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If theory is equated with 'middle range' theory rather than with overall synthesis then PO theory is making headway & the collection of empirical data is not antithetical to it. A review of PO res in the US during the past 20 yrs shows 2 major gaps impeding the building of middle range theories: (1) 'The continuous attention of opinion res to the transient issues of the day has meant a discontinuity in the study of particular content areas & a corresponding lack of a sound theory of soc determinants of opinion formation & change,' (2) the emphasis in opinion res on the adult pop & on a narrow psychol'al emphasis make it difficult to formulate theories on the soc substratum of PO. It is concluded that the outlook for PO theory is bright particularly if indices are developed to measure public opinion rather than individual opinion & if indices are developed to measure the normative requirements of PO in relation to varying pol'al structures. S. F. Fava.

In studying opinion formation & change, successive crosssectional sample surveys of age groups-cohorts-enable the researcher to combine the long-run perspective of trend studies & the panel-study focus on process. This may be called a quasi-panel type study. The study of opinion changes of a cohort is accomplished 'by using an age breakdown which is adjusted to the interval between a series of cross-sectional surveys.' In such studies the unit of analysis is the age group rather than the individual as in panel studies. The usefulness of this method is illustrated in the analysis of data from three AIPO sample surveys made in 1937 (N=2,855), 1954(N=1,584), & 1953 (N= 1,527). R's in each case were asked a question regarding Gov ownership of railroads. Opinions of 2 cohorts are examined: Cohort A-age group 24-30 in 1937, & 40-46 in 1953; Cohort B-aged 47-53 in 1937 & 63-69 in 1953. Analysis reveals: (1) while the trend in general was an increase in opposition to Gov ownership, compared with the older cohort the younger one which started with fewer opposed to Gov ownership in 1937 was more opposed in 1953. (2) The relative effect on opinion change of historical events is found to be greater than aging. (3) Though analysis of `turnover' is precluded in a quasi-panel study, analysis of internal change in a cohort is possible by sub-classifying the cohort on structural variables. In this case the differential effects of historical factors on diff soc categories in a generation & on the same soc categories in contemporaneous generations are shown. The cohort technique is limited: (i) in the possibility of cumulative sampling error '& sampling bias in a series of cross-sectional surveys, esp when quota samples are used;' (ii) in the possibility of bias in the composition of cohorts due to mortality & migration; & (iii) in the 'meagerness of sociol'al data often found in PO polls & other surveys.' These limitations are to some extent counter-balanced by: (a) the possibility of using the ever growing accumulation of poll data to study opinion formation & change & its determinants; & (b) the probability that new types of primary analysis will be stimulated by analyses of secondary data. C. M. Coughenour.

The phenomenon of PO was recognized & described in ancient, medieval, & early modern times although the term itself was not used until the 18th cent. PO is sometimes regarded as undefinable, but F. Allport listed its characteristics: as action or readiness for action with regard to a given issue on the part of members of a public who are reacting in the expectation that others in the public are similarly oriented toward the same issue. The characteristics of PO have not been linked into a theoretical framework, & progress in measuring & describing aspects of PO has outstripped conceptualization. The PO process begins when an issue takes root & is communicated through a human chain & finds one or more groupings hospitable to it. Next, leadership emerges from the original primary groups or by men who are concerned with mass manipulation. Simplification & generalization of the original ideas are usually observed at this point. Communications are important at this stage because they can transmit facts & opinions about the issue to many primary groups. If a substantial number of individuals accept the new ideas, there is a chance that PO may develop. It is noted that those who agree/disagree with an issue are clustered in certain pop groups & not scattered at random. Face-to-face discussions begin again, similar to the original discussions except that people are aware that many other people are talking about the same thing. New formulations & new leadership may modify or reinforce the original idea at this time. Most of us enter the process at this stage & form our act's on the basis of existing att's, our daily contacts, or status considerations. Through personal sampling consciously or unconsciously, people learn of the opinions of others outside their immediate group & the way these people are likely to behave. Once these expectations have been formed, they tend to influence opinions & behavior of the people who entertain the expectations. The behavioral adjustments in turn reinforce the expectations; & when this happens, PO has been formed. Individuals who may be unconcerned with the issue are brought into the process at this stage. A definition of public offered: a large collection of individuals who do not know each other but who react to an issue with the expectation that certain categories of others will display similar alt's on the same issue. PO is transitory & disappears imperceptibly; when the issue disappears, the behavioral adjustment ceases to have purpose. PO on one issue may be displaced by PO on another, it may be broken up by superior physical force where the former behavioral adjustment become incompatible with personal safety or attainment of other values, it may lead to the formation of customs or soc norms before it is dissipated, or it may lead to formal laws or constitutions. J. D. Twight.

For 3 reasons, the clash between modern empiricists & the classical tradition of pol'al analysis is almost always productive: (1) empirical development usually furnishes sharper can ceptual tools that enable us to see the classics from a new vantage point; (2) the very act of inspecting this classical material brings to our attention ideas which might otherwise have been overlooked, because empirical researchers are likely to be guided too much by what is a manageable topic at the moment, rather than by what is an important issue; & (3) classical methods have by no means lost their utility & scholars should continue to think about problems with a broad scope, irrespective of whether data or precise modes of reasoning about these problems are available. Very interesting insights regarding the nature & formation of PO are to be found in Oncken's essay on The Historian, the Statesman and Public Opinion, in Dicey's The Relations between Law and Public Opinion in England during the 19th Century, in the writings of Lord Bryce, etc. The generalizations of these classical authors can usefully be compared with the results of modern polls. For example, Bryce believed that the group of persons seriously interested in politics was larger in America than in England; recent studies provide information on this point. Modern empiricists would also gain by sharing some of the classical concern with what the relation between PO & democratic gov should be. There Is reason to hope that in the future we shall more & more frequently encounter careful analyses in the classical tradition supported by modern empirical data. IPSA.

Two of the most urbanized countries in Latin America, Uruguay and Chile are described. The pop's of both are primarily European, but immigration is of little current importance in Chile. The age composition & demographic evolution of Uruguay resemble that of Western Europe while high fertility remains in Chile. Mass communications in both countries are modem with Spanish as the common language. There is no adequate foundation of statistical information, & since distances are great & mail uncertain, these studies were limited to the Ur areas of Montevideo & Santiago de Chile. The study in Uruguay was done by l'Institut Frangais d'Opinion Publique to measure the degree of knowledge of UNESCO & act's toward it before & after its 1954 general assembly in Montevideo. A sample 500 R's was interviewed before & after the conference, with the sampling done by selecting a number of blocks in each district & selecting households & individuals within households randomly. The UNESCO conference did exert an influence on Montevideans & more sharply defined act's existed after the conference, L'Instituta received good field cooperation which led to the organization of l'Instituto Uruguayo de lo Opinion Publica. A similar method was used in the Chilean study at the request of the U of Chile & a newly created Instit of Soc Sci's. R's were asked for facts about themselves: geographic & family origins, educ, standard of living, etc, in addition to opinions on the general situation of the country, feelings about the present & future, etc. The results of the study suggest something about the formation of alt's in Chile within cliff SC's. 55% of the people in Santiago had not been born there mainly as a result of internal migration. In the total group 7% were unemployed as compared to 11% in the Wc. Studies of educ'al level show that 54% have had the equivalent of 6 yrs of educ or less, & this % would be higher outside of Santiago. While 16% of the workers had only a yr of schooling only about 4% of each of the liberal professions & employers, public employees, & private employees have this little. Several examples show variation of att's among SE & S-cul groups. At the time of the study 86% of R's expressed confidence in the future while 18.3% expressed pessimism; but the liberal professions had more optimists (15%) & the workers more pessimists (25%). Confidence was more widespread among the young & the men. The weakest groups in the society, women, older people, workers, those with one yr of schooling or less, were all attracted by Argentina while mistrust of Argentina became more evident as one went up the soc ladder. Differences in the psychol of groups is attributed to the effects of urbanization. But the groups form a continuum rather than disparate entities. The development of either sharp class consciousness or class att's which are submerged in the national problems is seen as one of the problems faced by countries undergoing modernization. J. D. Twight.

For better or worse, the public reputation of opinion polls has been inextricably wedded to electoral predictions. Some solidly-based generalizations have already emerged from experience in this field. Most voters have made up their minds well in advance of the campaign. Contrary to the general opinion, independent voters tend to be those who know & care the least. Turn out can alter the basic pol'al balance. Voting in the US is a symbol of soc affiliation. US politics tends to be highly personalized & unideological. SC cleavages run deep, but grow more diffuse as foreign policy becomes a major issue. Sharp & meaningful pol'al diff's emerge when an electorate is viewed in terms of the length of time particular ethnic groups have been in the US. Single issues can change long-time trends; inversely, historical issues can dominate voting long after the event. Pol'al party images persist despite changing events. However, while electoral res can make very valuable contributions to the study of opinion formation, there are serious objections to prediction of electoral results, which tends to abort & becloud the purpose of sound pol'al res. IPSA.

The Samoan system of self-gov (within limits prescribed by New Zealand & the US) is administered by a largely heriditary group of chiefly title-holders (matai). As reported in F. & M. Keesing's ELITE COMMUNICATION IN SAMOA, the decisions of this elite are characterized by (1) lack of individualistic expression of opinion prior to group consideration; (2) full opportunity for the expression of all (matai) points of view in leisurely deliberation; (3) decisions made unanimously without majority & minority divisions; & (4) commitment on the part of all matai to support the decisions of the group. In contrast to these principles of decision-making in Samoa, American congressmen express off-hand judgments without an appropriate sense of due process in opinion formation, exploit majorityminority divisions, &, making the distinction between support of the legitimacy of a decision & support of the policy it embodies, feel free to criticize policies after they are adopted. These diff's reflect certain specified cultural values in the 2 societies. AA-IPSA.

In cross-cultural studies of att's, the greatest progress has come from 3 basic approaches: (a) the identification & manipulation of cultural characteristics related to attitude formation & change; (b) the impact of one culture on another; & (c) the intervening factor of language & conceptual processes in the relation between attitude & behavior. Cross-cultural studies of nat character show promise of identifying att's that are most & least subject to cultural influence & establishing possible dimensions of culture. Studies of inter-cultural impact provide increased understanding of the function & origin of stereotypes; the role of reference groups in the process by which elements are selected from complex context for assimilation into attitude systems; the conditions under which interaction will produce specified changes of att's; & the impact of new experience on the characteristics of attitude change. Communication theory & attitude change theory are being integrated in studies of cultural diffusion. Despite formidable methodological problems, the crosscultural study of language & attitude processes is increasing understanding of the meanings of common concepts among cultures, of the relationship between concept formation & language, & of the adaptability of language in culture change. C. M. Coughenour.

Radio & TV broadcasting normally is a one-way communication from station to audience, checked only by quantitative ratings & sample surveys. But how can there be two-way conversation between broadcaster & public? How can there be true audience participation in the production, reception, & utilization of programs? The article gives an account of world-wide experience in the org of reception & discussion groups, many of whom were created with the aid & stimulation of UNESCO. It describes the beginnings of Group Listening in GB before WWII, traces its repercussions in the Canadian Farm Radio Forum, started in 1941, shows how this experience was applied in the Indian Farm Forum in 1956, & then describes experience with 'teleclubs' in France, Italy & Japan, as well as a project to be launched in Puerto Rico The article concludes by showing the signif of these experiences carried out largely in Ru areas, to Ur pop's in GB & the US. IPSA.

The 1st comprehensive conference on PO res was organized by Harry H. Field of NORC & held at Central City, Colorado in the summer of 1946. Backgrounds of the registrants & the topics discussed are described. As a result of the 1946 meeting & 2nd International Conference on PO res was held at Williams Coll, Sep, 1947. The formation of 2 associations also resulted: the Amer Assoc for PO Res (AAPOR) & the World Congress for PO Res (the latter became the World Assoc for PO Res). Crucial issues faced by AAPOR are discussed, especially its position on the enunciation & enforcement of standards. The affiliation of the AAPOR with the Public Opinion Quarterly is noted. The activities of AAPOR in promoting res are described as well as analysis of membership & content of annual meetings. S. F. Fava.

In attitude theories, the view that man has limited powers of reason, primitive in-sight & a short memory is contrasted with the view that man continually seeks to make sense out of his world using powers of discrimination, self-criticism & insight. Proponents of each view find supporting evidence for it but neither specifies the conditions under which men act as the theory predicts. These 2 views of attitude formation & change can be reconciled by focusing on the functional relationships between att's & the needs they serve. 4 functions of att's for personality needs are identified & discussed: 'the adjustive function of satisfying utilitarian needs, the ego-defensive function of handling internal conflicts, the value-expressive function of maintaining self-identity & enhancing the self-image & the knowledge function of giving understanding & meaning to the ambiguities of the world about us.' The operation of these functions in attitude formation & the conditions under which att's are aroused is described. Consideration is given to the motivational impact of constellations of variables, e.g., in intergroup contacts & in attempts to control behavior through legislation which must be taken into account in attempting to predict attitude change. C. M. Coughenour.

A small sample study of att's towards the Army-McCarthy hearings reveals some surprises about the value judgments of housewives & storekeepers in 2 geographically separate US communities. Interviewers did not find the expected reaffirmation of civil rights values as a result of the hearings. The responses they did obtain revealed other value themes which the author has extracted & traced to the formation of the superego in childhood. He then considers the implications of his conclusions for the inculcation of civil rights values & related pol'al ideoloev. AA-IPSA.

The concept of reference groups (RG), was coined 20 yrs ago whil studying the way individuals appraised themselves & their soc frames of reference. In the interim the concept has gained wide currency owing primarily to the careful formulation by Merton & Kitt, but certain aspects of the theory have been relatively neglected; (1) the dependence of one's self-appraisal on the RG's used as a point of comparison should receive considerably more attention. For instance while it is routine to cross-tabulate an opinion by a status variable of the R, the fact that the meaning of status is relative to some RG is usually ignored. Often several measures, such as educ & occup, with which opinions are separately related are combined in a single index, or one variable is controlled while diff's in opinion are related to the other. Handled in this orthodox way the possibly signif diff's in relation deprivation of persons having little educ & a high status occup & those with high educ & low status occup are obscured. (2) The individual as a referent in attitude formation & self-appraisal has been largely neglected compared to groups as referents. Several researchers, however, have noted the signif of interpersonal contact in attitude formation & decision-making. But, the signif of the generalized or distant referent individual who is not an intimate also merits res attention. To avoid having reference group become a 'magic term' explaining everything & anything, careful attention must be given to operational res procedures. Of note are: (a) the identification of RG's as at present in studies of the subjective meaning & identification of SC's, (b) the procedures used in the Elmira & Michigan voting studies to secure identification with various types of soc aggregates, (c) the utility of the 'guessing technique' for determining the R's extent of awareness of the reference group's norm, (d) this technique also can be used to obtain the S's awareness of differentiation in group norms, & (e) to determine the clarity with which group members perceive the norm. Another important dimension of the RG is the felt legitimacy of the group in exercising its norm. There are even simpler procedures, such as the length of group membership, which might be, but rarely are, used to indicate the extent of identification with & internationalization of group norms. C. M. Coughenour.