"Due to the current architecture of automobile industry and manufacturers decisions, automotive companies have more responsibility to generate innovation. Today both industry and academy are studying this field in depth to improve the company's business models to expand the market and the products portfolio. However, to response the cost reductions, a common strategy is offshoring some tasks. Some studies (e.g., Lewin A.Y., Massini S. and Peeters C., 2009; Farrell, D. 2005; Lewin A.Y. and Peeters C., 2006) argue that offshoring not only employed as a strategy to reduce costs, generates more benefits. Therefore is necessary to understand why and how the firms implemented offshoring strategies in order to guide other businesses by the same way. Commonly firms offshore to emerging markets, but excepting China, such markets have not tapped the overall profits of these investments. Despite many companies have located there, to date several of them just have been able to reach the acceptable levels of quality. This may be an important factor for executives' decisions in innovation offshoring, where high skills are needed. In fact, according to the survey of ORN (Offshoring Research Network) the "service quality" is the top offshoring risk for the companies. Thence emergent markets need to develop a better strategy to take advantage from the current offshoring and attract more important business. Mexico, for example, has achieved high exportation levels and is at present one of the 10 main auto producers in the world (AMIA). The geographical position of this country is a key indicator for foreign investments, because of its North American market access. However, is not characterized by a good level of quality and also lacks potential to develop high-value projects to source innovation. Therefore, in order that these countries profit from offshoring, it is suggested to examine at first the reasons that cause their low quality levels. Furthermore, why these levels remain even after several years and the high investments by companies As a main factor, this research purports to analyse the processes of transference of offshoring functions. The process of transference is also a knowledge creation process, but at enterprise level tends to be seen just as technology transference. This model pursues minimize some risks entailed in offshoring automotive business at organizational level. Since this activity is considered a corporate strategy that may generate more benefits than expected, is needed to define a methodology that helps firms to face the offshoring challenges before its implementation. The objective is to develop enough organizational capabilities in the host country based on one main factor: knowledge transfer. This research is focused in the process of transfer of the Tier 1 automotive suppliers and particularly regarding to manufacturing activities offshored to Mexico. The objectives are: firstly to find and analyse the breakdowns during the process of transference to Mexico and their influence in quality and development product activities; secondly, identify competences that these companies need to develop to attract better business; and finally to evaluate the effect of governmental regulations in these sector."
The article is dealing in the first place with the definition of (offshore) outsourcing in relation with foreign direct investment and international subcontracting process, as well as with some connected issues such as fragmentation of the production process, international production relocation, de-industrialisation in developed countries and industrialisation in newly industrialising, now coined emerging countries. In the second place, it aims at finding how global strategy differentiates from traditional MNC strategies and how much outsourcing fits with such global strategy. The last section of the article briefly screens the economic impact of outsourcing on the world trade structure – with the two enlightening snapshots of global trade in sports goods and European Union 15's outward processing trade with Central Eastern European countries (CEECs)-, as well as on home developed and host emerging countries. The article conclusion is that outsourcing has grown faster than world trade in the past two decades and has skyrocketed during the very last years because it is a cornerstone of a new global strategy adopted by multinational companies since the late 1980s. ; The article is dealing in the first place with the definition of (offshore) outsourcing in relation with foreign direct investment and international subcontracting process, as well as with some connected issues such as fragmentation of the production process, international production relocation, de-industrialisation in developed countries and industrialisation in newly industrialising, now coined emerging countries. In the second place, it aims at finding how global strategy differentiates from traditional MNC strategies and how much outsourcing fits with such global strategy. The last section of the article briefly screens the economic impact of outsourcing on the world trade structure – with the two enlightening snapshots of global trade in sports goods and European Union 15's outward processing trade with Central Eastern European countries (CEECs)-, as well as on home developed and host emerging countries. The article conclusion is that outsourcing has grown faster than world trade in the past two decades and has skyrocketed during the very last years because it is a cornerstone of a new global strategy adopted by multinational companies since the late 1980s.
This article aims at briefly surveying the evidence of outsourcing, considering its impact on the labour market in advanced economies. On the base of the process definition, a tentative assessment of the overall impact of trade with low wage economies is proposed and after that the article addresses two policy-related issues: through which channels does trade with low wage countries (according to a broad definition of outsourcing) impact the labour market? And what are ultimately the patterns of international specialisation after outsourcing has taken place? The three conclusions are that outsourcing is the clue to understand the observed changes in labour demand; that product upgrading, and reshaping of production processes on an extended European basis, has preserved European competitiveness; and that top range varieties produced at low cost thanks to outsourcing have been key to such competitiveness. ; This article aims at briefly surveying the evidence of outsourcing, considering its impact on the labour market in advanced economies. On the base of the process definition, a tentative assessment of the overall impact of trade with low wage economies is proposed and after that the article addresses two policy-related issues: through which channels does trade with low wage countries (according to a broad definition of outsourcing) impact the labour market? And what are ultimately the patterns of international specialisation after outsourcing has taken place? The three conclusions are that outsourcing is the clue to understand the observed changes in labour demand; that product upgrading, and reshaping of production processes on an extended European basis, has preserved European competitiveness; and that top range varieties produced at low cost thanks to outsourcing have been key to such competitiveness.
Objective: To facilitate supply chain management and decision-making processes. The case of Latin America as an outsourcing option is analyzed to illustrate its application. Methodology: A taxonomy supported in Systematic Literature Review is presented to determine the logistics outsourcing strategy that a company or supply chain should develop, along with the alternatives of offshoring and nearshoring. To determine the decision criteria, a literature review is carried out and a characterization of the central criteria of the two strategies is provided. Results: The offshoring alternative usually provides benefits related to lower manufacturing costs and is ideal for mass production. On the other hand, nearshoring is focused on greater flexibility, which makes it ideal for products with a higher profit margin to exclusive markets. Conclusions: Currently, Latin America seems a great option for both offshoring and nearshoring, especially for the US, Canada, and European countries. To make this possible, governments and companies have to reformulate their political-private growth strategies focused on clear plans that promote the development of productive, logistical, technological, and innovation capacities, as well as the promotion of foreign investment, educational and scientific development, and the growth of regional demands. Financing: Universidad Pedagógica y Tecnológica de Colombia (UPTC). Keywords: Nearshore, Offshore, Onshore, Outsourcing. ; Objetivo: Facilitar la gestión de la cadena de suministro y los procesos de toma de decisiones. Se analiza el caso de América Latina como opción de outsourcing para ilustrar su aplicación. Metodología: Se presenta una taxonomía soportada en Systematic Literature Review para determinar la estrategia de outsourcing logístico que debe desarrollar una empresa o cadena de suministro, entre las alternativas de deslocalización y nearshoring. Para determinar los criterios de decisión, se realiza una revisión de la literatura y se proporciona una caracterización de los criterios centrales de las dos estrategias. Resultados: La alternativa de offshoring suelen brindar beneficios relacionados con mayores capacidades productivas que inciden en menores costos de fabricación, lo que la hace idónea para la producción de productos masivos. Las ventajas de nearshoring se centran en una mayor flexibilidad, lo que lo hace idóneo para la producción de productos con mayor margen de utilidad a mercados exclusivos. Conclusiones: Latinoamérica aparece en el momento como una gran opción tanto para offshoring como para nearshoring, especialmente para EE.UU., Canadá y los países Europeos. Para esto, los estados y las compañías deben reformular sus estrategias de crecimiento político-privado centrado en estrategias claras que promuevan el desarrollo de capacidades productivas, logísticas, tecnológicas y de innovación, el fomento a la inversión extranjera, el desarrollo educativo y científico, y el crecimiento de las demandas regionales. Financiación: Universidad Pedagógica y Tecnológica de Colombia (UPTC). Palabras clave: Nearshore, Offshore, Onshore, Outsourcing.
BOLETÍN ECONÓMICO DE INFORMACIÓN COMERCIAL (...) -- PÁGINA LEGAL -- SUMARIO -- INTRODUCCIÓN Y PRESENTACIÓN -- LA RECONFIGURACIÓN DEL ORDEN GLOBAL TRAS (...) -- LOS NUEVOS CANDIDATOS A LA UNIÓN EUROPEA: (...) -- LAS MIGRACIONES INTRAEUROPEAS DEL ESTE (...) -- REGÍMENES CAMBIARIOS EN LOS PAÍSES DE LA (...) -- LA IMPLEMENTACIÓN DE ESTRATEGIAS DE OFFSHORING (...) -- LA COOPERACIÓN UE-RUSIA EN LA ESFERA DE (...) -- EFECTOS DEL VETO RUSO EN LAS EXPORTACIONES (...) -- LA DIVERSIFICACIÓN DEL PODER EN LOS ESTADOS (...)
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Aunque las formas de produccion de bienes y servicios que aplican estrategias de relocalizacion y externalizacion de actividades no son una novedad, en la actual fase del capitalismo global sus alcances adquieren ribetes ciertamente destacados, motivando la reflexion y el debate en diversos ambitos -politico, academico, sindical, entre otros. En este texto proponemos abonar dicho debate a partir de un abordaje centrado en dos actividades emblematicas del sector servicios en Argentina. ; Although the industrial and service companies that apply off shoring and outsourcing strategies are not new, in the current phase of global capitalism their scope acquires a prominent relevance, and encourage reflection and debate in various areas - political, academic, trade union , among others. In this text we contribute to this debate, proposing an approach centered on two emblematic activities of the service sector in Argentina. ; Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación
The globalization process is a phenomenon which affects different dimensions of society. In a world marked by increased competition, the location of productive activities becomes a key factor for a firm's success. In fact, we have witnessed a strong process of offshoring in recent years. This increased global socioeconomic integration, together with the increased ability to relocate activities poses a challenge for territorial governments, who often lack the ability to analyze the complex environment and propose actions to turn these global opportunities into benefits for their inhabitants. This document reviews concepts and elements from contemporary economic geography, urban economics and value chain management, contributing towards a new conceptual and capability framework that governments may use to develop business attraction and retention policies. ; La globalización es un fenómeno que afecta a diferentes dimensiones de la sociedad. En un mundo caracterizado por el incremento de la exposición a la competencia, la ubicación de las actividades productivas se vuelve un factor importante para el éxito de las empresas. De hecho, en los últimos años hemos presenciado un fuerte proceso de deslocalización industrial. La mayor integración socioeconómica global y la mayor facilidad de las empresas para reubicar sus actividades plantean retos para los gobiernos territoriales, quienes con frecuencia carecen de los conocimientos o capacidades necesarias para entender la complejidad del entorno y definir acciones que permitan transformar las oportunidades en beneficios para los habitantes. Este documento revisa y reflexiona sobre aspectos de geografía económica contemporánea, economía urbana y gestión de cadena de valor, buscando con ello contribuir a la construcción de un nuevo marco conceptual y de capacidades que apoye a los gobiernos territoriales en la formulación de políticas y programas de atracción y retención de empresas. ; A globalização é um fenômeno que afeta a diferentes dimensões da sociedade. Em um mundo caracterizado pelo aumento da exposição a competência, a localização das atividades produtivas pois torna-se um fator importante para o sucesso das empresas. De fato, nos últimos anos presenciamos um forte processo de deslocalização industrial. A maior integração socioeconômica global e a maior facilidade das empresas para reposicionar suas atividades, sugerem metas para os governos territoriais, os quais, com frequência carecem dos conhecimentos ou capacidades necessárias para entender a complexidade do entorno e programar ações que permitam transformar as oportunidades em benefícios para os habitantes. Este documento revisa e reflexiona sobre os aspectos da geografia econômica contemporânea, economia urbana e gestão de cadeia de valor buscando com isso contribuir a construção de um novo marco conceptual e de capacidades que apoie aos governos territoriais na formulação de políticas e programas de atração e retenção de empresas.
The globalization process is a phenomenon which affects different dimensions of society. In a world marked by increased competition, the location of productive activities becomes a key factor for a firm's success. In fact, we have witnessed a strong process of offshoring in recent years. This increased global socioeconomic integration, together with the increased ability to relocate activities poses a challenge for territorial governments, who often lack the ability to analyze the complex environment and propose actions to turn these global opportunities into benefits for their inhabitants. This document reviews concepts and elements from contemporary economic geography, urban economics and value chain management, contributing towards a new conceptual and capability framework that governments may use to develop business attraction and retention policies. ; La globalización es un fenómeno que afecta a diferentes dimensiones de la sociedad. En un mundo caracterizado por el incremento de la exposición a la competencia, la ubicación de las actividades productivas se vuelve un factor importante para el éxito de las empresas. De hecho, en los últimos años hemos presenciado un fuerte proceso de deslocalización industrial. La mayor integración socioeconómica global y la mayor facilidad de las empresas para reubicar sus actividades plantean retos para los gobiernos territoriales, quienes con frecuencia carecen de los conocimientos o capacidades necesarias para entender la complejidad del entorno y definir acciones que permitan transformar las oportunidades en beneficios para los habitantes. Este documento revisa y reflexiona sobre aspectos de geografía económica contemporánea, economía urbana y gestión de cadena de valor, buscando con ello contribuir a la construcción de un nuevo marco conceptual y de capacidades que apoye a los gobiernos territoriales en la formulación de políticas y programas de atracción y retención de empresas. ; A globalização é um fenômeno que afeta a diferentes dimensões da sociedade. Em um mundo caracterizado pelo aumento da exposição a competência, a localização das atividades produtivas pois torna-se um fator importante para o sucesso das empresas. De fato, nos últimos anos presenciamos um forte processo de deslocalização industrial. A maior integração socioeconômica global e a maior facilidade das empresas para reposicionar suas atividades, sugerem metas para os governos territoriais, os quais, com frequência carecem dos conhecimentos ou capacidades necessárias para entender a complexidade do entorno e programar ações que permitam transformar as oportunidades em benefícios para os habitantes. Este documento revisa e reflexiona sobre os aspectos da geografia econômica contemporânea, economia urbana e gestão de cadeia de valor buscando com isso contribuir a construção de um novo marco conceptual e de capacidades que apoie aos governos territoriais na formulação de políticas e programas de atração e retenção de empresas.
La ciudad de Alcoy, de larga tradición industrial en los ramos del textil hogar y la papelería, entró en crisis en los años 1970 como consecuencia de la reconversión industrial hacia nuevas tecnologías y por la deslocalización. Los viejos barrios obreros del centro histórico colapsaron por graves problemas estructurales y sociales. Las primeras tímidas propuestas se centraron en la catalogación de los edificios de mayor valor y en su protección pasiva. En la segunda mitad de los años 1980, en el contexto de las estrategias desarrolladas en algunas ciudades europeas de recuperación de sus espacios centrales, la concordancia política entre las tres administraciones públicas implicadas (estatal, autonómica y municipal) propiciaron un ambicioso programa de renovación integral de la ciudad (Plan ARA con objetivos sociales, funcionales y morfológicos) para convertirla en capital de las comarcas centrales de la Comunidad Valenciana. El paquete de medidas se inspiraba en los principios sociales y funcionales del Movimiento Moderno y, en concreto, en las propuestas para recuperar el corazón de las ciudades. Por su radicalidad frente a las propuestas conservacionistas y pasivas vigentes, desataron un notable debate científico y ciudadano, saldado en beneficio de políticos y técnicos impulsores del Plan ARA. El cambio de signo político en las administraciones cooperantes y la asunción del paradigma neoliberal trastocaron la mayor parte de las propuestas, reorientadas hacia la mera sustitución de viejas viviendas por otras nuevas de promoción privada, tras un largo periodo de interrupción y parálisis, que desvió los objetivos privados y públicos hacia otros ámbitos urbanísticos. Se analiza el proceso teórico y técnico de concreción de las primeras propuestas y los cambios de paradigma, para valorar finalmente los logros alcanzados y el conocimiento empírico resultado de la larga gestión, para conocer sus posibilidades de transferencia hacia otras ciudades de características similares.Alcoy, a city with a long industrial tradition in the home textiles and stationery sectors, was hit by crisis in the 1970s as a consequence of the industrial reconversion towards new technologies and the move towards offshoring. Older working-class neighbourhoods in the city's historic centre buckled under the weight of serious structural and social problems. The first tentative proposals centred on cataloguing buildings of the greatest value and focusing on their passive protection. In the second half of the 1980s, within the context of strategies developed by some European cities to recover their central spaces, political agreement between the three levels of government involved (state, regional, and municipal) provided an ambitious integral renovation plan for the city (ARA Plan with social, functional, and morphological objectives) to turn it in to the capital of the central localities in the Region of Valencia. The measures designed were inspired by the social and functional principles of the Modern Movement, and, specifically, by proposals to recover the heart of cities. Owing to the radical approach of this Plan in contrast to the passive conservationalist proposals in place at the time, it sparked considerable scientific and public debate, which was resolved in favour of politicians and the experts backing the ARA Plan. The change of political leanings in the cooperating administrations and the assumption of the neoliberal paradigm disrupted many of the proposals, which were redirected towards simply replacing old housing with new private developments, following a long period of interruption and paralysis, which diverted private and public objectives more towards urban planning. The theoretical and technical process whereby the initial proposals were designed and the changes in paradigm are analysed here, before going on to assess the achievements and the empirical knowledge gained throughout the management process, with a view to understanding the possibilities of transferring this process to other cities with similar characteristics.
n the last centuries, Humankind has lived sourced by fossil fuels and under a linear economic perspective based on extractive activities, environmental depletion and lack of circularity. Ironically, what goes around, comes around. The prevailing paradigm of production-consumption-waste (take-make-dispose) that excluded the environmental perspective was wrong. How production and consumption patterns are settled nowadays, have repercussions in all the spheres (economy, society and the environment). Consequently, the world is currently facing significant challenges that affect all the people: Climate Change, energy security, increasing electricity demand, economic growth and employment creation are among the top concerns today. They are present in the national agendas as reflected in the Sustainability Development Goals (SDGs) to achieve sustainability resilience and, ultimately, welfare. The economy and energy systems strongly condition these goals. Regarding the former, production processes now are more distant due to globalisation, information and communication technologies (ICT), offshoring and the international trade growth, and have made that production and consumption develop through complex global value chains (GVC) with different countries that produce different parts of a final product that is eventually consumed elsewhere. The Covid19's pandemic is a recent example of how the GVC phenomenon has propagated the economic shocks across sectors and countries (via lockdowns, upstream bottlenecks, dependencies and transportation problems). Understanding how GVC behave is fundamental to describing the dependencies and networks that define today's world economy. Hence, GVC become the backbone of this thesis. Concerning the later, energy coming from fossil fuels is still mainstream. This fact hinders the efforts to fight against Climate Change, which implies meeting the Paris Agreement goals. Countries are committed to reducing their greenhouse gases emissions for the year 2030. The strategy to achieve the mitigation goals needs a low carbon economy and energy transition path, so countries worldwide have launched national policy packages to increase renewable energy sources (RES). However, two main issues arise: on the one hand, these green investments planned are insufficient. On the other side, the required energy transition may impact other aspects of sustainability and resilience that imply both synergies and trade-offs between SDGs and social and economic spheres of sustainability that should be assessed. Furthermore, world energy demand is expected to increase. In developing countries, growth is dramatic. For example, the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region grew at a rate of 6-8% per year in the past years. It is expected to triple by 2030. Developing countries face the same challenges as developed ones, departing from a disadvantaged position (in terms of technology, labour skills and capital endowments, institutional robustness, and political priorities). In this context, an energy transition towards decarbonisation, focused on developing regions, plays cardinal importance in the thesis. Renewable electricity ensures climate protection and energy security, as well as employment opportunities, economic growth and human welfare. It becomes part of the solution to today's problems to achieve sustainability. With Covid19, the future of energy and the global value chains is uncertain. The debate about the virtues GVC and the dependencies in the production process obviously affect the citizens' health and safety and have implications for international trade and investment (renewables included). Policymakers responsible for taking today's critical investment decisions need complete analysis and evidence of their choices' broad impacts. This is the main objective of the thesis. Aiming to depict the current functioning of the production processes focused on RES deployment, this document covers the insertion of developing regions in GVC (their role, insertion and implications), through socioeconomic and environmental indicators, and policy recommendations. The present thesis, entitled "Sustainability assessment of green investments on the path to the energy transition and the decarbonisation of the economy. The importance of global value chains", is structured in six chapters: Chapter 1 introduces the two intertwined concepts present in the whole document: energy and the global value chains. Chapters 3 to 5 deal with these two concepts at different levels (regional, national and local, respectively). It also presents the main research questions and lists the work performed up to the present date. Chapter 2 links RES deployment and value chains through a common methodological framework: the input-output analysis. It is a widely used way to measure GVC and sustainability impacts related to investments such as renewables. One of the main advantages of this method is its ability to account for a wide range of dimensions in the three spheres of sustainability along with detailed full inclusion of the GVC, including both direct and indirect effects. However, one of the main shortcomings of this methodology is the lack of data available for developing regions: many countries are not covered in the main multi-regional input-output (MRIO) databases, hindering the measurement of GVC in regions like South America or Africa. Chapter 3 addresses data shortcomings by using a regional input-output table (RIOT). Chapter 3 analyses South America's role in GVC through the Koopman, Wang and Wei (KWW) decomposition. The KWW scheme is extended to explain the limitations when using a RIOT. A novel adaptation of the KWW gross exports decomposition scheme, suitable for any RIOT, is created to this end. The implications of using a RIOT are assessed. Besides, the results are complemented with those obtained using a Multiregional Input-Output (MRIO) table. It is confirmed the low insertion of South America in GVC and its upstream position as a provider of intermediate goods and services: imported content in South American exports comes primarily from outside the region, and only Uruguay is vertically integrated. Finally, using a RIOT is not recommended for a complete sustainability analysis when MRIO tables are available. In chapter 4, Mexico's green investments for the period 2018-2030 are assessed in terms of value added, employment, materials, land use, water and CO2eq emissions in a multiregional input-output framework. These green investments are expected to account for nearly an increase of 1%, both GDP and employment, in Mexico and scheduled mitigation of around 63 Mt CO2eq, once the new facilities are fully deployed. Nevertheless, the deployment and operation, and maintenance phases will increase the emissions (0.82%), the water and material footprint (0.19 and 0.9%, respectively) and the land use (0.19%) with a substantial share of the positive and negative effects leaked outside the country borders. We compare the results with the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) proposal, aligned with the COP21 goals. If additional RES to meet the Paris Agreement is deployed in Mexico, GDP and employment are estimated to almost triple concerning the national package assessed. Chapter 5 presents a sustainability assessment of concentrated solar power (CSP) hybridisation with biomass technology to be installed in Tunisia. Environmental impacts have been assessed by Life Cycle Analysis (LCA). For socioeconomic impacts, an MRIO analysis was used to estimate the production of goods and services, value added and employment creation. Regarding the results, the system reports 22 gCO2eq per kWh. The most critical component in terms of emissions is the gasifier system, due to biomass transport. Socioeconomic results show significant impacts on Tunisia's employment creation, coming essentially from the operation and maintenance (O&M) phase. The multiplier effect of the direct investment in producing goods and services amounts to 2.4 (3.5 accounting induced impacts). Domestic value added in investment is low, only 28.9% of the overall value added created. Thus, increasing the national content of the investment stage would bring additional local benefits. Using extended MRIO, CO2 emissions have also been calculated, and the CO2 emission differences with both methodologies are discussed. This thesis concludes with some final remarks regarding the importance of RES deployment in achieving the Paris Agreement and some of the Agenda 2030 goals while identifying how GVC affect these green investments, especially in developing countries. GVC potential weaknesses and the benefits of fostering local RES components niches should be considered to create policy actions. Finally, brief comments on current and future research lines include exploring other technologies such as carbon capture, storage and use (CCUS), capital endogenisation and methodological hybridisations to contribute to identifying the benefits of green investments in the way to sustainability.
