Suchergebnisse

This paper analyzes the issue of nations without states in contemporary Europe between the Atlantic and the Urals. The political map of the continent comprises forty-seven countries, most of which are nation-states. However, the cultural mosaic of Europe is far more complex; there are around fifty ethnic groups (in addition to historical, territorial, or indigenous ethnic minorities and an enormous number of immigrant ethnic communities) lacking a state-based organization. Together, these people add up to 78 million, or almost 15% of the European population. Twenty-seven groups can be considered nations without states; they are culturally and ethnically based and have various forms of territorial integrity and political organization. However, they did not create a state organization, despite many attempts by some through history. Without a state organization, those communities have poorer opportunities to protect their folk culture and to reproduce various elements of ethnic identity. This is why they seek territorial autonomy or independent statehood through nationalist movements. In many cases, these ambitions are encompassed in regional movements. These movements have been popular in Europe, particularly because the idea of a "Europe of regions" as part of the European Union has had broad political support and acceptance. However, it has not actually succeeded. The EU and Europe as a whole are still a Europe of (nation)-states. In general, regional movements have been successful and through this some nations without states have attained part of their political ambitions in the form of territorial autonomy. The regionalization of former centralist states (e.g., Spain and the United Kingdom) increased the chances of ethnic survival for the Catalans, Basques, Scots, and Welsh. On the other hand, the regionalization of nations without states represented territorial division, a kind of "divide and rule" strategy serving to reduce their ambitions towards national independence. The territorial and political reconstruction of nation-states has been successful, but it did not solve all ethnic problems. The European political map reveals another interesting phenomenon: a double state for some nations. These are particularly typical for the Balkans. Because of political and territorial development after the Second World War and during the transition period in the 1990s and beyond, the principle of immutable political borders (logically encompassing the creation of new nation-states as well) led to further political and territorial divisions and (in fact, paradoxically) fragmentation. Some of these "inner" autonomous territories are functioning as de facto states. The cases of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus or Republika Srpska in Bosnia-Herzegovina are good examples of these processes. This development has not garnered much political support in most European countries or at the EU level. However, it is an undesirable reality and is certainly one of changes among the political and territorial (or even greater) challenges for the Europe of tomorrow. It forces a reexamination of the phenomenon and value of nations. The existence of nations without states represents a potential for the creation of new (nation) states.

Magistrska naloga preučuje dejavnike, ki so povzročili evropsko migracijsko krizo v obdobju 2015/2016 in njihov vpliv na politično dogajanje v Evropski uniji. Čeprav se je Zahodna Evropa srečevala s problematiko migracij že v preteklosti, Evropska unija ni imela izdelane in sprejete ustrezne skupne migracijske politike. Migracije so postale pomembno politično vprašanje in glavna tema volilnih kampanj. Namen naloge je predstaviti vpliv problematike migracij na odločanje volivcev. Slednji je bil dosežen z analizo volitev nekaterih držav članic ter volitev v Evropski parlament v obdobju od leta 2015 do leta 2019. Ta je pokazala vzpon desnih populističnih in nacionalističnih strank, ki so podporo volivcev pridobivale predvsem s protimigrantsko retoriko. Glede na njihov vzpon se je pojavilo vprašanje, ali bi lahko porast moči teh strank vplival na način izvajanja skupne migracijske politike in na politično prihodnost Evropske unije. Na podlagi raziskovanja lahko ugotovimo, da migracije bistveno prispevajo k gospodarskemu in družbenemu razvoju posamezne države ter s tem posledično predstavljajo eno osrednjih predvolilnih tem. Rezultati volitev so sicer potrdili porast podpore tovrstnim strankam, vendar ne v tej meri, da bi v Evropskem parlamentu dobile moč oblikovati politično prihodnost Evropske unije. Na kompleksnost migracij vplivajo različni dejavniki, predstavljeni v magistrski nalogi, ki pripomorejo k razumevanju povezave problema migracij z dogajanjem v evropskem političnem prostoru. Ugotovili smo, da migracije predstavljajo pomembno politično vprašanje, saj so odprle ne samo politični, ampak tudi varnostni in ideološki diskurz združene Evrope, kar predstavlja nove izzive za oblikovanje nadaljnje skupne politike Evropske unije in zagotavljanje njene politične stabilnosti. ; This master thesis examines the factors that caused the European migration crisis in the period 2015-2016 and their impact on the political situation in the European Union. Even though Western Europe had encountered the problem of migration already in the past, the European Union did not develop and adopt a proper common migration policy. The issue of migration became an important political question and a central theme of election campaigns. The purpose of the thesis is to present the impact of the migration issue on voters' decision-making by analysing the national elections in some EU member states and the elections to the European Parliament during the 2015-2019 period. The analysis showed the rise of right-wing populist and nationalist parties that gained the support of the voters mainly by promoting their anti-immigration positions. That trend raised concerns on whether the growth in the power of those political parties could affect the implementation of the common migration policy and the European Union's political future. According to the data gathered, migration profoundly contributes to a country's economic and social development and is therefore among the main pre-election topics. Even though the election results confirmed that right-wing populist and nationalist parties were gaining increasing support, they were still not strong enough to gain power in the European Parliament and consequently change the political future of the European Union. There are different factors that affect the complexity of migration. These factors are presented in the master thesis and help understand the connection between migration issues and the European political situation. It was found that migration is one of the major political issues that has opened not only a political, but also an ideological and security discourse in the European context, which presents new challenges in further developing a common EU policy and ensuring its political stability.

Namen tega magistrskega dela je raziskati, kaj se dogaja z moderno nacionalno državo in konceptom suverenosti in samoodločbe. V svetu in v Evropi je danes vse več narodov, ki si želijo samostojnosti oziroma odcepitve bodisi od držav, v katerih živijo, bodisi od naddržav, katerim pripadajo. Najbolj aktualen primer je izstop Združenega kraljestva Velike Britanije in Severne Irske iz Evropske unije (EU) (brexit ). To bo prvi izstop iz EU, saj do uvedbe Lizbonske pogodbe leta 2009 možnost izstopa države članice iz EU ni bila nikjer jasno urejena. Po uvedbi izstopne klavzule pa ni več nobenega dvoma, ali je izstop iz EU mogoč ali ne. Zato magistrsko delo podrobno analizira, kaj bo prinesla sprožitev člena 50 Pogodbe o Evropski uniji (PEU) in razčleni postopek izstopa Združenega kraljestva iz EU. Osredotoči se na bodoče odnose med Združenim kraljestvom in EU ter predstavi različne možne oblike sodelovanja med Združenim kraljestvom in EU po izstopu ; razišče vpliv referenduma o neodvisnosti na odnose in razmerja med različnimi skupnostmi in narodi znotraj Združenega kraljestva ; prihodnost Združenega kraljestva kot zvezne države in ponovna prizadevanja Škotov za državnost in neodvisnost ter morebitno združitev Severne Irske z južno sosedo Irsko. Vleče vzporednice med "osamosvajanjem" Britanije, odcepitvijo Slovenije od bivše Socialistične federativne republike Jugoslavije , odhodom danske avtonomne pokrajine Grenlandije iz EU ter primerja njihove izkušnje in uporabo pravice do samoodločbe. Delo torej obravnava eno izmed trenutno najbolj aktualnih tem na svetovni ravni, ki bo nedvomno vplivala na usodo in razvoj številnih narodov. ; The purpose of my master's thesis is to examine what is happening with the modern national state and the concept of sovereignty and self-determination. In Europe, and globally, there is an historic trend of nations seeking independence or secession, either from the states in which they live, or from the "super-states" of which they are part of. The most recent example is the exit of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland from the European Union (brexit ). This will be the first exit from the EU, since the launch of the Treaty of Lisbon in 2009 and will set out clear direction on how a member state can leave the EU. After the introduction of the exit clause, a route to exit EU was made available to member states who wanted to reconsider their membership. This master's thesis will take a closer look at the consequences of triggering Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union (TEU) and the process through which the UK will pursue its withdrawal from the EU. It will focus on future relations between the UK and the EU and present various possible forms of cooperation between the UK and the EU after the exit. Master's thesis will also present an argumentation-based approach to assess the Brexit's impact on the nations leaving in the UK ; the future of the UK as a federal state, and the Scottish re-efforts for statehood and independence and the possible unification of Northern Ireland with its southern neighbour Ireland. Last but not least, will identify parallels between Britain's "independence" and the secession of Slovenia from the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the departure of the Danish autonomous province of Greenland from the EU. By comparing their use of the right to self-determination, we will see whether Britain can learn anything from Greenland and Slovenia. The master's thesis therefore focuses on dealing with one of the most important issues of our time which will impact development of many nations.

Evropska unija se je na pragu leta 2011 začela srečevati s prvimi begunci, ki so pribežali z bojnih območjih Sirije in drugih držav Bližnjega vzhoda ter islamskih držav Severne Afrike in skušali ujeti svojo svobodo, osebno varnost in prihodnost prav v državah članicah Evropske unije. Politična kriza in vojna na Bližnjem vzhodu nista pojenjali, še več, vsak dan je na tisoče ljudi po sredozemskih in balkanski poti skušalo prebežati v Evropo. Evropska unija je leta 2015 z vrhuncem migracijskih tokov v Evropo doživljala najhujšo begunsko krizo po drugi svetovni vojni. Znašla se je pred hudim migracijskim vprašanjem, na katerega pa je sama našla odgovor v pomoči in sodelovanju Turčije – države, ki je pred 69 leti zaprosila za članstvo v Evropski uniji, vendar do danes še ni postala njena polnopravna članica. Turčija danes gosti največji delež sirskih beguncev na svetu – 3,6 milijona. Z Evropsko unijo sta po mnogih letih njunega intenzivnega političnega delovanja in diplomacije odprli novo poglavje sodelovanja, lahko bi ga poimenovala kar migracijsko sodelovanje, skovali sta skupno migracijsko politiko, le ta pa je bila ovekovečena 18. marca 2016 s podpisom izjave EU-Turčija, katere namen je bil ustaviti tok nedovoljenih migracij preko balkanske poti iz Turčije v Evropsko unijo in ga nadomestiti z organiziranimi, varnimi in zakonitimi potmi v Evropo. Seveda ni ostalo zgolj in samo pri turški uslugi Evropski uniji, le-ta je bila za to pripravljena dobro plačati, skupno je Turčiji namenila tri milijarde evrov in ji obljubila še druge ugodnosti, med drugim vizumsko liberalizacijo. V Evropski uniji se danes nahaja več kot 1,8 milijona beguncev. Mnoge Evropejce skrbi za osebno varnost, Evropsko unijo pa za nacionalno in mednarodno, med najbolj rizične varnostne implikacije, ki so jih s seboj prinesli begunci, se najpogosteje uvrščata terorizem in organiziran kriminal - tihotapljenje migrantov. ; At the beginning of 2011, the European Union faced the first refugees fleeing from the war-torn areas of Syria, other Middle East countries and Islamic countries of North Africa, trying to secure their freedom, personal safety and future in the member states of the European Union. The political crisis and war in the Middle East did not subside, on the contrary, every day thousands of people took the Mediterranean and Balkan routes to reach Europe. In 2015, when migration flows into Europe peaked, the European Union experienced the worst refugee crisis after the Second World War. The EU had to face a grave migration issue and eventually settled it with the help and in cooperation with Turkey – country that 69 years ago applied for the membership in the European Union but has not become its full member to this day. Turkey today hosts the largest share of Syrian refugees in the world – 3,6 million, and after many years of intensive political activity and diplomacy, it started a new chapter of cooperation with the European Union, we could call it migration cooperation. Together, they forged a common migration policy by signing the EU-Turkey Statement on 18th March 2016. Its aim was to put a halt to the irregular migration flows on the Balkan route from Turkey to the European Union and to replace it with organised, safe and legal ways to enter Europe. Of course, Turkey was not merely doing a favour to the European Union and the EU was ready to pay well in exchange, sending 3 billion euros to Turkey and promising other benefits, including visa liberalisation. Today, there are more than 1,8 million refugees in the European Union. Many Europeans worry about their personal safety and the European Union is concerned about the national and international security. As the riskiest security implications brought by refugees are most often mentioned terrorism and organised crime – smuggling of migrants.

Sodba ESČP mora biti ustrezno implementirana na nacionalni ravni, zato bodo uporabljeni nadzorstveni mehanizmi Sveta Evrope. Ko ESČP izda zoper državo obsodilno sodbo, je posredovana Odboru ministrov, ki mu je na podlagi EKČP zaupana naloga nadzora nad izvršitvijo dokončne sodbe. Odbor ministrov ugotavlja v običajnem ali v razširjenem postopku, ali je država sprejela vse potrebne ukrepe za izvršitev naloženih obveznosti iz pravnomočne sodbe. Če je država izpolnila vse obveznosti iz sodbe, Odbor ministrov sprejme resolucijo, s katero konča nadzor. Združeno kraljestvo in Rusija sta državi, ki v zadnjih letih močno kljubujeta avtoriteti ESČP in zavračata izvršitev nekaterih sodb tega sodišča. V Rusiji so sprejeli sporni Zvezni ustavni zakon z dne 14. 12. 2015 št. 7-FKZ, ki je omogočil Ustavnemu sodišču Ruske federacije, da presoja skladnost sodb ESČP z Ustavo Ruske federacije. V primeru ugotovitve neskladnosti lahko Ustavno sodišče prepreči izvršitev sodbe ESČP. V Združenem kraljestvu že več let kljubujejo sodbi v zadevi Hirst proti ZK, tako da zavlačujejo s sprejemom zakonodajnih sprememb, ki jih je zahtevalo ESČP. Neizvrševanje sodb ima v obeh državah skupno točko – obe sta namreč ogrozili učinkovitost izvrševanja sodb ESČP ravno zaradi volilne pravice zapornikov. Kljubovanje ESČP je v Združenem kraljestvu ostalo na politični ravni, medtem ko je šla Rusija po drugačni poti, saj je sprejela zakonodajne spremembe prav z namenom, da ne bo izvrševala protiustavnih sodb ESČP. V Rusiji ne gre samo za razpravo o razmerju med strasbourškim sodiščem in domačimi sodišči tako kot v Združenem kraljestvu, ampak za kljubovanje države odločitvam v celoti, kar je zaskrbljujoče. Če hočejo ohraniti učinkovit sistem varstva človekovih pravic, si morajo Svet Evrope in njegove članice odločneje prizadevati za dosledno uresničevanje sodb ESČP. ; A judgment of the European Court of Human Rights (abbreviated as ECtHR) must be properly implemented on a national level. For that reason, supervisory mechanisms of the Council of Europe will be used. When the ECtHR delivers a judgment against a state, it is passed on to the Committee of Ministers, which is entrusted with a task of supervising enforcement of a final judgment. The Committee of Ministers finds whether the State has taken all necessary measures to comply with obligations imposed by a final judgment. If the State has fulfilled all obligations, the Committee of Ministers shall adopt a final resolution. The UK and Russia are countries that have strongly defined authority of the ECtHR in the recent years. In several occasions, both states refused to enforce judgments. In Russia, they adopted controversial Federal Constitutional Law of 14 December 2015 no. 7-FKZ that has enabled the Constitutional Court to assess compliance of judgments of the ECtHR with the Constitution of the Russian Federation. If the Constitutional Court finds that a judgment of the ECtHR is not in compliance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation, it may prevent execution of a judgment. For many years, the UK has defied execution of a judgment in the case of Hirst v. the UK by delaying adoption of legislative changes that were required by the ECtHR. Failure to enforce judgments is a common point in both countries. In the UK, resentment against the ECtHR remains at political level. While in Russia, they implemented legislative changes with clear intention not to implement unconstitutional judgments of the ECtHR. If we want an effective system of human rights protection, we must continue to strive toward consistent implementation of judgments of the ECtHR.

Obstaja veliko študij, ki se ukvarjajo s primerjalnim vrednotenjem e-uprave. Razlog za tako popularnost primerjalnega vrednotenja je interes različnih držav za boljši vpogled v trenutno specifično fazo razvoja e-uprave na nacionalni ravni. Ta vpogled hkrati razkriva pozitivne in negativne plati razvoja v primerjavi z drugimi državami ter tiste vidike, ki jih je treba izboljšati. Namen naše študije, ki vsebuje analizo razvitosti e-uprave v Sloveniji, Avstriji, Hrvaški, Danski in Estoniji v letih 2014, 2015 in 2016, je ugotoviti, ali v izbranih državah obstaja povezanost med stopnjo razvitosti e-uprave in drugimi izbranimi dejavniki razvitosti države (višina bruto domačega proizvoda, stopnja izobrazbe in stopnja interakcije z javnimi organi). Za opisovanje ključnih pojmov e-uprave in kazalnikov razvitosti smo uporabili metodo deskripcije, s komparativno in statistično metodo pa smo primerjali izmerjene vrednosti izbranih kazalnikov. Ugotovitve analize ne nakazujejo povezanosti med višino BDP in stopnjo razvitosti euprave. Pri nižji in srednji stopnji izobrazbe obstaja negativna povezanost, kar pomeni, da manjši kot so deleži prebivalstva z nižjo oziroma srednjo izobrazbo, bolj se povečuje stopnja razvitosti e-uprave. Delež prebivalstva z visoko izobrazbo pa je pozitivno povezan s stopnjo razvitosti e-uprave. Močna pozitivna povezanost je prav tako prisotna med stopnjo interakcije z javno upravo in stopnjo razvoja e-uprave. Izjema je le Slovenija, kjer se stopnja interakcije z javnimi organi znižuje s povečevanjem stopnje razvitosti e-uprave. S primerjalno analizo smo pridobili boljši vpogled v stanje e-uprave v izbranih državah ter s tem prispevali k boljšemu razumevanju obravnavanega področja in k identifikaciji povezanosti razvitosti e-uprave z drugimi kazalniki razvoja države. ; There are many studies dealing with comparative evaluation of e-government. The reason for such popularity of comparative evaluation is the interest of different countries for a better insight into the current, specific phase of e-government development at the national level. At the same time, this insight reveals positive and negative aspects of development in comparison with other countries and emphasizes those aspects that need to be improved. The purpose of our study, which includes the analysis of the development of e-government in Slovenia, Austria, Croatia, Denmark and Estonia in 2014, 2015 and 2016, is to determine whether a correlation between the level of development of egovernment and other selected factors of the country's development (amount of gross domestic product, level of education, level of interaction with public authorities) exists in selected countries. In order to describe the key concepts of e-government and development indicators, a descriptive method was used, and with the comparative and statistical method we compared the measured value of the selected indicators. The findings of the analysis do not indicate the correlation between the level of GDP and the level of development of e-government. At the lower and middle level of education, there is a negative correlation, which means that smaller the proportions of the population with lower and secondary education are, higher is the level of development of e-government. The proportion of the population with higher education positively correlates with the level of e-government development. A strong positive correlation is also present between the level of interaction with public authorities and the level of egovernment development. The only exception is Slovenia, where the level of interaction with public authorities is decreasing by increasing the level of e-government development. With our comparative analysis we gained a better insight into the condition of egovernment in selected countries and thus contributed to a better understanding of the area as well as identified the connection between the development of e-government and other indicators of the country's development.

Pojem administrativna ovira lahko razložimo kot nekaj, kar lahko posamezniku ali organizaciji onemogoča doseganje zastavljenih ciljev v njegovem vsakdanjem življenju. Posebno pozornost v magistrski nalogi smo tako namenili predstavitvi različnih evropskih programov, ki se ukvarjajo s problematiko zmanjševanja administrativnih ovir tako na nivoju EU, kot tudi na nacionalni ravni držav članic. V okviru magistrske naloge smo se osredotočili ravno na črpanje sredstev kohezijske politike EU ter na podlagi podatkov raziskave poskušali pokazati, kje se še možnosti za odpravo administrativnih ovir ter kje so tiste slabosti oz. ovire, ki jim do sedaj nismo pripisovali dovolj velike pozornosti, čeprav se v procesu administrativnega vodenja projektov z njimi vsakodnevno srečujemo. Na ta način bomo dosegli še dodatno poenostavitev postopkov in povečali uspešnost pri črpanju sredstev iz strukturnih skladov EU. V nalogi obravnavani raziskovalni problem, se nanaša na upravljanje s projekti v fazi njihovega izvajanja, v okviru katerega smo se osredotočili na administrativno in finančno poročanje. Z izvedeno raziskavo smo preučili tri sklope vprašanj, ki se nanašajo na administrativne ovire pri projektnem poročanju, organizacijsko strukturo kohezijske politike in rezultate uspešnosti Slovenije pri črpanju sredstev evropske kohezijske politike. Slovenija je primerljivo uspešna z drugimi evropskimi državami pri črpanju sredstev EU, kar smo v sklopu izvedene raziskave dokazali na podlagi analize absorbcijske uspešnosti kohezijske politike. Prav tako Slovenija izkazuje nizek delež administrativnih stroškov glede na ocenjene vrednosti povprečnega deleža bruto domačega proizvoda, ki ga predstavljajo administrativni stroški in je v tem kriteriju izmed primerjanih držav najuspešnejša. S problemom črpanja evropskih sredstev so se ukvarjale vse zadnje slovenske vlade, zlasti v finančni krizi pa so nekako končno priznale, da so to pravzaprav edina dodatna razvojna sredstva, ki jih država lahko pridobi, od njene usmerjenosti in absorbcijske sposobnosti pa je hkrati tudi odvisno, kako uspešno jih bo uspela počrpati. ; The concept of an administrative burden can be explained as something that makes it impossible for an individual or organization to achieve the objectives pursued in their everyday life. Special focus of this master thesis is dedicated to the presentation of different European programs which deal with the problem of reducing administrative burdens at the EU level and also at the national level of individual Member States. The present master thesis focuses particularly on the absorbtion of funds of the EU cohesion policy, and on the basis of the research data attempts to show where there is still potential for the reduction of administrative burdens and where there are those weaknesses or barriers that have not yet received enough attention, although we face them daily in the process of administrative management. In this way we can achieve further simplification of the procedures and enhance efficiency in the disbursement of funding from the EU Structural Funds. The research problem of the thesis relates to the management of projects at the stage of their implementation, in which we focus on administrative and financial reporting. During the survey we considered three main questions related to administrative burdens in the phase of project reporting, organizational structure of the cohesion policy and on the results of the Slovenian performance in the absorbtion of EU cohesion policy funds. Slovenia shares comparable success with other European countries in absorbing EU funds, which was proved on the basis of the analysis of absorbtion efficiency of the Cohesion policy carried out in the framework of this research. Slovenia also shows a considerably low share of administrative costs in relation to the estimated value of the average share of the gross domestic product represented by these administrative costs. In terms of this criterion Slovenia is the most successful country from the countries we compared. All the recent Slovenian Governments have dealt with issues relating to the absorbtion of European funds, especially during the last financial crisis, when they finally recognized that these funds are actually the only additionally available developmental funds the state can obtain. The state's orientation and absorbtion capacity will thus show how successful it will be in the future in absorbing these funds.

V magistrski nalogi smo raziskali uvajanje managementa kakovosti v visokem šolstvu, analizirali smo pristope ter modele zunanjih evalvacij v državah Evropske unije in drugih razvitih državah sveta ter podali splošne podatke o evalvacijah v visokem šolstvu. Raziskali smo procese evalvacij v visokem šolstvu in stanje v Sloveniji. S primerjavo z državami članicami Evropske unije in širše, kjer izvajajo zunanje evalvacije neodvisne institucije (agencije), smo potrdili tezo, da v Sloveniji sistem kakovosti v visokem šolstvu še ni primerljiv z evropskimi modeli. Analizirali smo postopke managementa kakovosti v slovenskem visokošolskem prostoru, kjer že dobro desetletje univerze in njihove članice redno opravljajo samoevalvacije, od leta 2006 pa nacionalni evalvacijski organ izvaja tudi zunanje institucionalne evalvacije. Prikazan je izvirni model notranjih institucionalnih evalvacij na Univerzi v Mariboru. Model je potrjen z raziskavo, ki temelji na praktičnih primerih, ki so podkrepljeni z ustrezno teorijo in izkušnjami iz primerov dobre prakse. Opisani so posamezni segmenti (pričetek evalvacijskega postopka, zahtevana dokumentacija visokoškolskega zavoda, obisk evalvacijske komisije, poročilo o notranji evalvaciji …) kot prispevek k izboljšanju in razvoju managementa kakovosti na Univerzi v Mariboru. Prikazana so spoznanja in rezultati na praktičnem primeru pilotnega projekta notranje institucionalne evalvacije. Podana je utemeljetev vpeljave notranjih institucionalnih evalvacij na Univerzi v Mariboru, ki se bo izjemno pozitivno izkazala ob neodvisni zunanji institucionalni evalvaciji posameznega visokošolskega zavoda. V okviru raziskave smo opravili še anketo med ciljno skupino zaposlenih na Univerzi v Mariboru, ki so doslej že sodelovali pri zunanjih evalvacijah. Rezultati bodo pripomogli k izboljšanju nadaljnjega načrtovanja in izvajanja dejavnosti v okviru notranjih institucionalnih evalvacij na Univerzi v Mariboru. V raziskavi smo potrdili zastavljeno delovno predpostavko, da se bodo s pomočjo modela notranjih institucionalnih evalvacij izboljšali procesi managementa kakovosti članic Univerze v Mariboru. Zato izsledki magistrske naloge predstavljajo pomemben prispevek k izboljševanju stanja kakovosti na članicah Univerze v Mariboru, še posebej na posameznih področjih managementa kakovosti ter celovitega sistema managementa kakovosti. ; This master's thesis examines the introduction of quality management in higher education, analyses different external evaluation models of EU Member States and other developed countries and provides general data on evaluations in higher education. In this paper, evaluation processes in higher education and the situation in Slovenia are examined. By comparing Slovenia with other EU Member States, as well as a few other countries, where external evaluations are conducted by independent institutions (agencies), the conclusion is drawn that quality assurance in Slovene higher education is still lagging behind other European models. We analyzed quality management in Slovenia, where for over a decade universities and their members have been performing regular self-evaluations. In addition, a national evaluation body is conducting external institutional evaluations since 2006. An original model of internal institutional evaluation at the University of Maribor is introduced. It is backed up by research based on practical examples as well as relevant theory and examples of good practice. Particular elements (initiation of the evaluation process, required documentation, visit of the evaluation committee, internal evaluation report, etc.) are described in order to contribute to the improvement and development of quality management at the University of Maribor. Findings and results of a practical pilot project are presented. In addition, reasons for introducing internal institutional evaluations at the university are given, one of them being that such evaluations will prove extremely useful when conducting independent external institutional evaluations of university members. A survey was conducted among the target group consisting of university staff that has already participated in external evaluations. Survey results will contribute to the improved planning and implementation of activities in the context of internal institutional evaluations at the University of Maribor. Our assumption that quality management will improve with the help of the introduced internal evaluation model was correct. For this reason, the findings of this thesis represent a valuable contribution to quality assurance at the University of Maribor and its members, especially in certain areas of quality management and in terms of a comprehensive system of quality management.

Izgorevanje fosilnih energentov negativno vpliva na naš planet in v veliki meri pripomore k negativnim spremembam našega okolja. Z namenom preprečitve teh sprememb se od devetdesetih let prejšnjega stoletja v svetu, tudi v političnem opredeljevanju, vse bolj krepi zavedanje, da je treba ukrepati in s tem namenom svetovne politike vse več pozornosti posvečajo uvajanju programov, s katerimi bi te spremembe preprečili oziroma jih vsaj omilili. Evropska unija ima pri aktivnostih varovanja okolja vodilno vlogo v svetu. Predvsem pa znotraj unije skrbi za uresničevanje zastavljenih ciljev varstva okolja in državam članicam nalaga obveze za izpolnjevanje skupnih ciljev in dopušča ukrepe, ki naj bi zagotovili izpolnitev zadanih ciljev. S tem namenom dopušča tudi izjeme od načelne prepovedi dodeljevanja državnih pomoči. Le te so dopustne le, če so skladne s pravili, ki opredeljujejo njihovo dodelitev, katera so v izključni pristojnosti Evropske komisije, in uresničujejo cilje skupnega interesa, kar skrb za varstvo okolja zagotovo je. Tako je, dodeljena skladno z enimi od takšnih pravil, to je s smernicami o državni pomoči za varstvo okolja in (energijo) , izjemoma dopustna tudi državna pomoč proizvajalcem, ki proizvajajo električno energijo iz obnovljivih virov, če je predhodno tudi potrjena s strani Evropske komisije. Takšna državna pomoč, je bila leta 2009 z Energetskim zakonom uveljavljena tudi v Republiki Sloveniji, kot podpora za električno energijo, proizvedeno iz obnovljivih virov v okviru podporne sheme. Uveljavitev podporne sheme je bila smiselna in predvsem potrebna z namenom spodbuditi potencialne investitorje k investicijam, ki bodo prispevale k razvoju oziroma povečanju deleža električne energije, proizvedene iz obnovljivih virov, v skupni bruto končni rabi električne energije. Evropska unija je Republiko slovenijo z Direktivo 2009/28/ES Evropskega parlamenta in sveta o spodbujanju uporabe energije iz obnovljivih virov namreč obvezala do leta 2020 doseči 25 odstotni delež energije iz obnovljivih virov v skupni bruto končni rabi energije. Proizvajalci, ki so zgradili oziroma namestili proizvodne naprave za proizvodnjo električne energije iz obnovljivih virov so tako lahko v okviru podporne sheme pridobili podpore, namenjene za pokritje razlike med stroški proizvodnje, vključno z normalnim donosom na vložena sredstva, in prihodki od prodaje te proizvedene električne energije na trgu. Ker so bile vrednosti podpor določene administrativno, na podlagi vrednosti primerljivih investicij pred uveljavitvijo podporne sheme, in v obdobju med leti 2010 in 2012 niso bile usklajene z razmerami enakih investicij posameznih tehnologij na trgu (katerih cene so se bolj ali manj prepolovile), so v mnogih primerih proizvajalcem dodeljene podpore, za katere se izkazuje, da niso sorazmerne in presegajo dopusten obseg državne pomoči opredeljen tako v smernicah o državni pomoči za varstvo okolja in (energijo), kot tudi v nacionalni zakonodaji. V takšnih primerih bi država načeloma morala poseči v že dodeljene državne pomoči, ki se bodo proizvajalcem izplačevale za vso proizvedeno električno energijo v obdobju 15 let od namestitve proizvodne naprave, in jih, skladno z zakonodajnimi določbami, korigirati tako, da bodo služile svojemu namenu, to je pokritju razlike med stroški proizvodnje, vključno z normalnim donosom na vložena sredstva in prihodki od prodaje te energije na trgu. ; The combustion of fossil fuels has a negative impact on the environment and has become a major contributor to negative changes in our environment. To prevent these changes, the awareness that action must be taken has been present from the 1990s onward, including political actions. Global governance, therefore, pays more attention to the introduction of the programmes that prevent or at least mitigate these changes. The European Union has a leading role in the combat against climate changes. The Member States are responsible for meeting common objectives to protect the environment and to implement the measures for the fulfilment of these objectives. In this view, exceptions to the general prohibition on state aid are allowed. These exceptions are allowed only if they are in compliance with the rules that determine their allocation and falling within the exclusive jurisdiction of the European Commission, as well as if they meet the common targets related to environmental protection. In lines with one of these rules, Guidelines on State aid for environmental protection and energy, a state aid for the production of electricity from renewable sources is permitted. This state aid must be previously approved by the European Commission. By implementing the Energy Act in 2009, Slovenia has established such state aid as a support for the production of electricity from renewable energy sources within the frame of the support scheme. The introduction of the support scheme was a sensible and above all the necessary solution to encourage investors for investments that will contribute to the development and to increasing the share of renewable electricity in the gross final electricity consumption. By the Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources Slovenia become committed to achieve a 25 percent share of energy produced from renewable sources by 2020 in the gross final energy consumption. Producers who built or installed the facilities for the production of electricity from the renewable sources received the support within the support scheme ; the support was intended to cover the difference between the production costs, including a normal return on assets, and the revenues from the sale of electricity in the market. These supports were determined administratively on the basis of comparable investments before the support scheme was implemented ; in the period between 2010 and 2012 were not in compliance with the requirements for comparable investments in the market (prices of these investments were more or less halved). Due to that, many producers were granted the supports, which are not proportional and exceed the admissible amount of state aid determined by the Guidelines on State aid for environmental protection and energy, and national legislation. In such cases, the state should intervene in already granted supports, which are to be paid to producers for the produced electricity over the period of 15 years from the installation of the production facility. In accordance with the legislation, supports should be amend in a way to serve their purpose, that is to cover the difference between the production costs, including a normal return on assets, and the revenues from the sale of electricity in the market.

Meje med državami članicami Evropske unije na nek način obstajajo le še na papirju – prebivalci Evropske unije lahko delamo v drugih državah članicah, podjetja pa na primer lahko poslujejo v drugih državah članicah pod istimi pogoji kot poslujejo domača podjetja. Notranji trg Evropske unije tako ponuja številne priložnosti podjetjem, ki želijo razširiti svoje poslovanje izven meja svoje države ter s tem izboljšati svoj položaj na zelo konkurenčnem trgu. Priložnosti, ki jih prinaša notranji trg Evropske unije, pa spremljajo izzivi in ovire, za katere je potrebno znanje in viri, tako finančni kot človeški, da se premostijo. Zaradi omejenosti sredstev so mala in srednje velika podjetja bolj izpostavljena izzivom ter se težje spopadajo z ovirami kot pa velika podjetja. Dejstvo, da so skoraj vsa podjetja v Evropski uniji mala in srednje velika podjetja, nalaga ustvarjalcem poslovnega in zakonodajnega okolja veliko odgovornost – malim in srednje velikim podjetjem, še posebej pa mikropodjetjem, je potrebno zagotoviti trg, na katerem lahko enakovredno nastopajo skupaj z velikimi podjetji. Znaten delež malih in srednje velikih podjetij v Evropski uniji je mnenja, da je prav zakonodaja tista, ki predstavlja najvišjo oviro pri njihovem poslovanju. Za zagotovitev skladnosti z evropsko oziroma nacionalno zakonodajo morajo nameniti velik delež svojih virov, kar nedvomno vpliva na njihovo poslovanje in konkurenčnost. Zavedajoč se izjemnega pomena malih in srednje velikih podjetij za evropsko gospodarstvo, Evropska komisija s svojimi predlogi, akti, ukrepi ter programi zmanjšuje administrativna bremena ter na ta način poskuša zagotoviti enakovredne konkurenčne pogoje za vsa podjetja, ne glede na njihovo velikost. Na vseh korakih cikla specifičnega akta/politike se posebno pozornost namenja malim in srednje velikim podjetjem, še posebej pa mikropodjetjem, ter administrativnim bremenom. Tako se že pri prvotnem načrtovanju pobude, ko Evropska komisija objavi t.i. časovnico, naredi preliminarna ocena potencialnih vplivov pobude na mala in srednje velika podjetja. Preden pa Evropska komisija dejansko predlaga nov predlog, se naprej skozi javno posvetovanje posvetuje z relevantnimi deležniki in oceni možne posledice predloga - to naredi s tako imenovano oceno učinka, ki je obvezna za najpomembnejše pobude in pobude z daljnosežnimi posledicami. Sama ocena učinka je del »MSP testa«, v okviru katerega se, med drugim, naredi natančna analiza učinkov predlagane pobude na mala in srednje velika podjetja. V oceni učinka je posebno poglavje namenjeno tudi analizi administrativnih bremen oziroma administrativnih stroškov, ki bi nastali s sprejetjem pobude, ki se ocenjuje. Rezultati te analize in »MSP testa« omogočajo podlago za odločitev, ali bodo mala in srednje velika podjetja morala upoštevati vse obveznosti, ki izhajajo iz pobude, ali bodo morebiti iz določenih obveznosti izključena oziroma bo za njih veljal blažji režim. Med samim izvajanjem posamezne pobude oziroma po koncu njenega izvajanja Evropska komisija z vrednotenjem redno ocenjuje uspešnost, učinkovitost, ustreznost in dodano vrednost ukrepov Evropske unije. V okviru Programa ustreznosti in uspešnosti predpisov – REFIT, ki je bil uveden z namenom narediti zakonodajo Evropske unije kakovostnejšo in lažjo, se izvajajo korektivni ukrepi obstoječe zakonodaje, vrednotenja in preverjanja ustreznosti, ter razveljavitve obstoječe zakonodaje, ki ne služi svojemu namenu. Ne glede na vse napore in ukrepe Evropske komisije za zmanjšanje administrativnih bremen še vedno obstajajo zakonodajni akti, ki so za mala in srednje velika podjetja, še posebej pa za mikropodjetja, zelo obremenjujoči. Leta 2012 so mala in srednje velika podjetja v javnem posvetovanju identificirala deset zakonodajnih aktov Evropske unije, ki so za njih najbolj obremenjujoči - Evropska komisija je v zvezi z identificiranimi akti, kjer je to možno, že ukrepala. ; In a way, borders between the Member States of the European Union remain to exist only on paper – for example, citizens of the European Union can work in other Member States, while enterprises can do business in other Member States under the same conditions as domestic enterprises. The internal market of the European Union offers numerous opportunities to enterprises which want to expand their business outside their country's borders and thereby improve its position on the very competitive market. Opportunities that internal market of the European Union brings are accompanied by challenges and barriers for which know-how as well as financial and human resources are needed to overcome them. Due to lack of resources, small and medium-sized enterprises are more exposed to challenges and face more difficulties with overcoming barriers, in comparison with large enterprises. The fact that almost all enterprises in the European Union are small and medium-sized enterprises imposes a great responsibility on creators of the business and regulatory environment – a market on which small and medium-sized enterprises, and especially micro-enterprises, will be able to equally compete with large enterprises must be ensured. A significant share of small and medium-sized enterprises in the European Union shares the opinion that legislation represents the highest barrier to conduct business. They have to allocate a great share of their resources in order to ensure compliance with European and/or national legislation, which undoubtedly impacts their operations and competitiveness. Being aware of the immense significance of small and medium-sized enterprises for the European economy, the European Commission is reducing administrative burden with its proposals, acts and programmes. In this way, the European Commission is trying to ensure a level playing field for all enterprises, regardless of their size. On all steps of a cycle of a specific act/policy, special attention is paid to small and medium sized enterprises, especially to micro-enterprises, and administrative burden. It starts with the planning of the initiative, when the European Commission publishes a roadmap, in which a preliminary assessment of initiative's potential impacts on small and medium-sized enterprises is done. Furthermore, before the European Commission actually proposes a new proposal, it first evaluates its possible consequences with a so-called impact assessment, which is obligatory for the most important initiatives and for initiatives with far-reaching consequences. The impact assessment is also a part of a "SME test", in the context of which a detailed analysis of initiative's impacts on small and medium-sized enterprises is conducted. Moreover, a specific chapter is dedicated to the analysis of administrative burden and administrative costs, which would be incurred with the adoption of the respective initiative. Results of the analysis and of the SME test represent a basis for a decision whether small and medium-sized enterprises will be included in all obligations, deriving from the initiative, or whether they will be excluded from certain obligations or will they be a subject to a milder regime. During the implementation of a specific initiative or at the end of its implementation, the European Commission regularly assesses the effectiveness, efficiency, relevance and added value of the European Union's measures. In the context of the Regulatory Fitness and Performance programme – REFIT, which was introduced with the intention of making the legislation of the European Union lighter and of greater quality, corrective measures of existing legislation, evaluations and fitness checks, as well as repeals of existing legislation which is not fit for its purpose, are carried out. Despite the efforts and measures of the European Commission to reduce administrative burden, legislative acts, which are very burdensome for small and medium-sized enterprises, still exist.

Temporary or permanent, local or international, voluntary or forced, legal or illegal, registered or unregistered migrations of individuals, whole communities or individual groups are an important factor in constructing and modifying (modern) societies. The extent of international migrations is truly immense. At the time of the preparation of this publication more than 200 million people have been involved in migrations in a single year according to the United Nations. Furthermore, three times more wish to migrate, mostly from sub-Saharan Africa towards some of the most economically developed areas of the world according to the estimates by the Gallup Institute (Esipova, 2011). Some authors, although aware that it is not a new phenomenon, talk about the era of migration (Castles, Miller, 2009) or the globalization of migration (Friedman, 2004). The global dimensions of migration are definitely influenced also by the increasingly visible features of modern societies like constantly changing conditions, instability, fluidity, uncertainty etc. (Beck, 2009; Bauman, 2002).The extent, direction, type of migrations and their consequences are affected by many social and natural factors in the areas of emigration and immigration. In addition, researchers from many scientific disciplines who study migrations have raised a wide range of research questions (Boyle, 2009, 96), use a variety of methodological approaches and look for different interpretations in various spatial, temporal and contextual frameworks. The migrations are a complex, multi-layered, variable, contextual process that takes place at several levels. Because of this, research on migrations has become an increasingly interdisciplinary field, since the topics and problems are so complex that they cannot be grasped solely and exclusively from the perspective of a single discipline or theory. Therefore, we are witnessing a profusion of different "faces of migration", which is reflected and at the same time also contributed to by this thematic issue of the journal Ars & Humanitas.While mobility or migration are not new phenomena, as people have moved and migrated throughout the history of mankind, only recently, in the last few decades, has theoretical and research focus on them intensified considerably. In the last two decades a number of research projects, university programs and courses, research institutes, scientific conferences, seminars, magazines, books and other publications, involving research, academia as well as politics and various civil society organizations have emerged. This shows the recent exceptional interest in the issue of migration, both in terms of knowledge of the processes involved, their mapping in the history of mankind, as well as the theoretical development of migration studies and daily management of this politically sensitive issue.Migration affects many entities on many different levels: the individuals, their families and entire communities at the local level in the emigrant societies as well as in the receiving societies. The migration is changing not only the lives of individuals but whole communities and societies, as well as social relations; it is also shifting the cultural patterns and bringing important social transformations (Castles 2010). This of course raises a number of questions, problems and issues ranging from human rights violations to literary achievements. Some of these are addressed by the authors in this thematic issue.The title "Many faces of migration", connecting contributions in this special issue, is borrowed from the already mentioned Gallup Institute's report on global migration (Esipova, 2011). The guiding principle in the selection of the contributions has been their diversity, reflected also in the list of disciplines represented by the authors: sociology, geography, ethnology and cultural anthropology, history, art history, modern Mediterranean studies, gender studies and media studies. Such an approach necessarily leads not only to a diverse, but at least seemingly also incompatible, perhaps even opposing views "on a given topic. However, we did not want to silence the voices of "other" disciplines, but within the reviewing procedures actually invited scientists from the fields represented by the contributors to this volume. The wealth of the selected contributions lies therefore not only in their coherence and complementarity, but also in the diversity of views, stories and interpretations.The paper of Zora Žbontar deals with the attitudes towards foreigners in ancient Greece, where the hospitality to strangers was considered so worthy a virtue that everyone was expected to "demonstrate hospitality and protection to any foreigner who has knocked on their door". The contrast between the hospitality of ancient Greece and the modern emergence of xenophobia and ways of dealing with migration issues in economically developed countries is especially challenging. "In an open gesture of hospitality to strangers the ancient Greeks showed their civilization".Although the aforementioned research by the United Nations and Gallup Institute support some traditional stereotypes of the main global flows of migrants, and the areas about which the potential migrants "dream", Bojan Baskar stresses the coexistence of different migratory desires, migration flows and their interpretations. In his paper he specifically focuses on overcoming and relativising stereotypes as well as theories of immobile and non-enterprising (Alpine) mountain populations and migrations.The different strategies of the crossing borders adopted by migrant women are studied by Mirjana Morokvasic. She marks them as true social innovators, inventing different ways of transnational life resulting in a bottom-up contribution to the integrative processes across Europe. Some of their innovations go as far as to shift diverse real and symbolic boundaries of belonging to a nation, gender, profession.Elaine Burroughs and Zoë O'Reilly highlight the close relations between the otherwise well-established terminology used in statistics and science to label immigrants in Ireland and elsewhere in EU, and the negative representations of certain types of migrants in politics and the public. The discussion focusses particularly on asylum seekers and illegal immigrants who come from outside the EU. The use of language can quickly become a political means of exclusion, therefore the authors propose the development and use of more considerate and balanced migration terminology.Damir Josipovič proposes a change of the focal point for identifying and interpreting the well-studied migrations in the former Yugoslavia. The author suggests changing the dualistic view of these migrations to an integrated, holistic view. Instead of a simplified understanding of these migrations as either international or domestic, voluntary or forced, he proposes a concept of pseudo-voluntary migrations.Maja Korać-Sanderson's contribution highlights an interesting phenomenon in the shift in the traditional patterns of gender roles. The conclusions are derived from the study of the family life of Chinese traders in transitional Serbia. While many studies suggest that child care in recent decades in immigrant societies is generally performed by immigrants, her study reveals that in Serbia, the Chinese merchants entrust the care of their children mostly to local middle class women. The author finds this switch of roles in the "division of labour" in the child care favourable for both parties involved.Francesco Della Puppa focuses on a specific part of the mosaic of contemporary migrations in the Mediterranean: the Bangladeshi immigrant community in the highly industrialized North East of Italy. The results of his in-depth qualitative study reveal the factors that shape this segment of the Bangladeshi diaspora, the experiences of migrants and the effects of migration on their social and biographical trajectories.John A. Schembri and Maria Attard present a snippet of a more typical Mediterranean migration process - immigration to Malta. The authors highlight the reduction in migration between Malta and the United Kingdom, while there is an increase in immigration to Malta from the rest of Europe and sub-Saharan Africa. Amongst the various impacts of immigration to Malta the extraordinary concentration of immigrant populations is emphasized, since the population density of Malta far exceeds that of nearly all other European countries.Miha Kozorog studies the link between migration and constructing their places of their origin. On the basis of Ardener's theory the author expresses "remoteness" of the emigratory Slavia Friulana in terms of topology, in relation to other places, rather than in topography. "Remoteness" is formed in relation to the "outside world", to those who speak of "remote areas" from the privileged centres. The example of an artistic event, which organizers aim "to open a place like this to the outside world", "to encourage the production of more cosmopolitan place", shows only the temporary effect of such event on the reduction of the "remoteness".Jani Kozina presents a study of the basic temporal and spatial characteristics of migration "of people in creative occupations" in Slovenia. The definition of this specific segment of the population and approach to study its migrations are principally based on the work of Richard Florida. The author observes that people with creative occupations in Slovenia are very immobile and in this respect quite similar to other professional groups in Slovenia, but also to the people in creative professions in the Southern and Eastern Europe, which are considered to be among the least mobile in Europe. Detailed analyses show that the people in creative occupations from the more developed regions generally migrate more intensely and are also more willing to relocate.Mojca Pajnik and Veronika Bajt study the experiences of migrant women with the access to the labour market in Slovenia. Existing laws and policies push the migrants into a position where, if they want to get to work, have to accept less demanding work. In doing so, the migrant women are targets of stereotyped reactions and practices of discrimination on the basis of sex, age, attributed ethnic and religious affiliation, or some other circumstances, particularly the fact of being migrants. At the same time the latter results in the absence of any protection from the state.Migration studies often assume that the target countries are "modern" and countries of origin "traditional". Anıl Al- Rebholz argues that such a dichotomous conceptualization of modern and traditional further promotes stereotypical, essentialist and homogenizing images of Muslim women in the "western world". On the basis of biographical narratives of young Kurdish and Moroccan women as well as the relationships between mothers and daughters, the author illustrates a variety of strategies of empowerment of young women in the context of transnational migration.A specific face of migration is highlighted in the text of Svenka Savić, namely the face of artistic migration between Slovenia and Serbia after the Second World War. The author explains how more than thirty artists from Slovenia, with their pioneering work in three ensembles (opera, ballet and theatre), significantly contributed to the development of the performing arts in the Serbian National Theatre in Novi Sad.We believe that in the present thematic issue we have succeeded in capturing an important part of the modern European research dynamic in the field of migration. In addition to well-known scholars in this field several young authors at the beginning their research careers have been shortlisted for the publication. We are glad of their success as it bodes a vibrancy of this research area in the future. At the same time, we were pleased to receive responses to the invitation from representatives of so many disciplines, and that the number of papers received significantly exceeded the maximum volume of the journal. Recognising and understanding of the many faces of migration are important steps towards the comprehensive knowledge needed to successfully meet the challenges of migration issues today and even more so in the future. It is therefore of utmost importance that researchers find ways of transferring their academic knowledge into practice – to all levels of education, the media, the wider public and, of course, the decision makers in local, national and international institutions. The call also applies to all authors in this issue of the journal. ; Začasne ali stalne, lokalne ali mednarodne, prostovoljne ali prisilne, legalne ali ilegalne, registrirane ali neregistrirane migracije posameznic in posameznikov, celih družbenih skupnosti ali posameznih skupin predstavljajo pomemben dejavnik v konstruiranju in spreminjanju (sodobnih) družb. Razsežnosti mednarodnih migracij so resnično ogromne, saj je bilo vanje v času nastajanja te publikacije po ocenah Združenih narodov v enem letu vključenih več kot 200 milijonov ljudi. Po ocenah Gallupovega inštituta pa se jih še trikrat toliko želi preseliti, največ iz podsaharske Afrike ter proti nekaterim gospodarsko najbolj razvitim območjem sveta (Esipova, 2011). Nekateri avtorji zato, čeprav ob zavedanju, da ne gre za nov fenomen, govorijo o dobi migracij (Castles, Miller, 2009) ali o globalizaciji migracij (Friedman, 2004). Zagotovo je na globalne razsežnosti migracij vplivalo tudi to, da so vse bolj vidne značilnosti sodobnih družb nenehno spreminjanje razmer, nestabilnost, fluidnost, negotovost ipd. (Beck, 2009; Bauman, 2002).Na obseg, smeri in vrste migracij ter na njihove posledice vplivajo številni družbeni in naravni dejavniki, tako na območjih odseljevanja kot tudi na območjih priselitev. Poleg tega si raziskovalke in raziskovalci iz številnih znanstvenih disciplin, ki proučujejo migracije, v raziskavah zastavljajo »neverjetno raznovrstna« vprašanja (Boyle, 2009, 96), uporabljajo različne metodološke pristope in iščejo različne interpretacije, in sicer v različnih prostorskih, časovnih in vsebinskih okvirih. Vse bolj prihaja do izraza, da so migracije kompleksen, večplasten, spremenljiv in kontekstualen proces, ki poteka na več ravneh. Prav zaradi tega spoznanja je raziskovanje migracij postajalo vse bolj interdisciplinarno polje, saj so teme in problemi tako kompleksni, da jih ni mogoče zagrabiti zgolj in izključno iz perspektive ene same znanosti ali teorije. Zato smo priča pravemu bogastvu »obrazov migracij«, ki ga odraža ter obenem k njemu tudi prispeva pričujoča tematska številka revije Ars & Humanitas.Čeprav mobilnost oziroma migracije niso nov pojav, saj so se ljudje selili in preseljevali skozi celotno zgodovino človeštva, pa se šele v zadnjem času, v zadnjih nekaj desetletjih, z njimi resno teoretsko in raziskovalno ukvarjamo. V zadnjih dveh desetletjih so se pojavili številni raziskovalni projekti, univerzitetni programi in predmeti, raziskovalni inštituti, znanstvene konference, posveti, revije, knjige in druge publikacije, pri katerih sodelujejo tako raziskovalna in akademska sfera kot tudi politika in različne civilnodružbene organizacije. To priča o v zadnjem času izjemnem zanimanju za vprašanje migracij, tako kar zadeva poznavanje samih procesov in njihovo mapiranje v zgodovini človeštva kot tudi teoretski razvoj migracijskih študij in vsakodnevno urejanje tega politično občutljivega vprašanja.Migracije zadevajo številne subjekte na številnih ravneh: posameznice in posameznike, njihove družine ter celotne skupnosti tako na lokalni ravni v družbi emigracije kakor tudi na vseh teh ravneh v imigrantski družbi. Z migracijami se spreminjajo ne samo življenja posameznikov in posameznic, ampak se spreminjajo celotne skupnosti oziroma družbe in družbeni odnosi, zamikajo se kulturni vzorci, prihaja do pomembnih družbenih transformacij (Castles, 2010). Ob tem se seveda odpirajo številne teme, problemi in vprašanja, ki se gibljejo v širokem razponu od kršenja človekovih pravic do literarnih presežkov. Nekaterih od njih se dotikajo tudi prispevki v pričujoči tematski številki.Povezovalni naslov prispevkov v tej tematski številki revije, »Številni obrazi migracij«, smo si sposodili iz že omenjenega poročila Gallupovega inštituta o globalnih selitvah (Esipova, 2011). Temeljno vsebinsko vodilo pri izbiri prispevkov je bila raznovrstnost, kar nakazuje tudi pregled znanstvenih disciplin, iz katerih prihajajo avtorji: sociologija, geografija, etnologija in kulturna antropologija, zgodovina, umetnostna zgodovina, sodobne sredozemske študije, študiji spola in medijski študiji. Tak pristop nujno pripelje ne le do raznolikih, ampak tudi do vsaj navidezno neskladnih, morda celo nasprotnih pogledov na obravnavane tematike. Vendar nismo želeli utišati glasov iz »drugih« znanstvenih disciplin, temveč smo raje v recenzentske postopke povabili znanstvenike s področij, s katerih so tudi avtorji. Bogastvo zbranih prispevkov torej ni v njihovi medsebojni skladnosti in potrjevanju, temveč prav v mnogoterosti pogledov, zgodb in interpretacij.Prispevek Zore Žbontar obravnava odnos do tujcev v antični Grčiji, kjer je bilo gostoljubje do tujcev tako častivredna vrlina, da je vsak moral »izkazati gostoljubje in zaščititi kateregakoli tujca, ki je potrkal na vrata«. Zlasti je izzivalen kontrast med gostoljubjem v antični Grčiji in sodobnim pojavljanjem ksenofobije ter načini soočanja z migracijsko problematiko v gospodarsko razvitih državah. »Antični Grki so v odprti gesti gostoljubja do tujcev prepoznali svojo civiliziranost.«Čeprav omenjene raziskave Združenih narodov in Gallupovega inštituta podpirajo nekatere uveljavljene stereotipe o glavnih globalnih tokovih migrantov ter o območjih, o katerih »sanjajo« potencialni migranti, Bojan Baskar opozarja na sočasen obstoj tudi drugačnih migracijskih želja, tokov migracij in njihovih interpretacij. Posebej se osredotoči na preseganje in relativizacijo stereotipov in teorij o nemobilnem in nepodjetnem (alpskem) hribovskem prebivalstvu in migracijah.O tem, kako različne strategije pri prehajanju, prestopanju in prečkanju meja razvijejo migrantke, piše Mirjana Morokvasic. Označi jih kot prave socialne inovatorke, ki izumijo različne načine transnacionalnega življenja in tako od spodaj navzgor prispevajo k integrativnim procesom po vsej Evropi. V svoji inovativnosti gredo nekatere tako daleč, da premikajo različne, tako realne kot simbolne meje pripadanja naciji, spolu in poklicu.Elaine Burroughs in Zoë O'Reilly izpostavita tesno povezanost med sicer uveljavljeno terminologijo, s katero v statistiki in tudi znanosti označujejo imigrante na Irskem in širše v EU, ter negativnimi reprezentacijami nekaterih tipov migrantov v politiki in javnosti. Razpravo navežeta zlasti na iskalce azila in nezakonite priseljence, ki pridejo iz držav zunaj EU. Raba jezika lahko hitro postane politični način izključevanja, zato predlagata razvoj in uporabo obzirnejše in pravičnejše migracijske terminologije.Za spremembo izhodišča opredeljevanja in interpretacije sicer dobro proučenih selitev v nekdanji Jugoslaviji se zavzame Damir Josipovič. Predlaga zamenjavo dualističnega pogleda na te migracije s celostnim. Namesto njihovega poenostavljenega razumevanja kot mednarodnih in notranjih ali prostovoljnih in prisilnih migracij pa se zavzema za koncept psevdoprostovoljnih migracij.Na zanimiv fenomen zamikanja ustaljenih vzorcev spolnih vlog opozori tekst Maje Korać-Sanderson, katere zaključki izhajajo iz študije družinskega življenja kitajskih trgovcev v tranzicijski Srbiji. Medtem ko številne študije ugotavljajo, da skrbstveno delo v zadnjih desetletjih v imigrantskih družbah v glavnem opravljajo migrantke, njena študija ugotavlja, da v Srbiji kitajske trgovke skrb za svoje otroke večinoma zaupajo lokalnim ženskam srednjega razreda. Ta obrat vlog pri »delitvi dela« v skrbstveni sferi, ugotavlja avtorica, je v prid obema vpletenima stranema.Specifičen del mozaika sodobnih migracij v Sredozemlju, bangladeške skupnosti imigrantov na visoko industrializiranem severovzhodu Italije, razkriva Francesco Della Puppa. Izsledki poglobljenega kvalitativnega proučevanja odstirajo dejavnike, ki oblikujejo ta segment bangladeške diaspore, izkušnje migrantov ter učinke selitve na njihove družbene in biografske trajektorije.Izsek iz bolj tipičnih sredozemskih migracijskih procesov na primeru priseljevanja na Malto predstavita John A. Schembri in Maria Attard. Ugotavljata zmanjševanje števila selitev med Malto in Veliko Britanijo ob hkratnem povečevanju priseljevanja iz ostalih držav Evrope in podsaharske Afrike. Med učinki priseljevanja na Malto izpostavita izredno zgoščenost priseljenega prebivalstva, ki presega gostote celotnih prebivalstev v nekaterih evropskih državah.Miha Kozorog obravnava povezavo med migracijami in konstruiranjem krajev, iz katerih te migracije izvirajo. S pomočjo Ardenerjeve teorije »odročnost« izrazito emigracijske Benečije izrazi ne toliko v topografskem kot v topološkem smislu, v razmerju do drugih krajev. »Odročnost« nastaja v razmerju z »zunanjim svetom«, s tistimi, ki govorijo o »odročnih krajih« iz privilegiranih središč. Na primeru umetniškega dogodka, s katerim želijo organizatorji »odpreti tak kraj zunanjemu svetu« in »spodbuditi produkcijo bolj svetovljanskega kraja«, pokaže zgolj začasnost učinka tega dogodka na zmanjšanje »odročnosti«.O temeljnih časovnih in prostorskih značilnostih selitev »prebivalcev z ustvarjalnim poklicem« v Sloveniji piše Jani Kozina. Pri opredeljevanju tega specifičnega dela prebivalstva in pristopa k proučevanju njegovega migriranja se opre zlasti na dela Richarda Floride. Ugotavlja, da so prebivalci z ustvarjalnim poklicem v Sloveniji prostorsko zelo nemobilni in po tem kriteriju precej podobni ostalim poklicnim skupinam v Sloveniji, obenem pa tudi prebivalcem z ustvarjalnimi poklici v južni in vzhodni Evropi, za katere velja, da so med najmanj mobilnimi v Evropi. Podrobnejše analize pokažejo, da se ustvarjalci bolj razvitih regij načeloma intenzivneje selijo in so tudi v večji meri pripravljeni na selitev.O izkušnjah migrantk pri dostopu do trga delovne sile v Sloveniji govori članek Mojce Pajnik in Veronike Bajt. Obstoječa zakonodaja in posamezne politike namreč migrantke potiskajo v položaj, ko, če hočejo priti do zaposlitve, pristajajo na manj zahtevna dela. Pri tem so tarče stereotipnih reakcij in praks diskriminiranja tako na podlagi spola kot tudi starosti, pripisane etnične in religiozne pripadnosti ali kakšne druge okoliščine, še posebej dejstva, da so migrantke. Obenem pa prav zadnje vpliva na to, da s strani države niso deležne nikakršne zaščite.Migracijske študije pogosto domnevajo, da so ciljne države »moderne«, države izvora pa »tradicionalne«. Razprava Anıl Al-Rebholz ugotavlja, da takšna dihotomija pojmovanja modernega in tradicionalnega dodatno spodbuja stereotipne, esencialistične in homogenizirajoče predstave o muslimanskih ženskah v »zahodnem svetu«. Na podlagi biografskih pripovedi mlade Maročanke in Kurdinje ter razmerij med materami in hčerami prikaže raznolike strategije opolnomočenja mladih žensk v transnacionalnem migracijskem kontekstu.Specifični obraz migracij prinaša tekst Svenke Savić, namreč obraz umetniških migracij med Slovenijo in Srbijo po drugi svetovni vojni. Avtorica v njem ugotavlja, da je v treh ansamblih (opernem, gledališkem in baletnem) več kot trideset umetnic in umetnikov iz Slovenije s svojim pionirskim delom pomembno zaznamovalo razvoj gledališke umetnosti v Srbskem narodnem gledališču v Novem Sadu.Verjamemo, da nam je uspelo v pričujočo tematsko številko ujeti pomemben del sodobnega evropskega raziskovalskega utripa s področja migracij. Poleg uveljavljenih znanstvenikov s tega področja se je v ožji izbor prispevkov uvrstilo tudi več mladih avtoric in avtorjev, ki začenjajo raziskovalne kariere. Njihov uspeh nas veseli, saj obeta živahnost tega raziskovalnega področja tudi v bodoče. Obenem nas veseli, da so se vabilu odzvali predstavniki tako številnih znanstvenih disciplin ter da je število prispevkov, ki smo jih prejeli, znatno presegalo največji možni obseg revije. Spoznavanje in razumevanje številnih obrazov migracij sta pomembna koraka proti celovitemu znanju, potrebnemu za uspešno soočanje z izzivi migracijske problematike danes in, kot kaže, še posebej v prihodnosti. Zato je izjemnega pomena, da raziskovalci najdemo načine prenosa svojih znanstvenih spoznanj v prakso – na vse ravni izobraževanja, v medije, širše strokovne javnosti ter seveda tudi odločevalcem v lokalnih, državnih in mednarodnih ustanovah. Poziv velja tudi vsem avtorjem prispevkov v tej številke revije.