis tõsiselt, tuleks siiski veel rohkem teadvustada potentsiaalseid ettevõtjad nende võimalustest biogaasi tootmiseks ja seda koostöös mõne kohaliku ettevõtte või operaatorfirmaga, et minimeerida kulusid ja leida sobiv tehnika. Selleks tuleks kaasata rohkem valdkonna eksperte ettevõtetele nõustajateks või teisalt tuleks läbi viia uuring, mille tulemusel kajastuksid kõik Eestis tegutsevad ja potentsiaalsed ettevõtted biogaasi tootmiseks, et suurendada omavahelist koostööd jaama opereerimisel. 4. Viimaseks oluliseks tähelepanekuks on rohkem julgustada riigi tasandil ettevõtjaid selle valdkonnaga tegelema. Selleks aga on vajalik tagada neile kindlustunne nii toetuste, energia ostukohustuse kui ka taastuvenergia toetuse näol. Käesoleva uurimustöö koostamine omab autori arvates tähtsust nii Eesti kui ka kohaliku omavalitsuse tasandil biogaasijaama sotsiaal-majanduslike aspektide analüüsimisel, sisaldades seeläbi kohalike elanike arvamust biogaasijaama rajamisest. Uurimustöö läbiviimise muutis raskeks asjaolu, et kõiki vajalikke andmeid majanduslike aspektide analüüsimiseks ei saadud Baltic Biogas OÜ konfidentsiaalsuspoliitika tõttu. Sellest tulenevalt ei ole uurimustöös leitud tasuvusnäitajad 100% tõesed, kuid siiski usaldusväärsed ning annavad üldise pildi biogaasi tootmisest põllumajandusettevõttes, millest saab teha juba iga ettevõtja omad järeldused. Uurimustöö täitis oma eesmärgi, milleks oli selgitada biogaasijaama rajamise majanduslik tasuvus Aravetele, kaasates jaama rajamise hinnangu andmisesse kohalikud elanikud. Uurimustööd võib pidada oluliseks, sest sisaldab investeeringuprojekti hindamist detailselt ja kriitiliselt OÜ Aravete Biogaas näitel, millest saavad eeskuju võtta teised ettevõtted ja huvilised edaspidiste sotsiaal-majanduslike analüüside läbiviimiseks. ; The MA thesis has been written in the Estonian language, on 83 pages. The thesis includes 16 diagrams, 5 tables, 64 scientific literary and 14 appendixes. Nowadays we need energy everywhere - in various production processes, in many parts of the households, transportation, etc. More and more there is discussion about the possibility to save energy and new ways to make it affordable and environment friendly so that the damage caused to the environment by the production and consumption would be minimal. Because human society has grown, energy use, greenhouse gas emission and also the wish to be more energy efficient have increased steadily, therefore the possibility how to save our environment is more and more under discussion. This new solution is the production of biogas in the context of the green economy, in order to save the environment and give people the opportunity to manage without damaging the environment and themselves. Biogas production in the context of green economy is aided by the fact that in recent years people have increasingly begun to promote the use of renewable energy sources to cover the costs of energy needed for life which are also foreseen by the European Union directive (2009/28/EC) of renewable energy sources by promoting the use of energy. Several extensive researches have been conducted about the production of biogas in Estonia all of which confirmed the potential of biogas energy production from the agricultural wastes, which generally occurs in sufficient quantity in Estonian agriculture. Nevertheless, there are still only a few companies who are able to produce biogas and can compete in the energy market. The aim of this MA thesis is to find out the socio-economic aspects of biogas production in the context of green economy, by analyzing the socio-economic aspects on the example of OÜ Aravete Biogaas. For the theoretical part of this MA thesis the necessary information is obtained from various scientific articles, a variety of related literature, based on past research studies, public databases, and various legislative acts. Empirical data were collected from a written interview, from various studies and through questionnaires. The analysis of the socio-economic aspects of the investment predicted what will be the economic efficiency of Aravete biogas plant. The questionnaire survey of the local population showed which social aspects influence and form people's attitudes and opinions about the construction of the biogas plant. The cost benefit analysis of the investment showed that the production of biogas on the example of OÜ Aravete Biogaas is feasible and has potential. There were two possible scenarios presented in which profitability indicators became positive for Scenario 1 – for example investment payback period was 18 years and profitability index 1,10 euros. Scenario 1 was analogous with the Aravete biogas plant project. Scenario 2 was not a feasible project, because all of the profitability indicators and cash flows turned out negative. The research work showed that the economic aspects, which provide the opportunity for biogas production in a specific farm, were the existence of the necessary inputs and state's financial assistance in form of subsidies. While assessing the obstacles to the sustainability of the biogas production it became evident, that the process may be delayed by the energy market opening in 2013, which leads to the increased price of electricity for industrial consumers and households. The elimination of subsidies may also prove to be an obstacle, which leads to the outcome, that a biogas plant is not economically viable for the future operations. Questionnaire survey conducted in the local area revealed that the vast majority of people are aware of the biogas plant and have a positive attitude towards the construction of the station. Using the !2-test showed that there were more young people among the people who didn´t know about the biogas plant building. This is mainly caused by their way of life - studying or working elsewhere in the county. Social aspects that affect people's satisfaction with the local establishment of a biogas plant the most, were an unpleasant odor and the possible reduction in the heat price. Less important were transportation and noise, which is likely to remain the same. Analyzing the correlation the author found that changes in the social aspects (noise, heat price, transportation and air pollution) are not connected with the residents' attitudes related to the construction of a biogas plant. This research is related to earlier studies on the biogas field, but has a different output, as it described primarily socio-economic aspects of biogas production in a specific region as an example. Various biogas plants have been addressed in the feasibility studies for biogas production and economic aspects of the presumed socially driven, but the opinion of the local people has not been involved but rather estimated opinions of the authors themselves have been used. To promote the development of biogas production in the area the author reached the conclusion that it should be ensured that agricultural businesses are able to practice biogas production, and for this the support systems should be seriously reviewed and analyzed. To clarify social aspects of the region, it is important that local people would be involved in the conduct of new investments in biogas plants, which ultimately increases the popularity of the area and corporations listed there. Although the biogas field investigations are studied seriously in Estonia, still awareness should be constructed for potential undertakers in terms of their potential to produce biogas, also in cooperation with a local business or a service provider, in order to minimize costs and to find a suitable technique. This should be done by involving more experts in the field of business advisers or by conducting a study, which would include all operating companies and potential businesses. Research work can be considered as important as the investment project evaluation includes a detailed case study of OÜ Aravete Biogaas. This MA thesis can be emulated by other companies and people interested in the future of socio-economic analyzes.

I sistemi bibliotecari delle università in Italia sono stati considerati a lungo inefficienti e dispersivi, con costi alti e risultati bassi. A partire dagli anni Settanta prima nel mondo professionale, poi sempre di più anche nelle autorità accademiche e negli studenti, è cresciuta l'insoddisfazione e quindi il tentativo di miglioramento e della razionalizzazione, anche in conseguenza della introduzione dei sistemi computerizzati nelle biblioteche.Il quadro dei servizi bibliotecari dell'Università di Pisa non si discosta molto dalla media italiana: il sistema delle biblioteche di ateneo si presenta con un grande patrimonio bibliografico, disperso su molte sedi e con servizi discontinui. Rispetto ad altri sistemi universitari le varianti più importanti riguardano la presenza, in pochi chilometri, di altre importanti biblioteche legate all'università e alla ricerca.Da alcuni anni sono state intraprese alcune trasformazioni dei servizi bibliotecari, dal punto di vista istituzionale, organizzativo, informatico. Nel 1987 fu attivata una Commissione di ateneo per le biblioteche, dai cui lavori uscirono alcune proposte di riorganizzazione, basate su un moderato accentramento e sull'introduzione di servizi di base più ampi e servizi innovativi, anche di tipo informatico, più qualificati. Con questa spinta fu varato un nuovo regolamento per le biblioteche e fu istituito un Servizio centrale per le biblioteche, assieme alla costituzione di otto biblioteche centri di servizi, finanziate anche dall'amministrazione centrale.All'inizio del 1999 l'Ateneo, rafforzando le linee di politica bibliotecaria seguite nel corso di dieci anni, ha deliberato un'ulteriore formalizzazione del sistema, basata su:a) modifica dello Statuto, che riconosce come parte del sistema bibliotecario solo le biblioteche organizzate come centri di servizi bibliotecari;b) delineazione delle aggregazioni per arrivare, entro il 1º settembre 2000, alla formazione di 15 biblioteche costituite come centri di servizi bibliotecari coordinate attraverso il Servizio per il sistema bibliotecario di ateneo;c) indicazione di linee guida con gli standard per i servizi bibliotecari e degli obiettivi di massima del sistema.L'indirizzo politico del sistema è dato dagli organi accademici, tramite la Commissione di ateneo per le biblioteche, formata da rappresentanti del Senato accademico e del Consiglio di amministrazione, e integrata da esperti.Il coordinamento tecnico è compito del Servizio per il sistema bibliotecario: il Servizio si occupa direttamente di cataloghi comuni, di proposte di formazione e seminari professionali, di standard, di statistiche e raccolta dati d'insieme, di informatizzazione e basi dati di ateneo, di progetti e obiettivi comuni al sistema, e fornisce il suo supporto alle biblioteche per tutti gli altri aspetti organizzativi e gestionali. Le singole biblioteche, che amministrativamente sono centri di spesa autonomi, hanno un consiglio direttivo, un presidente e un direttore operativo. Sul piano delle risorse umane è stata avviata una risistemazione della pianta organica delle biblioteche previste dal piano; alla base della pianta organica sono stati posti parametri indicativi del bacino di utenza e del carico di lavoro, cioè quattro dei sei utilizzati per l'assegnazione di fondi di ateneo.Sul piano delle risorse finanziarie alle biblioteche riconosciute come centri, oltre ai finanziamenti provenienti dalle facoltà e dai dipartimenti interessati, viene assegnata una quota stabilita sulla base di sei parametri indicativi del bacino di utenza (docenti, studenti), della spesa pro capite, cioè della spesa dei dipartimenti e facoltà in rapporto al loro bacino di utenza, del servizio erogato (ore settimanali di apertura), del carico di lavoro (abbonamenti in corso e nuove acquisizioni).L'ateneo ha stabilito una serie di obiettivi, privilegiando i servizi al pubblico; contestualmente sono state date le indicazioni di massima (linee guida per i servizi bibliotecari) sui compiti del sistema, sui criteri fondamentali, sugli standard dei servizi principali.Parallelamente è stata avviata una attività di formazione del personale, nel quadro della formazione di ateneo del personale tecnico-amministrativo. Nel 1998 si è svolta la prima serie di corsi finalizzati:a) al coinvolgimento di tutto il personale nella prospettiva "di sistema bibliotecario";b) all'orientamento del sistema verso i servizi e gli utenti, con l'obiettivo della qualità:c) al recupero di lacune da una parte e all'accrescimento di competenze professionali dall'altra.Tutti i corsi si sono conclusi con un test, che ha dato luogo a valutazione differenziata del risultato, e con la compilazione da parte dei formati di una scheda di valutazione sui contenuti e sulla qualità del corso seguitoSul versante informatico la situazione attuale è caratterizzata dalla compresenza di vari sistemi distribuiti su più data base, unificati come uscita Web in un metaopac con circa 300.000 registrazioni bibliografiche, che rappresentano il 25% del patrimonio bibliografico dell'ateneo, con punte dal 50% al 90% nelle biblioteche con informatizzazione più consolidata, nelle quali vengono utilizzate più ampiamente procedure informatiche diverse dalla catalogazione, come il prestito, la gestione dei periodici, la gestione degli ordini. A questa situazione si prevede di sostituire entro 12-18 mesi un sistema unico di ateneo, con architettura client/server, database relazionale e interfaccia grafica.Per quanto riguarda il database networking, è stato attivato un server ERL per alcune banche dati di carattere generale. In questo settore è stata attivata una interessante cooperazione con la Scuola normale superiore, la Scuola superiore S.Anna e l'area di ricerca del CNR. Con la Scuola normale e la Biblioteca universitaria è allo studio l'ipotesi di condividere banche dati gestite attraverso Ultranet. La crescita dei nuovi servizi di document delivery ha portato all'attivazione di Ariel nei centri di servizi bibliotecari.Il modello organizzativo che emerge è basato sull'accentramento di indirizzi, criteri, standard, valutazioni, statistiche, gestione informatica e gestione delle banche dati di ateneo, formazione, e sul decentramento nelle 15 biblioteche della gestione dei servizi e del personale.Il fulcro del sistema è rappresentato dalla misurazione dei risultati e dei servizi. È un modello non sacrifica astrattamente il funzionamento dei servizi e le specificità disciplinari, ma si radica nell'esperienza concreta e nella storia delle realtà bibliotecarie dell'ateneo, con l'obiettivo di riorganizzarle secondo la prospettiva del miglioramento della qualità e dell'orientamento all'utente-cliente. ; Italy's university library system has long been considered both inefficient and wasteful, with high costs and poor results. Since the 1970's there has been a growing dissatisfaction with the situation, firstly within the professional world and later increasingly within academic and student circles. As a result, many universities have attempted to both improve and rationalise library systems, thanks also in part to the introduction of computerised systems in libraries. The University of Pisa's library services differ little from those of the average Italian university. The university library system has considerable bibliographic resources, scattered among many centres, with uneven service levels. Compared with other university systems, the most important variable is the presence, within just a few kilometres, of other important libraries linked to the university and to research.The University of Pisa has modified the management and computerisation of its libraries to achieve a comprehensive network of services.Although the process of change, itself a result of a convergence of new policies and management, and professional culture, is still only in progress, it is, however, producing a promising series of results and prospects for the future.The university Committee for libraries, which was set up in 1987, has produced a number of proposals for reorganisation, based on a certain amount of centralisation and on the introduction of more widely based, and also more innovative and advanced computerised services. New rules for libraries, together with a centralised library service, were thus introduced.In early 1999, the university, building on the library policy which pursued in the preceding decade, considered a further development of the system based on:a) modification of the University Statute to recognise only those libraries organised in the central library service as part of the library system;b) a centralisation process to achieve, by September 2000, the establishment of 15 central library services for large subject areas, co-ordinated by the university's library system service;c) a set of guidelines with standards for the library services and the main objectives of the system.The system's policy direction is given by the academic bodies through the university Committee for libraries, which consists of representatives of the academic senate and of the administrative council, with additional input from specialists. Technical co-ordination is the task of the university library system service, which is directly responsible for shared cataloguing, proposals for professional training and seminars, standards and statistics and collection of data as a whole, and computerisation and university databases. It also assists the libraries on all other aspects of management and organisation. The individual libraries, which are financially independent, have a board, a president and a managing director. As regards human resources, a reorganisation of library staff has taken place following the planning of duties.As regards financial resources, all the libraries recognised as centres are financed by the interested faculty and departments, and receive additional University funding on the basis of 6 parameters: number of potential users (teaching staff; students); department/faculty funding per potential user; weekly opening hours; workload (current serials subscriptions; new acquisitions).The University has established a series of objectives considering firstly the public services, then the guidelines for library services, the system's tasks, the essential criteria and the standards for the principal services.Similarly, staff training has initiated courses that aim to involve all the staff in the library system's perspectives, to place the emphasis on services and users to attain the best quality, and to increase professional skills.As regards automation, there are at present various systems and many databases, merged in a Web metaOPAC of some 300.000 bibliographic records representing 25% of the University's collection. In the main libraries the coverage of online catalogues ranges from 50% to 90% and automated systems are in use also for loans, serials control and acquisitions. The University has planned a migration, within 12-18 months, to a single automated system, with client/server architecture and a graphic interface.As regards database networking, we have activated an ERL server with some general databases and also initiated an interesting co-operation programme with the Scuola Normale Superiore, the Scuola Superiore S. Anna and the National Research Council.As regards document delivery, the growth of demand led to the choice of the Ariel system for the central library services.The management model is based on:1) the centralisation of policies, standards, statistics and evaluation, system and database management and staff training;2) the devolution of the management of staff and services to the 15 libraries.Feedback comes from the evaluation of services and results. We can say that this model arises from the concrete experience and the past evolution of university libraries. The objective is to reorganise libraries, improving their quality and user orientation.