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R.R. mm 46 THE MERCURY. A PHANTASY. CHARI.ES WELSEY WEISER, '01. ; 5 WO spirits floating through the air Leave their mark of passing there. The spirit of the scentless spring, And summer's scented spirit bring Their breath of life and breath of love, And wave ethereal wings above The weary brow. With soothing hand They stir to life the waiting land. The azure sky, the sun and flowers, The bursting bud of woodland bowers, The tender grass, the songsters' strain Compose for life love's sweet refrain Of fellowship. (lI 'Tis evening and the twilight gray Creeps o'er the half-forgotten way, As passing on in pensive mood, Through the ancient hemlock wood, I see beneath the massive trees, Fanned by the evening breeze, A stalwart man reposing lay Beside the lonely grassy way. Tall and brawny, noble., fair, With beaming eyes and wavy hair, He forms a picture good to see— Nature's perfect mastery Commanding all. He speaks—the tones in clarion notes Upward through the branches float. He smiles—and wins with glances bright, Fellowship's most welcome light. "Nature," says he, "perfect, strong, Note and strive for ; and prolong Your days ; and usefulness, and peace, And love, from life shall ne'er cease." I fain would speak, but wake to see 'Tis only a bright phantasy Wrought by Spring-tide on the mind, That seeks in life and love to find The perfect whole. I V* . THE MERCURY 47 "RABBI BEN EZRA." ABDEL R. WENTZ, '04. [Graeff Prize Essay.] ROBERT Browning's Rabbi Ben Ezra is a transcript from the natural experience of a human soul. The struggle between lower and higher ideals has already been fought on the battleground within the soul. The conflict between faith and doubt is over. Faith stands victorious. We have here por-trayed a picture not of action but of a soul in intellectual fer-mentation, the concomitant of action. The poet speaks from emotional imagination in expressing the wish of his soul to be in touch with the infinite. And the passion here described is one that is universal to mankind and one that is deepest and most widely felt in loving human nature. Other poets have attained the same depth of thought, a number have expressed somewhat the same ideas as are here set forth, but probably no poem stands in exactly the same relations as Rabbi Ben Ezra. We propose, therefore, to inquire briefly concerning the Rabbi and his part in the poem, to examine in a general way Brown-ing's philosophy of life as unfolded in the body of his religious poetry, to analyze the thought of this poem and see how the philosophy of life is here set forth, to ascertain what relation the poem sustains to the teachings of Christianity, and to make some observations concerning its rhetorical composition. Abraham ben Meir ben Ezra is the full name of the Rabbi to whom Browning assigns this monologue, but he is more commonly known as Ibn Ezra. Born in Toledo, Spain, about 1088, he started to travel early in life and visited all parts of western and southern Europe and northern Africa. His last days were spent in Rome and here he died in 1167. He was an earnest student of astronomy and won much fame not only as an astronomer but also as an astrologer and physician. In him the Platonic philosophy had an able advocate. Wherever he went he became distinguished for his great learning and his varied accomplishments, but his chief renown seems to have I im 48 THE MERCURY. been as grammarian, biblical commentator, and poet. But great as was the scholarship of the Rabbi, his piety was even greater. From all his writings and from the account of his life we gather that he was a man of extraordinary spiritual rectitude under the complete guidance of the word of God. Such was the man to whom Browning here attributes the philosophy of life. So thoroughly is Ibn Ezra adapted to the expression of such a philosophy and so well do the sentiments here expressed ac-cord with the writings of the Rabbi that the question has been raised whether Browning meant Rabbi Ben Ezra to serve as a statement of his own philosophy or that of Ibn Ezra. There are, indeed, a number of Jewish elements contained in the poem ; as, for instance, the abiding trust in a central righteous-ness. But Browning was specially fond of weaving such ele-ments into the woof of his thought; in fact, in his own nature, both spiritual and intellectual, he was not entirely free from cer-tain Jewish characteristics. Moreover, a great many of his il-lustrations and traditions are taken from among the Jews and no other English poet, with the single exception of Shakespeare, commands for the Jew the same admiration and compassion that Browning does. It seems only reasonable therefore that the poet in presenting his own views concerning life should draw some of his less important ideas from the writings of the Rabbi and thus weave into the poem sufficient coloring to ac-count for the idiosyncrasies of the individual whom he has chosen to give expression to those views. But the strongest proof that Rabbi Ben Ezra expresses Browning's own theory of life, lies in the fact that it is prac-tically a recapitulation of the very sentiments expressed in many of his other poems, as witness Sordello, Abt Vogeler, Saul, The Pope, A Death in the Desert, Reverie, and quite a number of others, all of which develop the same life-philosophy as Rabbi Ben Ezra does. Just as Cicero made use of the venerable Cato as his lay figure in setting forth his views on "Old Age," so Browning has used different personages to develop his philoso-phy, in each case adapting some of the incidentals to the indi- » ■ > THE MERCURY. 49 * * vidual personage. In Jochanan Hakkadosh we have another instance where Browning uses a Jew as his mouthpiece to give utterance to his theory of life. And in the poem under con-sideration he has placed this theory in the mouth of the Rabbi for no other purpose than merely to furnish it with a back-ground; for Browning himself explained of Sordello: "My stress lay on the incidents in the development of a soul; little else is worth study." Being assured then that Rabbi Ben Ezra is merely a restate-ment of Browning's theory of life, it may be well before pro-ceeding to the thought analysis of the poem to try to gain some idea concerning his philosophy of life as developed in the rest of his religious poetry. This philosophy begins in his very first publication, Pauline, where its crude outlines are to be seen; it is more carefully developed and at much greater length in his next production, Paracelsus, and then re-appears from time to time among his productions, and receives its final utterance in his very last poem, Reverie. It is a noteworthy fact that Browning formed this view of lite in his youth, and that no-thing in his life experiences gave him occasion to change it, so that traces and reiterations of it are to be seen in poems cover-ing a period of sixty years of his life. The whole trend of his philosophy might be summarized in the statement that the aspiration towards divine Power and Love is the most exalted ideal for the human soul. The intensity of the universal passion of human love reaching out towards some object which shall satisfy aspiration gives him the conception of God as infinite Love and of the future life as one in which Love incarnate shall have a place. This earthly life is merely a period of probation; man here is in constant pre-paration for another life. Past influences constitute the cri-terion by which to judge of the future, and our development here is determinative of our hereafter, either for growth or de-cay. But in this life we are surrounded by innumerable lim-itations and conditions. All our attainments are bounded by the finite. The divinity at the root of man's nature is too great for the sphere which contains him, arid yet it is this very di-vinity which gives rise to aspiration. Aspiration in turn causes ' ill i. 111 , ,., ,.j,i;iMl8M ■ 50 THE MERCURY. discontent, difficulties, and failures, and these point to infinite success and goodness. Thus we are made to realize the limi-tations and imperfections of our finite existence and to strive ever onward and upward to infinite freedom and perfection. It is precisely this imperfect nature in man which gives him the susceptibility to infinite growth and development; and this is "Man's distinctive mark alone," that which raises him higher in the scale than the brute and places him "a little lower than the angels." Only by our temporal failures are we led to see the possibility of eternal success. Internal dissatisfaction with our attainments on earth induces aspiration towards the divine. Man is "a living personality linked to the principle of restless-ness;" he must recognize his limitations and work within them, never losing sight of the infinite beyond nor ever ceasing to as-pire toward that perfection of freedom. To become content with even the highest attainable per-fection in this earthly life would mean to renounce all noble de-sires and to deny the inner light. This present state must not be regarded as an end in itself and submission to the conditions which it imposes would only result in fatal loss. To fail to recognize our imperfect nature would be to deny the possibility of spiritual growth. No, we must never be satisfied with this earth and its meagre successes; we must never rest content with this stage of imperfection. We must recognize the possi-bility of higher results than any attainable on earth and must aspire to something beyond the limits of time and space. "A man's reach should exceed his grasp, Or what's a heaven for?" It is this very quality—this constant discontent with earthly attainments, this endless aspiration for something higher—that makes life a struggle and the earth a bivouac of strife. Man must be actuated by a constant and conscious impetuosity to-wards the divine, drawing new impulses out of each failure, ever realizing with Tennyson, that, "Men may rise on stepping-stones From their dead selves to higher things." THE MERCURY. Si Each failure should give rise to greater effort and higher aspira-tion. According to Abt Vogeler, the musician accepts the pro-longed pause as an earnest of sweet music, and the discords as an evidence of more highly-prized harmony to follow. The limitations of this life are only suggestions of the infinitude of the life beyond. These. temporal barriers shall become the doors opening to the eternal life of infinite beauty, happiness, knowledge and love. The little mountain rill, as it flows down, has many rough places to cross, many obstacles to encounter, many rocks and precipices to pass, but continually receiving new life from other streams it grows deeper and stronger until at last it becomes a great, deep river, and, undisturbed now by the huge boulders beneath its surface, it flows calmly on to join the peaceful, powerful ocean. So the soul, weak at first and prone to despair, must work within its limitations and by an endless succession of aspirations and failures, each failure stimu-lating stronger endeavor, make its way to God and to the real-ization of perfect Power and Love. Having thus gotten a view of the philosophy of life as Brown-ing held it, we will be better able to follow in analysis the thought of Rabbi Ben Ezra, where this philosophy is stated with greater conciseness, perhaps, than anywhere else in Brown-ing. But -first it must be said, by way of explanation, that Rabbi Ben Ezra is not argumentative in its character; it is merely the statement of facts of positive knowledge. Its view is intuitive and it states conclusions without employing courses of reasoning. We shall not expect, therefore, that the thought of the different stanzas will in every instance be arranged in strict logical sequence. Mellowed with years, the venerable Rabbi gives to the young man the cheerful assurance, " The best is yet to be," and in the quietude of life's evening hour proposes a retrospect of the day and a prospect to the tomorrow. Bidding us to trust in God te reveal His whole plan, he first considers youth. This is a period of hesitation and ambition, of "hopes and fears." All of youth's brief years are passed in doubt and indecision. But for this the Rabbi has no remonstrances, for this very doubt is S2 THE MERCURY. the actuating influence—the "troubling spark"—which distin-guishes us from the brute creation; brutes have their end of living in self-satisfaction, and in the gratification of sense are free from care and doubt. But man's greatest glory and that which attests his affinity with the great Provider lies in his noble desires and lofty aspirations which can never be satisfied on earth; this is the disturbing spark that proves his spiritual nature. We should therefore endure with good cheer the lim-itations that are here placed upon us, and, despite life's difficul-ties and discomforts, ever strive and learn and dare. For the seeming failures of this earthly life simply prove our suscepti-bility to the achievement of eternal success. Our aspiration to the unattainable raises us higher in the scale than the unpro-gressive brute, and he, who hopes to succeed in his flesh and to that end subordinates soul to body, can scarcely deserve the noble name of man. And yet the body is not without its use; all past experi-ences in the flesh serve to teach valuable lessons in this train-ing- school for eternity, and the heart of the Rabbi beats in sin-cere gratitude for the opportunity of living as a man, a part in the one great plan of perfect Power and Love. He trusts him-self implicitly to the will of his Creator and hopes thus to gain the victory over low ideals and ignoble desires. For the soul is prone to yield to its rosy garment of flesh in the desire for rewards commeasurable with bodily endowments and physical attainments. But we should not measure ourselves by the ground gained in spite of flesh; we should realize that while flesh and soul are both subject to limitations here on earth, yet neither is to be despised as all is for the best. Youth must have its struggles and disappointments but old age reaps rich fruit in consequence. For here if is that the complete man is produced and that the tendency to God be-gins. The Rabbi, ripe with age, awaits the fight with death, the only struggle now before him. "Fearless and unperplexed" he contemplates the battle with perfect serenity of soul, for his experiences have taught him what weapons and what armor to employ. Now that his youth is ended he is in a position to L4fc THE MERCURY. 53 pass sentence on that period of life. The fires of'youth have culled out the gold from the dross and the life-struggle can now at length be estimated at its true value. In youth all was un-certainty ; with age comes knowledge absolute. Each sunset brings its certain moment which suddenly calling the glory from the gray announces the death of the day and invites esti-mation of its worth. So the period of old age, tinted with glory and free from the strife of youth, affords the opportunity to prove the past, pronounce judgment on its errors and pro-prieties, and thereby "sustained and soothed" to face the future. And more than this is not possible for man ; his highest duty is to practice tomorrow the lessons of today, to follow intently "the great Artificer of all that moves" and thus catch hints of real handicraft, of true workmanship. Youth is the proper time for growth and aspiration, the proper time to "strive to-ward making," and though the efforts to make be uncouth and seeming failures, nevertheless they are eminently successful in that they secure for old age exemption from strife and the blessed privilege of knowledge. Death can then be awaited without fear. Here the mind is not harassed by arguments of "Doctor and Saint"'as in youth, but the knowledge of the Right and Good and Infinite is as absolute as the knowledge of the possession of one's own hand. Age vindicates youth by defining and separating "great minds from small" and by determining whether the principles of Right were properly ap-plied in youth. Thctruth is revealed and peace of soul secured. But who shall act as judge to pass the sentence? It is no easy task, for men of very similar traits and qualities hold widely different views. Who shall decide? The answer: each man must be his own arbiter; he alone understands the circum-stances of his own life struggle. For life is not to be judged by its deeds and attainments, else others could pass the sentence. "Men appraise the outward product," but this vulgar mass, so easily recognized and valued by the low world, is not the proper standard to use in making up the main account. True, our "work" is pleasing in the eyes of our fellow-men and quickly plumbed and tested by the world's coarse thumb and finger, but 54 THE MERCURY. the true reckoning of man's worth takes into account all our undeveloped instincts tor good, all our unfulfilled purposes. These no one can know but ourselves and these God weighs and considers. He finds value in our thoughts which we were not able to express in a mere act and His records contain even our fleeting fancies :— "All I could never be, All, men ignored in me, This, I was worth to God. whose wheel the pitcher shaped." These lines contain the one great lesson of the poem, the very-theme of its thought, namely, the manifestation of God's love in his dealings with man. Our doubts He overrules for faith; our failures He overrules for success. Our aspirations to the impossible become the essentials of our spiritual growth. It is on the wings of God's love that the spirit of man mounts from earth to heaven. This thought pervades the entire poem. The thought that man is the pitcher shaped by the wheel of God leads to the expanding of that beautiful metaphor of the potter and the clay, and this occupies the concluding verses of the poem. We are invited to examine the metaphor and learn why time passes away so rapidly while our souls lie passive. Hugest folly is the proposition that nothing endures and that the past has no bearing on the present or the future. All that has ever really existed, lasts forever. The wheel indeed may vary as it turns, but potter and clay endure. So life fleets and earth changes, but God and Soul remain forever. We are not mere shadowy existences destined to pass into nothingness; we are eternal realities. But the changing motion of the wheel is needful to give the clay its proper form and make it useful; no less are the buffetings and evanescent influences of this life's dance intended by the all-wise Creator to give our souls their proper bent and temper and fit them for their highest useful-ness. What matters it, so far as the usefulness of the cup is concerned, if the potter in the course of his work ceases to adorn it with the beautiful figures wrought around its base and fashions stern, grim scull-things about the rim? And what I THE MERCURY. 55 matters it if our Maker diminish our pleasures and make this temporal life less attractive? Not in the decorations however beautiful is to be found the proper use of a cup; no more is the highest usefulness of the soul to be found in the pleasures and ornaments of life. Heaven's consummate cup has no need therefore of earth's wheel; his only need is the Potter, to amend the lurking flaws and use His work. The Rabbi declares that never once in the whole dizzy course of his lite with all its im-perfections and failures—never once did he lose sight of his end as a vessel to slake his Maker's thirst. Just as in the opening stanza he expressed his firm assurance of a better life to come, aud his abiding confidence in God's goodness, "Our times are in His hand," so after maintaining this sentiment through the entire poem, he reiterates it once more in his eloquent closing prayer: "So, take and use Thy work : Amend what flaws may lurk, What strain o' the stuff, what warpings past the aim ! My times be in Thy hand! Perfect the cup as planned ! Let age approve of youth, and death complete the same[" These noble sentiments, though expressed by a Jewish Rabbi, are entirely in accord with the teachings of Christianity. An eminent writer on ethics has pronounced Rabbi Ben Ezra to be "one of the completest descriptions of the ethical life in English literature." But it is even more than that; it is a statement of pure theism and a description of sublime religious faith. It abounds in Christian sentiment and contains numer-ous allusions to Scripture of both the Old and New Testament. If Rabbi Ben Ezra were a part ot the Bible, every sentence in the entire poem would long since have been quoted in substan-tiation of some Christian teaching. One of the salient teach-ings of the poem is that of absolute submission to the Divine will. This, one of the great teachings of our New Testament, is forcibly set forth in the poem. Moreover, Christ's mission on earth was to reveal the Father not only as Power but more specifically as Love. In the light of this fact, the sentiment 56 THE MERCURY. which the Rabbi expresses becomes quite striking, especially when he says, "I, who saw power, see now Love perfect too." L^fc, The Christian religion is preeminently a religion of love, and Rabbi Ben Ezra has its very basis on God's love for man. Then, too, Christianity is essentially a romantic religion. Literature furnishes numerous instances of Christian romance. And what can be more romantic than this idea of a future life with earthly hopes and aspirations realized and Love perfected, as developed in the poem ? This hope of future existence gives to the Chris-tian religion the very source of its life. And in Holy-Cross Day we have another instance where Browning represents this same Ben Ezra as a direct advocate of Christ and Christianity. When Rabbi Ben Ezra was first published (1864), the world stood in great need of just such a message of hope and faith as the poem conveys. That was a time when skepticism and des-pondency were rapidly growing. Matthew Arnold was busy promulgating his own unbelief. Fitzgerald had just published his'beautiful translation of Omar Khayyam, and this message o doubt was being very widely read. Epicureanism and sensualism were spreading. To all these Rabbi Ben Ezra was a check. It inculcated cheerfulness and hope, destroying doubt and set-ting up faith preeminent. Some readers of Browning find in him nothing more than what is purely humanitarian and ethical, while others narrow their vision to the romantic and Christian. In reality, Brown-ing includes both. His message is twofold : he treats both the Here and the Hereafter. An so Rabbi Ben Ezta combines the humanitarian and the ethical, on the one hand, with the roman-tic and Christian on the other, and sets forth a lofty type of Christian faith as held by a man of God. In rhetorical composition Rabbi Ben Ezra is typical of Brown-ing's religious poetry. Browning is noted for his great com-prehensiveness of meaning. Few writers have used single words with such great effect. In fact, so great is his conscise- THE MERCURY. 57 ness that he is often charged with being obscure, and the num-ber of his readers is comparatively small because not many peo-ple will take the trouble to disengage the poet's real thought irom the close-plaited web of his expression. Rabbi Ben Ezra is no exception to the rule. True, it is one of the most widely known of Browning's poems and has been considered one of the easiest, but its apparent simplicity disappears before any serious effort to drain it of its meaning. The poet thinks at lightning speed and records his thoughts as they occur to him, and nothing short of an alert mind and an open spirit will suf-fice to draw from the poem its full meaning. It is recondite almost to the extreme, in places even bordering on the verge of solecism. And yet it is only natural that such" sublime, weighty thought should receive striking expression. Every sentence is pregnant with vigorous meaning. And while the poem shows in its structure no regard whatever for symmetry or proportion and no view to clearness, beauty, or nobleness of form, yet it presents the greatest consistency of teaching from first to last. This poem will be read as long as the human race endures, because it has to do with a passion that is common to all man-kind. It deals with man's growth to the infinite in a spirit of the most healthful optimism, and inspires men everywhere to high and noble thinking. Browning himself gives an estimate of the loftiness of the theme when he says in a letter to a friend: "It is a great thing—the greatest—that a human being should have passed the probation of life, and sum up its experi-ence in a witness to the power and love of God." What Long-fellow contributes to literature in his "Psalm of Life," what Ten-nyson contributes in his "In Memoriam"-—this and more Brown-ing epitomizes in his Rabbi Ben Ezra. And the late Professor Everett of Harvard pronounces it "one of the most exalted of the poems of Browning * * * * one of the most exalted in the whole range of literature." 5« THE MERCURY. RUSSIAN AGGRESSION. [Second Prize in the Inter-Collegiate Oratorical Contest] W. W. BARKXEY, '04. PASSING events in the Far East draw the eyes of the world once more toward those parts which have engaged more or less constant attention for many years. The Asiatic question with its many difficulties and complications presents the unsolved international problem of the twentieth century. How shall the equilibrium of the East and the- integrity of China be maintained? How shall the commercial powers of the world preserve the equality of trading privileges along China's inviting coast? How shall the threatening advance of Russia upon Asia be checked? Shall Anglo-Saxon civiliza-tion or the civilization of the Muscovite stamp itself upon east-ern peoples ? The last two inquiries are primary and essential, it will be admitted, in dealing with the first two. Statesmen prophets have prophesied, but struggle is no longer a thing of the future. The foretold contest is on. and it is critical. Potent energies are now at work in the Orient. Asia is evidently un-dergoing transition. Pressing circumstances must soon force a solution of the grave problem of the East and provide answers to our questions. While grim-visaged war is raging between the little island empire of the Pacific and that gigantic nation of the north, it will not be untimely to follow the course of that ceaseless, un-tiring advance which has brought Russia all the way across the Eurasian continent from St. Petersburg to Vladivostok and Port Arthur. The declaration of open hostilities between these two con-flicting nations was no surprise, but rather was expected. War was inevitable in the face of Russian aggression and dogged-ness. The current strife is only one of a series of events which have been shaping themselves for years, yes for centuries, in the history of Russia. It is the natural, logical outcome of a policy of greed and grasp which has been at the bottom of THE MERCURY. 59 every national move which Russia has made since the days of her first note-worthy monarch, "Ivan the Terrible." The real cause of the war waging today can be clearly traced to this governing policy. Insatiate Russia is not satisfied with her tight grip on Manchuria which she now practically owns and controls, but looks with a covetous eye on the independent but small empire of Korea over which Japanese influence should justly extend. In fact it was reported, previous to the outbreak with Japan, that she already had obtained large interests in the important timber regions of the Yalu Valley, and that her rep-resentative stood over the weak and pliable Emperor at Seoul with almost dictatorial power. Such is her impudence and boldness. Will Russia recede from the prominent position she has taken in northeastern China ? Never, voluntarily ! She may make clever pretensions and employ shrewd diplomatic schemes, as is her custom, but she will never withdraw from an acquisi-tion which has been the object of her ambition for three cen-turies and more, until Japan or some other power drives her back into the north from whence she came. And then she will not remain there; onward, advance, conquer and expand have been the watchwords of this aggressor of nations since the close of the Middle Ages when the terrible autocrat of the six-teenth century assumed the ambitious title of Czar and began to push the lines of his government out in all directions. When Ivan came to the throne Russia was "a semi-savage, semi-Asiatic power, so hemmed in by barbarian lands and hos-tile races as to be almost entirely cut off from intercourse with the civilized world." Since then her growth in territory and power has been marvelous and amazing. From the compara-tively small and insignificant state in Central Europe, she has gradually extended her boundaries until now she dominates about one-half of the land area of Eurasia. The Tartars were attacked and driven beyond the Ural river, and thus the entire Volga and Caspian regions were acquired. An advance was started toward the Ural mountains and the Euxine. Under the powerful and energetic despot, Petet the Qreat, the Black and Baltic sea regions were both gained; Siberia was explored and 6o THE MERCURY. conquered from the Ural mountains to Kamtschatka, and afterwards colonized; far-reaching reforms were brought about, and Russia was lifted to a place among the first-class powers of Europe. Today her dominion extends from the borders of Per-sia, Afghanistan, and India on the south to Sweden and the Arctic ocean on the north ; and from the Chinese Empire and the Pacific on the east to Germany and Austria-Hungary on the west. What giant strides she has taken in territorial devel-opment ! What a magnificent stretch of country she has been able to consolidate into one sovereign State! No other nation in the history of the world has been able to secure such abso-lute control over so large an empire and that in the compara-tively short period of four centuries. Russia's advance is steady and never ceases. Her policy is well-outlined and the goal of her ambition is clearly defined., Her real governing purpose may be deduced from her actions. Russia needs some warm water harbors on the Pacific. She proposes first to secure, if possible, these advantageous outlets without which she can never develop her almost limitless na-tural resources. Secondly, Russia evidently aims to become the arbiter and controller of the East; and, therefore, she en-deavors to stamp her order of civilization on Asia, and obtain for herself the preponderance of power in the Far East. Back of these exalted aims and ambitions is a thorough conviction among her people that the day of Russian supremacy is near at hand. "Her students everywhere claim that the world had bee?i under the Romance type of civilization and that gave way in time to the Anglo- Teutonic type under which the world is now developing and this is about to give way to Slavonic civilization to which the future belongs." Surely, if written history and current actions count for anything in judging a nation, no other than these stupenduous designs and hopes, we have briefly stated, are the basis of her aggressive spirit. Surely no other than these form the main-spring of Russia's late historical movements. Russia's political,-.commercial and industrial interests demand a more extensive seacoast, and more and better harbors. Tur-r_* r THE MERCURY. 61 key and the Powers control the Bosphorus and deny her ingress to Mediterranean waters. The Baltic is ice-bound part of the year and that seriously hinders navigation there. Port Arthur and Vladivostok also present serious obstacles to successful commerce. Where shall Russia turn, if not southward along China's coast and toward the Persian gulf, in which directions the high wave of her influence and sovereignty has been roll-ing, now slowly, now rapidly, but ever rolling for almost four hundred years ? What does the construction of her great trans-Siberian railroad mean, which now stretches across an en-tire continent, if not easier access to the Pacific ? What does a similar trunk line mean, which is now being planned to extend from the Baltic to the Arabian sea, if not a freer outlet to the world's waters ? What does her sly seizure of Manchuria, her pretended foothold on Korea, signify ? What does a war with Japan signify, if not a fixed determination to extend her power along the Chinese seaboard and gain possession of China's warm water harbors? Russia aspires to be a great sea power, but as yet she is comparatively weak along that line, as was evinced too plainly by her recent defeats at the hands of Japanese sea-warriors. In order to be prepared in time of war she must have a stronger navy, and safer inlets to harbor it. That she may develop her boundless natural resources properly, both in Europe and Siberia, and thereby increase her wealth, she must be given an opportunity to open up her industries and enlarge her trade. To hold and maintain her place among the nations, she must establish herself on the sea. Russia's prophet states-men are shrewd and wide-awake to these facts. They look far ahead, see in Russia the nation of the future, and may be ex-pected to plan their every action in accordance with their in-tense ambition to make her glorious and paramount. There is no more room for doubt. The spread of Slavonic domination in Asia is truly alarming. No observer who has followed the course of current affairs in the East will have failed to notice that glacier-like movement of Russian power over Chinese territory. England sees it; Japan resents it. It is too evident, notwithstanding her cunning diplomacy, her insincere 62 THE MERCURY. promises and agreements, and her round-about manoeuvers at times, that Russia means to retain every foot of ground she possesses and that she will never cease to advance until she has conquered and absorbed and assimilated the whole of the Chi-nese Empire, Persia, and Afghanistan; stands triumphant on the summits of the lofty Himalyas, and looks with a threaten-ing eye down upon the rich and splendid empire of India, un-less, perchance, the Anglo-Saxon shall not delay longer, but come forth to contest such wholesale occupation of Asia. Some years ago, when it was proposed to retreat from the mouth of the Amur river, Emperor Nicholas said, "Where Russia's flag is carried once, there it shall remain forever." That shows the spirit of the nation. Russia is active; Russia is greedy; Rus-sia is strong and persistent. Give her the chance she seeks to relieve her latent energies and develop her dormant resources, and she will become the most influential, the wealthiest of world powers. Give her the opportunity she covets and she will scatter broadcast over the Orient her despotic principles of autocracy with its brutality, ignorance, and oppression; force her Greek Catholicism with its error and intolerance upon the unfortunate subjects of her conquest, and carry with her a spirit of exclusiveness and selfishness deadly to the advance of pure Christian civilization everywhere ig the world. Give her the right of way and she will attain the strategic points she desires and crush out of existence the Anglo-Saxon order of civiliza-tion, which means constitutional government, the Protestant religion, liberty, equality, and education characteristic of all Anglo Saxon peoples. Stand aside, and Holy Russia will rule the world. But will the rest of the world stand aside, passive and indif ferent, and let the great Czar forward his schemes of encroach-ment and aggrandizement unhindered? Japan says No! Japan acts promptly and firmly, and all hail! to the bravp little nation who with courage stout and strong goes out to battle with this giant aggressor of the north. We admit her claims be-cause we know they are just; we glory in her victories because we know she is right; deservedly do we give her our sympathies THE MERCURY. 63 because she has put herself in line with twentieth century progress and civilization and with dignity faces an avaricious foe still moved by the customs and principles of the sixteenth century. But can she stand against such might in the ultimate contest ? Can Japan alone hold Russia in check and stop the perilous ad-vance ? It is not to be expected. If not, what will England do, England who has check-mated Russia so often in Europe, and who now has such vast commercial interests on the coast and in the heart of China, and stands guardian over such a mighty empire as India, will she allow China to be Russianized and India to be menaced ? It would seem that the final struggle must be between Russia and England. Two great orders of modern civilization have met and are ready to clash, yes they have clashed, for Japan's prototype is England, and her civil-ization is Anglo-Saxon. On the one hand, Russia, who be-lieves thoroughly that the future lies with the Slav. On the other hand, the English-speaking nations, who contend that the future rests with the Anglo-Saxon. Both stand ready to fight, if need be, for the world's supremacy. One is a supremacy of personal absolutism and oppression; the other, a supremacy of democracy with its liberty and justice. Which shall it be? Should the struggle come now, Russia would likely be crushed ;• later, after she has had time to grow and strengthen to her full proportions, who shall prophesy the end and declare which shall rule the world, Anglo-Saxon or Slav ? THE PASSION FOR SCHOLARSHIP. PROF. OSCAR G. KXINGER. THE mental attitude of a man towards his vocation is all important. Tell me this and I will tell you the degree of success which he has won or will win. Where there is a lively interest there will be also the enthusiasm and tireless energy so necessary to the perfect performance of a task. A lackadaisical spirit defeats any enterprize. The captains of in- 64 THE MERCURY. dustry have always been men with a genius for hard work. The same is true of those who have won eminence in any of the learned professions. They have mounted high because they have been in love with their vocation. To the student who aims at some notable achievement in the domain of knowledge, an absorbing passion for scholarship is the first essential. By such a passion, I mean an insatiable desire to know the truth of things at first hand. Others may be satisfied to take their information on faith. He must get at the heart of reality ; he must know things in themselves and in their relations; and to attain this he must be willing to sacrifice everything— "To scorn delights and live laborious days." Unless this passion dominate him there will be lacking the fire and enthusiasm which are necessary to prolonged effort. To think is the most difficult task a man can ever set himself. It means absorption, critical acumen, a nice balancing of facts and unerring inference; in a word, it means the analysis of a fact or truth to its ultimates and a synthesis of these ultimates into a positive thought. The process prolonged wears out the brain and exhausts the nerves. To keep it up until the end demands a will which is animated by a passion for knowledge as burning as the desire to live. Then and then only can the mind come to its full stature and utter truth which men must hear whether they will or not. This longing to know is often inborn, but may be acquired in some degree by even the dullest. The main trouble with the latter sort of student is that his mind has never been a-wakened. About his intellect a dense haze has gathered and he cannot see his way nor does he know precisely where he is. A dull ambition stirs in his heart but he cannot discover its meaning. Intelligent study is to him unknown. He tries to go through his tasks but what he gets means little to him. Often it happens that young men of naturally capable minds almost finish their course before they acquire the mental aware-ness which is the first condition of successful study. When THE MERCURY. 65 they do wake up their progress is phenomenal. Perhaps therefore, the highest function of the teacher is to awaken mind and by his helpfulness keep it awake. ' No higher reward can come to him than the consciousness that he has set one intel-lect on fire with the passion to know. Before this is possible, however, a serious obstacle must be removed. It is a motion wellnigh unusual among students and grows out of a mistaken conception of education. The student finds the college equipped with a faculty of men more or less learned who are to be his teachers in the various subjects which the curriculum offers. He expects them to set him tasks for each day's performance. In the recitations they question him on the lessons and make the necessary explanations or pffer additional information. Consequently the idea is general and perhaps inevitable that the professors educate the pupil. How-ever natural, this notion is pernicious and works incalculable harm. In the sense that the teacher acts as guide and makes easier the road to intellectual development, it is true that he is an educator ; in any other sense it is misleading. The men-tal development zvhich any man gets is always the lesult of his own specific effort. A teacher helps, stimulates, guides, "but achieves nothing without the earnest response of the pupil.' This erroneous view is largely responsible for a wrong use of the textbook. The student imagines that doing his task-work in memoriter fashion is genuine study. Nothing could be farther from the truth. Even a parrot is capable of such exercise of memory and the world has no use for human "Pollys!" A memory stored with knowledge is a great boon, but will not go far in promoting a' man's interests. Some of the greatest failures have been walking encyclopedias of facts and theories. A bookworm always has a hard time to find enough to eat. The world demands men who can think and plan and execute,—practical men who can use their knowledge to meet and solve the intricate problems of business and poli-tics. "What new truth have you to offer?" is the question asked of every graduate and on his answer depends his sta-tion. A well written article which reproduces only the •ii% 66 THE MERCURY. thoughts of other men finds its way into the editor's waste bas-ket or into the pages of the cheapest magazine. The pulpit ■which is no longer a teaching platform will face empty pews. The "dead-line" in any profession is drawn where invention dies; years have nothing to do with it. The man who keeps pace with progress and is able to interpret to others the heart of the movement will never want a hearing. Such a man is never the product of a mere textbook. For a text in any sub ject is the resume of one man's interpretation of a body of facts. Its value depends wholly on the authority of its author. At best it is only an outline. Any student, therefore, who ac-cepts the teaching without examining the facts and bringing the theory to the test of facts, is doing two things—-depriving himself of the pleasure which comes with reasoned conviction, and missing the power which such additional research confers. Either is a great mistake. The worship of the textbook induces another grievous habit which when acquired blights original work in a literary way. When a theme has been adopted as the subject of an essay the student at once searches through the library for material which when found constitutes the subject matter of his essay. Of testing, of meditation, there is little or 'none. What he says is not what the subject means to him but to another. He is like a phonograph endowed with the power of changing the form of expression without altering the thought. It were well if the saying of Isocrates were written in letters of light above every alcove: "What has been said by one is not of equal value to him who repeats it; but he seems to be the most skillful who finds in a subject topics which have escaped the notice of others." Here is the truth in a nut-shell. Let a young man determine at the outset that he will not repeat what has once been uttered except as a quotation, but will give to the world his own thought tested and tried by an appeal to things, and what he has to say on any subject will command the attention of men. Servile devotion to the textbook; re-producing the thought of others; failure to experience the truth that is presented; these are the fatal rocks on which THE MERCURY. 67 many a promising career has been wrecked. There is, too, an ethical aspect of the case which must not be overlooked. No one has the moral right to ask another to spend time in read-ing or hearing what to him is old. Truth which concerns man is so illimitable in every direction and our knowledge of it so infinitesimal that he who repeats what is common to all is guilty of a grave wrong to his reader or hearer. This passion to know fully and at first hand, if it could be-come the dominant element in the college atmosphere, would transform college life. It would quickly bring men face to face with the mystery of things and take away the indolence, the trifling, the present tendency to follow the line of least resis-tance. The four years of effort would produce scholars whom the world would welcome and of whom the college could be proud. The spirit of the scholar can be acquired and cultivated and its possession means success, as its absence means failure, in all that is highest in life. COURTESY TO STRANGERS. H. S. DORNBERGKR, '06. A stranger,'no matter where he goes, is bound to receive a certain amount of courtesy. I will attempt to show in this essay that this amount of courtesy is increasing rather than decreasing. During all ages and especially the feudal age, every stranger was sure of receiving food and shelter if he stopped at any house or castle. This was due chiefly to the fact that hotels were not very common until our own age, nor did every village or hamlet have its hotel or inn as is now the case. Then as there were no newspapers until quite recently, a stranger was also received for the news he might bring. It might also be added that the number of travelers at that time cannot be com-pared with the number of the present time. At present this hospitality to strangers is not nearly so evi- '• J Uii. 68 THE MERCURY. dent as it was in former times. The chief cause of this is our modern hotel system. Everywhere one goes he will find some kind of a hotel, no matter what be the size of the place. It may also be stated here that travelers, in most cases, would much rather pay their hotel bills than trouble some one else with entertaining them during their sojourn in the locality. Even among friends one sees this. Very often a friend will come to your vicinity and, rather than bother you, will go to a hotel. Now let us consider whether a stranger would be welcomed did he ask for our hospitality. The ordinary beggar will serve as a good example of this. It is very difficult, indeed, for one to find a home where a beggar will not receive a good meal if he goes and asks for it. Who is so cold hearted that he would refuse anyone shelter from the'cold in winter or the rain in summer? Who would not offer his bed to a sick or wounded person at his door and strive to comfort the unfortu-nate being? In some countries a stranger was always regarded as an enemy unless he could prove himself a friend. In some in-stances it even went so far as to cause the person's death, could he not do this. As we come to more modern times this feel-ing of hostility toward strangers gradually diminished until it has passed entirely out of existence, except among semi-civi-lized peoples. Another example of the growth of courtesy toward strangers is the downfall of absolute monarchism and the rise of more democratic forms of government. This last example may be regarded as not exactly on the subject by some but as it con-sists of the regard of man for man, in my opinion it is after all nothing but courtesy. A still better example is the increase of the value of human life. At the dawn of history the life of a man was held less sacred than a mere dog's life is today. This brings up still another point. In former ages, capital punishment was the mode of exacting justice. Since that time the inflicting of capital punishment has been gradually modi- THE MERCURY. 69 fied from unspeakable tortures to the entire abandonment of this form of justice except in some few cases. The modern rules of etiquette require us to be courteous to strangers. We exert ourselves in every way to please them and try our best to make them feel at home. We even go so far as to deny ourselves comforts for their pleasure. We do not allow them to spend their money. We introduce them to our friends who try to outdo us in their courtesy toward these strangers. Take for example the visit of a noted person to a city or town. Arrangements for his reception are begun al-most as soon as the the news of his intended visit becomes known. Banquets and receptions are given in his honor. He is met at the railroad station by a committee and escorted to his stopping-place. He is cheered by the crowds that gather merely to get a glimpse of him. I believe that courtesy toward strangers is increasing rather than decreasing for we of the present day are just as hospitable toward strangers as were our brethern of former times; and I believe therefore that as the world becomes more civilized, mankind will become more courteous. da I In an up-to-datest tailor-made gown,U-pi-de-i-da The boys arc wild, and prex is, too, You never saw such a hulla-ba-loo. CHORUS. — U-pi-dee-i-dee-i-da 1 etc. Her voice is clear as a soaring lark's, And her wit Is like those trolley-car sparks I When 'cross a muddy street she flits. The boys all have conniption fits I The turn of her head turns all ours, too. There's always a strife to sit in her pew; 'Tis enough to make a parson drunk, To hear her sing old co-ca-che-lunk! The above, and three other NEW verses to U-PI-DEIi, '.'. and NEW WORDS, catchy, up-to-date, to manv fp others of the popular OLD FAMILIAR TUNES; be- ■■ ' JfflHf sides OLD FAVORITES ; and also many NEW SONGS. J*W uull S0NGS OF ALL THE COLLEGES. JjWJ Copyright, Pricei $rjo, postpaid. fa mm if IJLU HINDS & NOBLE, Publishers, New York City. ^ ft ft Schoolbooks of all publishers at one store. ff1' ■> Rupp Building, YORK, PENN'A. Watch for his Representative when he visits the College PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. Geo. E. Sparkler, PIANOS, ORGANS, MUSICAL MERCHANDISE MusiC Rooms, - York St. Telephone 181 GETTYSBURG C. B. KITZMILLE,R. DEALER IN HATS, CAPS, BOOTS AND DOUGLAS SHOE.S. McKnight Building, Baltimore St. Gettysburg, Pa. k M. AMrEMAN, Manufacturer's Agent and Jobber of Hardware, Oils, paints and (jueensware Gettysburg, Pa. THE ONLY JOBBING HOUSE IN ADAMS COUNTY W.F.Odori, ^DEALER IN^k- SPECIAL RATES TO CLUBS. mm* York Street, Gettysburg:, Pa. 1

AMÉRICA LATINACrece la indignación en México por el asesinato de los 43 estudiantes.Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-30062124http://edition.cnn.com/2014/11/15/world/americas/california-mexico-parents-missing-43-students/index.html?hpt=ila_c1http://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/16/world/mexican-president-faces-nation-tired-of-crime.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1744319-mexico-dice-basta-cansancio-e-ira-contra-el-gobierno-y-la-violenciahttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/restos-hallados-en-primeras-fosas-no-son-de-los-43-http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/11/15/actualidad/1416087897_392905.htmlhttp://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/article3968426.htmlestudiantes/14821271http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/estudiantes-mexicanos-desaparecidos-criticas-a-gestion-del-presidente-enrique-pena-nieto/14837755http://www.latimes.com/world/mexico-americas/la-fg-mexico-student-protests-acapulco-20141114-story.html"The Economist" analiza desafíos de Enrique Peña Nieto.Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21632477-save-promising-presidency-enrique-pe-nieto-must-tackle-crime-and-corruption-reforms-andLa caída del precio del petróleo inquieta a Venezuela.Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1744297-el-petroleo-inquieta-a-iran-y-a-venezuelaCrece el escándalo de corrupción en Petrobras y arrestan a decenas de ejecutivos.Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/business-30055817http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/pesquisa-a-petrobras-cambiara-a-brasil-rousseff-1054574.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1744092-se-agrava-el-escandalode-petrobras-y-detienen-a-decenas-de-ejecutivoshttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/impreso/marchan-miles-en-brasil-contra-la-corrupcion-88939.htmlContinúa la inestabilidad política en Venezuela.Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1742939-por-segundo-mes-consecutivo-venezuela-no-difunde-los-datos-de-la-inflacionhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/venezolanos-hacen-colas-en-comercios-en-la-busqueda-del-precio-justo/14831876http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1742411-en-crisis-las-divisiones-en-el-chavismo-el-otro-frente-que-pone-en-riesgo-a-maduroCumbre de la Unasur en Quito.Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/cumbre-de-la-unasur-en-quito/14834363América Latina va perdiendo su identidad católica.Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/el-catolicismo-pierde-presencia-en-latinoamerica-/14831636http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1743785-otro-desafio-para-el-papa-america-latina-pierde-su-identidad-catolicaFrontera de Estados Unidos y México será controlada por drones.Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-30044702La cara más violenta de Brasil: hay un asesinato cada diez minutos.Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1743086-la-cara-mas-violenta-de-brasil-hay-un-asesinato-cada-diez-minutosSegún Santos será difícil mantener el proceso de paz más allá de 2015.Para más información:http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/sera-dificil-mantener-proceso-de-paz-mas-alla-de-2015-santos-1054572.htmlESTADOS UNIDOS / CANADÁEstados Unidos consternado por asesinato de otro estadounidense por parte del Estado Islámico.Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/proche-orient/article/2014/11/16/l-ei-affirme-avoir-assassine-l-otage-americain-peter-kassig_4524334_3218.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/17/world/middleeast/peter-kassig-isis-video-execution.htmlwww.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/afirma-ei-haber-matado-al-estadunidense-peter-kassig-1054554.htmlhttp://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/isis-terror/isis-killing-u-s-aid-worker-act-pure-evil-obama-n249471http://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-video-claims-us-aid-worker-beheaded-20141116-story.html#page=1http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-30076629http://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/article3964732.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/kerry-eu-intento-evitar-muerte-kassig-1054644.htmlhttp://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/isis-terror/u-s-airstrikes-isis-are-not-enough-n249061El rápido crecimiento del liderazgo de Xi es un desafío para Washington.Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/16/world/asia/finishing-asia-tour-obama-promotes-more-ambitious-foreign-policy.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1743435-el-rapido-crecimiento-del-liderazgo-de-xi-un-desafio-para-washingtonObama visita países asiáticos.Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-30049266http://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-obama-suu-kyi-meeting-20141114-story.htmlGiro de Pekín y Washington en la política ambiental tras firmar pacto sobre emisión de gases.Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/international/21632412-agreement-greenhouse-gas-emissions-america-has-made-bigger-concessions-china-unevenhttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-30015545http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1743434-eeuu-y-china-sellan-un-pacto-historico-pero-no-logran-frenar-las-criticashttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/china-y-eeuu-se-fijan-objetivos-de-reduccion-de-emisiones-de-gases-/14822255Obama intenta recobrar el pulso tras la derrota ante los republicanos.Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/united-states/21632503-anyone-hoping-outbreak-good-government-likely-be-disappointed-facehttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/republicanos-estudian-cierre-gobierno-obama-1054655.htmlhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/11/15/actualidad/1416011286_687791.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1742168-debilitado-obama-apuesta-a-una-agenda-comun-con-los-republicanoshttp://www.economist.com/news/united-states/21632510-republicans-want-president-get-tougher-abroad-olive-branch-big-stickEstados Unidos regulará la llegada de menores migrantes centroamericanos.Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/11/14/actualidad/1416003197_705890.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/ee-uu-y-canada/obama-evita-deportacion-de-5-millones-de-indocumentados/14830617http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1744057-por-decreto-obama-lanzara-una-reforma-migratoriaEUROPAContinúa la tensión en Ucrania.Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/europe/21632597-renewed-russian-military-build-up-could-be-prelude-more-fighting-military-marcheshttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/impreso/crisis-en-ucrania-tensa-al-g20-88940.htmlhttp://www.latimes.com/world/europe/la-fg-ukraine-defense-russia-20141114-story.html http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/11/15/actualidad/1416088304_442188.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/moscu-desmiente-que-tenga-tropas-en-ucrania/14830624http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1743217-vuelve-la-tension-al-este-de-ucrania-kiev-advirtio-que-se-prepara-para-la-accion-militarhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/occidente-presiona-a-rusia-para-evitar-una-guerra-total-en-ucrania/14827396Vladimir Putin recibe fuertes críticas en la cumbre del G-20.Para más información:http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-11/16/content_18923757.htmwww.latimes.com/world/europe/la-fg-putin-versus-nato-20141116-story.html#page=1http://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/16/world/europe/vladimir-putin-gets-cool-g-20-welcome-over-ukraine-conflict.htmlhttp://www.lemonde.fr/europe/article/2014/11/16/le-blocus-de-l-est-separatiste-de-l-ukraine-une-grosse-erreur-pour-poutine_4524316_3214.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1744411-tras-las-fuertes-criticas-vladimir-putin-fue-el-primero-en-dejar-australiahttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/11/15/actualidad/1416087447_308634.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/16/world/europe/vladimir-putin-gets-cool-g-20-welcome-over-ukraine-conflict.htmlhttp://www.miamiherald.com/news/business/article3964759.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/putin-abandona-reunion-del-g20-para-dormir-a-sus-horas-1054537.htmlhttp://www.latimes.com/world/europe/la-fg-g20-obama-putin-20141116-story.htmlhttp://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/ukraine-crisis/western-leaders-confront-putin-g20-threat-more-sanctions-n249306Cataluña: tras suspensión judicial del referéndum casi 2 millones de personas participaron en la consulta simbólica sobre la independencia.Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21632478-madrid-government-should-let-catalans-have-voteand-then-defeat-separatistshttp://elpais.com/elpais/2014/11/14/inenglish/1415985906_219504.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1742819-ultimatum-del-gobierno-catalan-a-rajoy-tras-el-exito-de-la-consultahttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/lo-que-hay-que-saber-sobre-la-consulta-de-independencia-catalana/14788200http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1742547-cataluna-tuvo-su-9-n-casi-2-millones-de-personas-participaron-en-la-consulta-simbolica-sobre-la-independencia3Elecciones locales en Polonia.Para más información:http://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/article3964816.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2014/11/16/world/europe/ap-eu-poland-local-elections.html?ref=worldRumania vota nuevo primer ministro.Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-30076716http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/abren-las-urnas-en-las-presidenciales-de-rumania-1054552.htmlhttp://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/article3962767.htmlhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/11/16/actualidad/1416169932_085182.htmlLa Nación analiza: "Los peligrosos encuentros militares de Rusia en Europa".Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1742659-los-peligrosos-encuentros-militares-de-rusia-en-europaComienza en Ucrania la recogida de los restos del fuselaje del MH17.Para más información:http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/ukraine-plane-crash/pieces-mh17-crash-removed-scene-ukraine-n249586http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-30073283http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/11/16/actualidad/1416150737_258935.htmlDiversos medios hacen referencia al aniversario de la caída del Muro de Berlín.Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/world/europe/la-fg-germany-wall-anniversary-20141109-story.html#page=14http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1742542-en-fotos-alemania-antes-y-despues-del-muro-de-berlinhttp://elpais.com/especiales/2014/aniversario-caida-muro-de-berlin/Tras escándalo de corrupción el PP realiza auditoria a sus candidatos.Para más información:http://elpais.com/elpais/2014/11/13/inenglish/1415897409_152185.htmlUn brote de gripe aviar en Holanda obliga a sacrificar 150.000 pollos.Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/11/16/actualidad/1416162288_552887.html"The Economist" analiza postura de los conservadores de cara a las próximas elecciones en Gran Bretaña.Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/britain/21632629-win-next-general-election-conservatives-must-hold-their-nerve-keep-calm-and-carryRusia planea lanzar una Wikipedia alternativa.Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-30058048ASIA-PACÍFICO / MEDIO ORIENTEContinúa el avance del Estado Islámico mientras que occidente planea su lucha.Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/16/world/iraq-and-us-find-some-potential-sunni-allies-have-already-been-lost.htmlhttp://www.miamiherald.com/news/business/article3966656.htmlhttp://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-syria-airstrikes-20141114-story.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/lucha-mundial-contra-el-estado-islamico/14832456http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1744414-estado-islamico-rehen-peter-kassig-decapitacion-videohttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/11/15/actualidad/1416061775_077932.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2014/11/16/world/middleeast/ap-ml-islamic-state.htmlEl nuevo orden geopolítico: Pekín muestra su influencia de potencia global.Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21632452-weeks-summit-beijing-helped-great-power-rivalry-still-threatens-pacific-bridgehttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/china-creara-nueva-gran-zona-de-libre-comercio/14821565http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2014-11/15/content_18920403.htmhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1743092-china-apela-a-la-cumbre-de-la-apec-para-desplegar-todo-su-poderCon desconfianza, Abe y Xi inician el deshielo entre Japón y China.Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/china/21632637-welcomeand-long-overduedetente-out-deep-freezehttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/impreso/la-descolonizacion-de-asia-entre-japon-y-occidente-88945.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1742802-con-desconfianza-abe-y-xi-inician-el-deshielo-entre-japon-y-chinahttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/negligencia-medica-habria-causado-muerte-de-mujeres-en-la-india/14818955Tres muertos en un ataque suicida contra una activista afgana.Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-afghan-lawmaker-survives-kabul-bomb-blast-20141115-story.htmlhttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-30073189http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/female-afghan-mp-says-prayers-saved-her-attack-n249686http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/11/16/actualidad/1416172462_034225.html11 mujeres muertas por una esterilización masiva.Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-india-sterilization-deaths-20141112-story.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1743062-tragedia-en-la-india-11-muertes-por-una-esterilizacion-masivaCondenaron a 36 años de prisión al capitán del ferry Sewol.Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1742910-condenaron-a-36-anos-de-prision-al-capitan-del-ferry-sewolhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/condenan-a-36-anos-de-carcel-al-capitan-del-ferri-surcoreano-sewol/14817715Terremoto de 7.3 grados de magnitud sacudió a Indonesia.Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-30066518http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/sismo-de-73-grados-sacude-noreste-de-indonesia-con-alerta-de-tsunami/14836675http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/7-3-magnitude-quake-hits-indonesia-n249161China impide viajar a Pekín a tres líderes estudiantiles de Hong Kong.Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/11/15/actualidad/1416071323_828020.htmlAtentados terroristas sacuden a Israel.Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1742803-tension-en-israel-por-dos-nuevos-asesinatosAl menos 56 muertos por accidente de autobús en Pakistán.Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/al-menos-56-muertos-por-accidente-de-autobus-en-pakistan-/14817695Diálogo sobre desarrollo nuclear iraní.Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-iran-nuclear-talks-20141114-story.htmlÁFRICAÁfrica continua siendo amenazada por el ébola.Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-30072477http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/ebola-virus-outbreak/mali-tries-track-200-contacts-after-new-ebola-cases-n248941http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/republica-democratica-del-congo-libre-de-ebola-1054531.htmlhttp://www.latimes.com/world/africa/la-fg-mali-ebola-20141111-story.htmlhttp://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21632883-malis-second-outbreak-ebola-more-worrying-double-whammyhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/el-panico-se-apodera-de-mali-por-culpa-del-ebola/14827036http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1742414-el-temor-al-aislamiento-y-el-colapso-sanitario-aliados-del-ebola-en-sierra-leonaNigeria: un atacante suicida con uniforme escolar mató a 47 estudiantes en un colegio.Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1742656-nigeria-un-atacante-suicida-con-uniforme-escolar-mato-a-47-estudiantes-en-un-colegiohttp://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/article3969522.htmlEjército de Nigeria lucha contra Boko Haram.Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-30073702http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/muertos-explosion-mercado-nigeria-1054641.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/boko-haram-se-toma-chibok-donde-secuestro-a-mas-de-270-ninas/14832935http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2014/11/16/nigeria-chibok-la-ville-des-lyceennes-enlevees-reprise-par-l-armee-et-des-miliciens_4524341_3212.htmlOTRASVarios medios informan sobre la reunión del G20.Para más información:http://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-30072674http://www.miamiherald.com/news/business/article3930434.htmlhttp://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-australia-parochial-20141116-story.htmlhttp://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014xiattendg20/2014-11/17/content_18924018.htmhttp://www.lemonde.fr/economie-mondiale/article/2014/11/16/les-trois-engagements-du-g20-croissance-transparence-fiscale-et-climat_4524331_1656941.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1744412-el-documento-final-de-la-cumbre-del-g-20-incluyo-a-los-holdouts "The Economsit" publica su informe: "Business this week".Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/world-week/21631169-business-week

AMÉRICA LATINA Elecciones presidenciales en Argentina: Cristina Fernández tendrá su segundo mandato.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45006572/ns/world_news-americas/#.TqfhIHKwA91http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/24/actualidad/1319476231_118058.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/74879.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/reeleccin-de-cristina-fernndez-como-presidenta-de-argentina_10621346-4 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/74895.html http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/23/world/americas/argentina-elections/index.html?hpt=wo_bn8ONU pidió, por vigésimo año consecutivo, el fin del embargo a Cuba.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/onu-pidi-por-vigsimo-ao-consecutivo-el-fin-del-embargo-a-cuba_10637826-4El huracán Rina amenaza la costa mexicana.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/world/americas/hurricane-rina-threatens-yucatan-peninsula.html?ref=world http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-15443540 http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45042360/ns/weather/#.TqfgrnKwA91 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/26/actualidad/1319612424_809172.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/rina-a-punto-de-convertirse-en-huracn-de-categora-3_10638405-4 http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/25/world/americas/tropical-weather/index.html?hpt=wo_c2Evo promulga ley en favor de los indígenas y anuncia fin del conflicto.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/24/actualidad/1319474529_733232.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/evo-promulga-ley-en-favor-de-indgenas-y-pone-fin-al-conflicto-en-bolivia_10630564-4 Jorge Castañeda: "México ya era priista antes del PRI"".Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/25/actualidad/1319570806_219365.htmlCentroamérica vive la peor crisis de los últimos 20 años.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/pobreza-en-centroamrica_10610449-4 Chile denunció apoyo de movimientos argentinos a estudiantes.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1417401-chile-el-gobierno-denuncio-apoyo-de-movimientos-argentinos-a-estudiantes#comentarColombia pasa del fervor al temor por el libre comercio con Estados Unidos.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/25/actualidad/1319525054_990300.htmlJóvenes haitianos ven un futuro en el ejército.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/world/americas/president-michel-martelly-seeks-to-re-create-haitis-army.html?ref=worldRepublica Dominicana: culpan a la Policía Nacional de varias muertes.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/world/americas/amnesty-international-criticizes-dominican-police-for-deaths.html?ref=world http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-15440408La visita al mausoleo de Néstor Kirchner tras un año de su muerte.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/mausoleo-de-nestor-kirchner-tras-un-ano-de-su-muerte_10639527-4Juramento del primer ministro jamaiquino.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45009079/ns/world_news-americas/#.TqfhKHKwA91Ataque rebelde deja 10 soldados muertos en Colombia.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45002063/ns/world_news-americas/#.TqfhLnKwA91Investigación a vicepresidente pone a prueba al Gobierno de Humala.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/investigacin-a-vicepresidente-pone-a-prueba-al-gobierno-de-humala_10629664-4 Cuba estudia a sus ancianos por aumento de la vejez en ese país.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/aumento-de-la-vejez-en-cuba_10640964-4ESTADOS UNIDOS / CANADÁObama lanza medidas para ayudar a familias al borde del desahucio.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/obama-lanza-nuevas-medidas-para-ayudar-a-familias-al-borde-del-desahucio_10630244-4 Estados Unidos obtiene progresos en los diálogos con Corea del Norte aunque todavía no existe acuerdo alguno.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45031122/ns/world_news-asia_pacific/#.TqfhPHKwA91http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/27/world/asia/leon-panetta-lands-in-south-korea-for-talks.html?ref=worldEn la capital de Estados Unidos protestan profesionistas, estudiantes y jubilados.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/74884.html Estados Unidos mantiene una red de informantes secretos en los carteles mexicanos.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/25/actualidad/1319566118_990164.htmlWashington acelera sus planes para contener a Irán tras su salida de Irak.Para más información: http://www.economist.com/blogs/lexington/2011/10/leaving-iraq http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/25/actualidad/1319568226_244550.htmlhttp://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/iraq/complete/la-fg-clinton-libya-iraq-iran-20111024,0,4437784.storyEstados Unidos y Siria llamaron a consultas a sus embajadores.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/estados-unidos-retir-a-su-embajador-de-siria_10625725-4Estados Unidos desmantela la última de las bombas nucleares de la Guerra Fría.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/bomba-atmica-de-estados-unidos_10632764-4Clinton mantiene estrecho diálogo con Pakistán.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/21/world/asia/pakistan-clinton-trip/index.html?hpt=wo_bn7Obama, a la reconquista de los latinos.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/74883.html130 detenidos en protesta del movimiento 'Occupy' en Chicago.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/cerca-de-130-detenidos-tras-una-protesta-del-movimiento-occupy-en-chicago_10623724-4EUROPATerremoto sacude a Turquía dejando decenas de muertos y cientos de desaparecidos.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/world/europe/death-toll-in-turkey-quake-rises-as-rescuers-race-to-find-trapped-survivors.html?ref=world http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/25/world/europe/turkey-quake/index.html?hpt=wo_c1 http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45041798/ns/world_news-europe/#.TqffUHKwA90 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/26/actualidad/1319613006_518795.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1417457-turquia#comentar http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-15457897 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/74900.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/vctimas-del-terremoto-de-turqua_10625624-4 http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-turkey-quake-20111025,0,7206785.storyLa Unión Europea concentrará la ayuda al desarrollo en la democracia y los derechos humanos.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/21/actualidad/1319204902_636885.htmlEuropa está en vilo: peligra el acuerdo. Intentan salvar el euro, pero hay diferencias.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-15449149 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1417809-europa-esta-en-vilo-peligra-el-acuerdo#comentar http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/posicion-de-alemania-en-la-crisis-de-la-zona-euro_10639264-4 http://money.cnn.com/2011/10/25/news/international/europe_crisis_talks/index.htm?hpt=hp_t2&hpt=wo_c2 http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39435196/ns/business-world_business/#.TqffW3KwA90 http://www.lemonde.fr/crise-financiere/article/2011/10/26/l-europe-se-dechire-sur-le-role-de-la-bce-dans-la-crise_1593978_1581613.html#ens_id=1268560 http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/world/europe/europe-faces-new-hurdles-in-debt-crisis.html?ref=world http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/world/europe/europes-leaders-testy-as-summit-nears.html?ref=world http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-euro-deal-20111025,0,594471.storyBerlusconi acorralado desde todos lados.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-15457900 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1417808-berlusconi-acorralado-desde-todos-lados#comentar http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1417917-otra-drastica-medida-de-berlusconi-acordo-aumentar-la-edad-de-jubilacion-en-italia#comentarLa Unión Europa analiza dos métodos no excluyentes para el rescate de Grecia.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1417387-la-ue-analiza-dos-metodos-no-excluyentes-para-el-rescate-de-grecia#comentar http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-greece-austerity-20111021,0,3903568.storyZapatero y Sarkozy acuerdan permanente información ante fin de ETA.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/zapatero-y-sarkozy-acuerda-canal-permanente-de-informacin-ante-el-fin-de-eta_10623764-4Cameron enfrenta la mayor rebelión tory sobre la UE.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45018019/ns/business-stocks_and_economy/#.TqfhT3KwA91http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1417576-cameron-enfrenta-la-mayor-rebelion-tory-sobre-la-ue#comentar http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/24/world/europe/uk-eu-referendum/index.html?hpt=wo_bn9Confiado, Rajoy ya se prepara para su llegada a la Moncloa.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1417113-confiado-rajoy-ya-se-prepara-para-su-llegada-a-la-moncloa#comentarAntes de la cumbre, Alemania da luz verde a la ampliación del fondo de rescate.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1417921-merkel-llamo-a-resolver-las-imperfecciones-del-euro-ahora-o-nunca#comentarVotantes suizos prefieren alejarse de la derecha.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/23/world/europe/switzerland-elections/index.html?hpt=wo_bn9El depuesto rey de Rumania advierte a los políticos contra la demagogia.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/25/actualidad/1319557569_454773.htmlASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTETailandia sigue siendo azotada por las inundaciones.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-15459227 http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/portfolio/2011/10/26/bangkok-submergee-l-approvisionnement-devient-difficile_1593871_3216.html http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45006107/ns/weather/#.TqfhTHKwA91 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/25/actualidad/1319553348_473230.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/world/asia/flood-waters-in-bangkok-shut-domestic-airport.html?ref=world http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/25/world/asia/thailand-flood/index.html?hpt=wo_c2Amnistía acusa al régimen sirio de torturas en los hospitales.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/world/middleeast/syria.html?ref=world http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/25/world/meast/syria-unrest/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/25/actualidad/1319533294_069689.htmlGobierno de Yemen llama al cese del fuego.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/25/world/meast/yemen-violence/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/74898.html http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/world/middleeast/yemen-fighting-intensifies-as-cease-fire-is-called.html?ref=worldFallece Sultan bin Abdulaziz, príncipe heredero del trono de Arabia Saudita.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/22/world/meast/saudi-arabia-prince-dead/index.html?hpt=wo_bn11 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/22/actualidad/1319265519_668463.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/fallece-prncipe-heredero-de-arabia-saudita_10614945-4 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15451009Virus ataca a computadoras del Parlamento japonés.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/world/asia/virus-infects-computers-in-japans-parliament.html?ref=worldTanque de gasolina utilizado como bomba en Afganistán mata al menos 14 personas.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-15455778 http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-afghan-karzai-comment-20111025,0,7387181.story http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2011/10/26/world/asia/AP-AS-Afghanistan.html?ref=worldFuerzas de la OTAN capturan a 200 militantes en Afganistán. Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45011114/ns/world_news-south_and_central_asia/#.TqfhUnKwA90Temblor sacude nuevamente a la prefectura nipona de Fukushima.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45038345/ns/world_news-asia_pacific/#.TqfhOnKwA91China toma medidas contra la fuga de capitales.Para más información: http://behindthewall.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2011/10/25/8476025-china-cracks-down-on-economic-leaksAFRICAMarruecos responsabiliza a Argelia del secuestro de los cooperantes.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45006979/ns/world_news-africa/#.TqfhAXKwA91 http://politica.elpais.com/politica/2011/10/25/actualidad/1319553200_614005.htmlTúnez: islamistas moderados ganaron las primeras elecciones de la "primavera árabe".Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15453579 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/onu-felicit-a-tnez-por-primeras-elecciones-libres-tras-dictadura_10627064-4 http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-tunisia-nahda-20111026,0,2154740.story http://www.lemonde.fr/tunisie/article/2011/10/26/tunisie-la-strategie-attrape-tout-d-ennahda-a-paye_1593947_1466522.html#ens_id=1585247 http://www.economist.com/blogs/newsbook/2011/10/tunisias-election http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/middleeast/la-fg-tunisia-election-20111024,0,7449219.story http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1417545-amplio-triunfo-en-tunez-de-los-islamistas-moderados#comentar http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/25/actualidad/1319572196_921197.htmlhttp://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/24/world/africa/tunisia-elections/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/world/africa/tunisia-liberals-see-a-vote-for-change-not-just-for-islamists.html?ref=world http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45038538/ns/world_news-mideast_n_africa/#.Tqfg63KwA91La nueva Libia nace marcada por el desgobierno y los excesos de los rebeldes.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15459473 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/25/actualidad/1319567586_456515.htmlGadafi ha sido enterrado en un lugar secreto del desierto.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-libya-kadafi-burial-20111026,0,6381129.story http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/74897.html http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45027029/ns/world_news-mideast_n_africa/#.Tqfg4XKwA91 http://www.lemonde.fr/libye/article/2011/10/26/la-famille-de-kadhafi-envisage-de-porter-plainte-contre-l-otan_1593936_1496980.html http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/world/africa/qaddafi-son-and-former-defense-aide-buried-in-secret-place.html?ref=worldhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/25/actualidad/1319526089_910770.htmlhttp://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/25/world/africa/libya-main/index.html?hpt=wo_c2La ONU pide una investigación sobre la muerte de Gadafi.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/world/panetta-says-ties-with-libya-depend-on-allies.html?ref=world http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/21/actualidad/1319190066_096919.htmlUn comando armado secuestra a tres cooperantes en Somalia.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/25/actualidad/1319557545_291784.htmlAtaque en Kenia deja al menos 1 muerto y 20 heridos.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15459960 http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/24/world/africa/kenya-nightclub-attack/index.html?hpt=wo_bn10 http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/45019406/ns/world_news-africa/#.Tqfg-HKwA91Uganda revive sus oleadas anti homosexuales.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/26/world/africa/anti-gay-bill-is-revived-in-uganda.html?ref=worldLos caudillos africanos se eternizan.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/26/actualidad/1319610694_185410.htmlOTRAS NOTICIASSegún la ONU el mundo tendrá 7.000 millones de personas a final de mes,.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-15459643 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/numero-de-personas-de-la-poblacion-mundial_10639484-4 http://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2011/10/26/7-milliards-d-humains-en-2011-et-15-milliards-en-2100_1594137_3244.htmlWikiLeaks cerca de su colapso financiero.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1417546-wikileaks-cerca-de-su-colapso-financiero#comentar http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/24/actualidad/1319452128_617753.html"El Universal" presenta su portal dedicado al cambio climático.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/coberturas/cobertura3.html"The Economist" presenta su informe semanal: "Business this week".Para más información: http://www.economist.com/node/21533461

AMÉRICA LATINA América del Sur hace frente común contra la crisis: la amenaza al crecimiento económico impulsa la ansiada integración regional.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/America/Sur/hace/frente/comun/crisis/elpepuint/20110814elpepiint_10/Tes Elecciones primarias en Argentina: Fernández captó el 50% de los votos mientras Alfonsín y Duhalde pelean el segundo puesto.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/14/world/americas/14argentina.html?ref=world&gwh=D90AB6664B213B64BC8E412248F152EE http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/08/15/internacional/_portada/noticias/34FF55D3-5A21-47CE-A3C4-F9ACB1CFB5A7.htm?id={34FF55D3-5A21-47CE-A3C4-F9ACB1CFB5A7} http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/americas/08/14/argentina.primary/index.html http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/sondeo/28/millones/votantes/elpepuint/20110814elpepuint_1/Teshttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/cristina-fernndez-venci-en-elecciones-primarias_10156124-4 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/cristina-fernndez-venci-en-elecciones-primarias_10156124-4 http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-08/16/content_13122599.htmSismo de 5,9 grados sacudió el sureste de Ecuador.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/sismo-en-ecuador_10157004-4 Fidel festejó sus 85 años entre críticas y elogios.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/44129524/ns/world_news-americas/ http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1397527-fidel-festejo-entre-criticas-y-elogiosCosta Rica denuncia nueva incursión de Nicaragua en zona en disputa.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/costa-rica-denuncia-nueva-incursin-de-nicaragua-en-zona-en-disputa_10171044-4Evo enfrenta una oleada de protestas.Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/08/15/internacional/internacional/noticias/CB98CBBA-2274-4B6E-A26D-4F18518EF854.htm?id={CB98CBBA-2274-4B6E-A26D-4F18518EF854} http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/indigenas/bolivianos/enfrentan/Evo/Morales/carretera/elpepuint/20110811elpepuint_16/TesLuchas por combatir la corrupción en la policía ecuatoriana.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-14553039 Chávez regresa a Caracas tras una segunda fase de quimioterapia en Cuba.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Chavez/regresa/Caracas/segunda/fase/quimioterapia/Cuba/elpepuint/20110814elpepuint_7/TesLos cubanos no se acostumbran a pagar impuestos.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1397239-los-cubanos-no-se-acostumbran-a-pagar-impuestosChile: estudiantes rechazan el diálogo propuesto por el gobierno.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1397535-pinera-quiere-prohibir-las-capuchas-y-palos-en-las-marchasImportante crecimiento de Petrobras, la petrolera estatal brasileña.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-14540942Violencia por tenencia de tierras en Honduras deja 11 muertos.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-14541291Destape de 'ollas podridas' amenaza la gobernabilidad en Brasil.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/corrupcin-en-brasil_10154929-4Ataque con granadas en México deja un muerto y tres heridos.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/44151717/ns/world_news-americas/Líder máximo de las FARC, Alfonso Cano, anuncia: "Santos olvidó promesa de dejar atrás los odios".Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/08/15/internacional/internacional/noticias/4AAD761A-E8F8-4953-A92C-5D6F0B6DF63B.htm?id={4AAD761A-E8F8-4953-A92C-5D6F0B6DF63B}ESTADOS UNIDOS / CANADÁCinco muertos al desplomarse un escenario en un concierto en Indianápolis.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1397698-cinco-muertos-y-varios-heridos-en-un-derrumbe-en-estados-unidos http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/muertos/desplomarse/escenario/concierto/Indianapolis/elpepuint/20110814elpepuint_3/TesMichele Bachmann lidera carrera por candidatura republicana en Estados Unidos.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/michele-bachmann-lidera-carrera-por-candidatura-republicana-en-ee-uu_10153685-4Tim Pawlenty abandona carrera por la nominación republicana.Para más información: http://www.economist.com/blogs/democracyinamerica/2011/08/republican-nomination-0 http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/08/15/internacional/internacional/noticias/2B9BD20C-2B21-4D3E-8357-58DDA4E663AF.htm?id={2B9BD20C-2B21-4D3E-8357-58DDA4E663AF}Republicanos se decantan por 3 candidaturas: Romney, Perry y Bachmann.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/44177667/ns/politics-decision_2012/ http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/republicanos-se-decantan-por-tres-candidaturas-romney-perry-y-bachmann_10165725-4Disminuyeron en Estados Unidos las detenciones de indocumentados en un 61%Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/08/15/internacional/internacional/noticias/BE329ED8-97EA-43EA-801A-BAAE6B631D68.htm?id={BE329ED8-97EA-43EA-801A-BAAE6B631D68} La tormenta tropical Gert se saltea Bermuda.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/americas/08/15/tropical.storm.gert/index.html El apoyo a Obama, en un mínimo: su popularidad cayó por debajo del 40%Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1397793-el-apoyo-a-obama-en-un-minimo http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2011/08/15/la-cote-de-popularite-de-barack-obama-au-plus-bas_1559939_3222.htmlObama continúa minigira por la reelección.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/786446.htmlJoe Biden visita tres naciones asiáticas.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-08/16/content_13121794.htm http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-14552298Un congresista acusa a la Casa Blanca de filtrar información clasificada para una película sobre Bin Laden.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/cultura/congresista/acusa/Casa/Blanca/filtrar/informacion/clasificada/pelicula/Bin/Laden/elpten/20110812elpepucul_7/TesEUROPABreivik regresa a Utoya para reconstruir la masacre.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/15/world/europe/15norway.html?ref=world&gwh=411F2F8DAAADFF922720D8BD9155C246 http://www.lemonde.fr/europe/article/2011/08/15/norvege-un-mois-d-isolement-supplementaire-requis-contre-breivik_1559894_3214.html http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/08/15/internacional/internacional/noticias/FCA03C08-BFFD-443B-A006-68ACD61A6483.htm?id={FCA03C08-BFFD-443B-A006-68ACD61A6483} http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-08/15/content_13122172.htmEl asesino de Noruega, sin arrepentimiento.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1397767-el-asesino-de-noruega-sin-arrepentimiento http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/europe/08/14/norway.attacks/index.htmlBerlín conmemora los 50 años de la construcción del Muro.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/europe/08/12/gallery.berlin.wall/index.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1397122-a-50-anos-de-su-construccion-un-muro-invisible-aun-divide-el-este-y-el-oeste http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Berlin/conmemora/anos/construccion/Muro/elpepuint/20110813elpepuint_1/TesCameron se comprometió a "reparar esta sociedad rota".Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-britain-riots-20110816,0,4116258.story http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/europe/08/13/uk.riots/index.html http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-08/16/content_13121806.htmMás de la mitad de los británicos desaprueba el actuar de Cameron.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1397482-mas-de-la-mitad-de-los-britanicos-desaprueba-el-actuar-de-cameronLa mitad de los procesados por los disturbios en Londres son menores de edad.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/mitad/procesados/disturbios/Londres/menores/edad/elpepuint/20110812elpepuint_5/Tes http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/14/world/europe/14looters.html?ref=world&gwh=C07D9C2DE54D38D60374A3B920A21318Los vecinos "antidisturbios" se movilizan para reconstruir Londres.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Tottenham/planta/cara/tories/elpepuint/20110813elpepuint_6/Tes http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1397200-los-vecinos-antidisturbios-se-movilizan-para-reconstruir-londresEncuentro entre Sarkozy y Merkel: intentan hacer frente a la crisis económica europea.Para más información: http://www.economist.com/blogs/newsbook/2011/08/europes-economic-crisis http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-sarkozy-merkel-20110817,0,7612680.story http://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2011/08/15/les-eurobonds-ne-seront-pas-au-menu-de-la-rencontre-sarkozy-merkel_1559697_3234.htmlhttp://www.lemonde.fr/europe/article/2011/08/14/emeutes-en-grande-bretagne-tolerance-zero-contre-solutions-simplistes_1559582_3214.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-14549358 http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-europe-germany-bailout-20110813,0,4462232.storyLa Unión Europea exige a Italia que acelere el plan de ajuste.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1397766-la-ue-exige-a-italia-que-acelere-el-plan-de-ajuste http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1397536-italia-le-pide-mas-ayuda-a-europaEspaña: hallan a tres niños discapacitados asfixiados con bolsas en la cabeza.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1397991-misterio-hallan-tres-ninos-discapacitados-asfixiados-en-un-orfanato-de-espana Embarcación con 320 inmigrantes llega a Lampedusa.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/embarcacin-con-320-inmigrantes-llega-a-lampedusa_10152044-4Berlusconi eleva a 65 años la edad de jubilación de las mujeres.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/economia/Berlusconi/eleva/65/anos/edad/jubilacion/mujeres/elpepueco/20110813elpepueco_1/Tes General turco en corte por cargos de conspiración.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-14528411Fiscal del TPIY pide dos juicios separados en caso de Ratko Mladic .Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/fiscal-del-tpiy-pide-dos-juicios-separados-en-caso-de-ratko-mladic-_10170127-4ASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTEEl Ejército sirio entra en la ciudad de Latakia para reprimir las protestas.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-syria-latakia-20110816,0,6681337.story http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/786377.html http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Ejercito/sirio/entra/ciudad/Latakia/reprimir/protestas/elpepuint/20110813elpepuint_2/Tes http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-08/16/content_13121797.htm25 personas muertas tras ataque de fuerzas sirias.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/25-muertos-en-ataques-de-fuerzas-sirias_10153804-4 http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-syria-finances-20110817,0,5276353.storyNuevo viernes de sangre en Siria.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Nuevo/viernes/sangre/Siria/elpepuint/20110812elpepuint_4/Tes http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/15/world/middleeast/15syria.html?_r=1&ref=world&gwh=A7D2F46AFC99C22F095FDD75498D93C9Miles de personas salen a la calle para rebelarse contra la policía en China.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Miles/personas/salen/calle/rebelarse/policia/China/elpepuint/20110812elpepuint_6/TesAtaque suicida en Afganistán deja 22 muertos.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-afghanistan-bombing-20110815,0,3573479.story http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/15/world/asia/15afghan.html?ref=world&gwh=7260C93707CE987BE607463F922BDCECEl sucesor de Bin Laden llamó a continuar combatiendo a Estados Unidos.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1397995-el-sucesor-de-osama-llamo-continuar-combatiendo-a-estados-unidosOla de atentados en Irak deja 74 muertos.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/74-muertos-en-irak_10157244-4 http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/meast/08/15/iraq.violence/index.htmlInculpan a 4 miembros de Hezbolá en Líbano por atentado a Rafic Hariri.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/inculpan-a-4-miembros-de-hezbol-en-libia-por-atentado-a-rafic-hariri_10171206-4Aumentan las protestas en todo el territorio indio.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/asiapcf/08/15/india.independence.day/index.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/aumentan-las-protestas-en-todo-el-territorio-indio_10170964-4 http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-india-corruption-20110817,0,3898984.story http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-14542053Suu Kyi difunde su mensaje de paz por el mundo.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/asiapcf/08/14/myanmar.suu.kyi.travel/index.htmlUn trabajador de una empresa estadounidense es secuestrado en Pakistán.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/trabajador/empresa/EE/UU/secuestrado/Pakistan/elpepuint/20110813elpepuint_5/Tes http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/14/world/asia/14pakistan.html?ref=world&gwh=4FAEBE8F8A25AA227821E94E657836E5Jordania y Turquía llaman a la culminación de la violencia en Siria.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/meast/08/15/syria.unrest/index.htmlChina promete una donación de 38 millones de euros a África.Para más información: http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2011/08/15/la-chine-promet-un-don-de-38-millions-d-euros-a-la-corne-de-l-afrique_1559905_3212.htmlLas Coreas intercambian disparos en zona marítima. Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-korea-shelling-20110811,0,5482150.story http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-14541988Renuncia primer ministro de Nepal.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-nepal-khanal-20110814,0,165650.storyLluvias en Pakistán dejan 400 mil afectados.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/786250.htmlEx vice primer ministro iraquí pide ser ejecutado rápidamente.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/tarek-aziz-pide-ser-ejecutado-rapidamente-_10172368-4Comenzará a operar primer central nuclear iraní construida por rusos.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/comenzar-a-operar-primer-central-nuclear-iran-construida-por-rusos_10170464-4Biden en China, cuestiones económicas son el eje de su visita.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/14/world/asia/14china.html?ref=world&gwh=A0F543925EE4E7224480ECA87795008FÁFRICA"El País" de Madrid analiza: "La guerra eterna de Somalia".Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/guerra/eterna/Somalia/elpepuint/20110814elpepiint_1/TesLa difícil tarea de hacer frente a la hambruna extrema en África.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/08/11/africa.famine.donations/index.html http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/44171618/ns/world_news-africa/ http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/44131713/ns/world_news-africa/Rebeldes libios alistan era post Gadafi con declaración constitucional.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/declaracin-constitucional-de-los-rebeldes-en-libia_10168785-4Los rebeldes libios aseguran haber entrado en Zauiya.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/rebeldes/libios/aseguran/haber/entrado/Zauiya/elpepuint/20110814elpepiint_12/TesConcentración en la plaza Tahrir de El Cairo a favor de mayores reformas.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/meast/08/12/egypt.tahrir.protests/index.html http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Concentracion/plaza/Tahrir/Cairo/favor/mayores/reformas/elpepuint/20110812elpepuint_7/Tes Continúa la guerra en Libia.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/14/world/africa/14libya.html?ref=world&gwh=5C51FC7AA4F872C142796A4F366B59FE http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/08/15/libya.war/index.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14550840Células de Al Qaeda entrenan en el desierto de Sinaí.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/08/12/egypt.al.qaeda.operation/index.htmlCoche bomba hiere a 33 personas en Argelia.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/08/14/algeria.bomb/index.htmlAl menos 24 muertos en combates entre oposición y militares en Yemen.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/al-menos-24-muertos-entre-oposicin-y-militares-en-yemen_10162424-4Regresan los manifestantes a las calles de Túnez.Para más información: http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2011/08/15/manifestations-et-heurts-avec-la-police-en-tunisie_1559930_3212.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14548209Los días de Gadafi 'están contados', asegura Estados Unidos.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/los-das-de-gadafi-estn-contados-asegura-estados-unidos_10158564-4Ex presidente Mubarak llegó en camilla a su juicio.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-08/16/content_13122340.htm http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/ex-presidente-egipcio-mubarak-lleg-en-camilla-al-tribunal_10157184-4 http://www.economist.com/blogs/newsbook/2011/08/hosni-mubarak http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-egypt-mubarak-tv-20110816,0,7325204.storyOTRAS NOTICIASGoogle compra a Motorola Mobility.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-08/16/content_13121788.htmPreocupación mundial por la crisis: el G-20 y el BCE analizan la situación.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1395785-preocupacion-mundial-por-la-crisis-el-g-20-y-el-bce-analizan-la-situacion "El Universal" presenta su portal dedicado al cambio climático.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/coberturas/cobertura3.html"The Economist" presenta su informe semanal: "Business this week".Para más información: http://www.economist.com/node/18929578

AMÉRICA LATINA Unos 80 muertos y 150.000 afectados por fuertes lluvias en Centroamérica.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/17/world/americas/central-america-floods/index.html?hpt=wo_bn8 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/17/actualidad/1318837321_448930.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/unos-80-muertos-y-150000-afectados-por-lluvias-en-amrica_10578146-4 http://www.economist.com/node/21532292El Tribunal Supremo venezolano bloquea la candidatura de un rival de Chávez.Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/18/actualidad/1318904762_393671.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/en-venezuela-positor-lpez-dice-que-ser-candidato-pese-a-inhabilidad_10589966-4 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/74788.htmlUna millonaria multa asedia al principal canal opositor de Venezuela.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1415945-una-millonaria-multa-asedia-al-principal-canal-opositor-de-venezuela#comentar http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/10/19/internacional/_portada/noticias/A46B940C-C6B6-4CE1-BB45-6BAE144B1D21.htm?id={A46B940C-C6B6-4CE1-BB45-6BAE144B1D21} http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/multa-a-canal-opositor-del-televisin-venezolano_10586304-4 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/18/actualidad/1318965461_251822.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-15358834Liberada la niña colombiana secuestrada durante 19 días.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/18/world/americas/colombia-missing-girl/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-15361105http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1415801-liberan-a-una-nina-secuestrada-en-colombia#comentar http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/18/actualidad/1318909157_377754.htmlGraves incidentes caracterizan al paro nacional en Chile.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1415802-graves-incidentes-en-chile#comentar http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/74789.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/estudiantes-inician-dos-marchas-en-segundo-da-de-protesta_10591924-4 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/802075.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-15358921La Fiscalía de Perú investiga a uno de los vicepresidentes por corrupción.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/18/actualidad/1318920890_039227.htmlChávez regresa a Cuba para realizarse nuevos examines médicos.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/15/world/americas/venezuela-chavez-cuba/index.html?hpt=wo_bn8Morales acepta diálogo con indígenas. Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/10/19/internacional/internacional/noticias/17A854B3-B420-45C8-875E-EA0D3E3CE994.htm?id={17A854B3-B420-45C8-875E-EA0D3E3CE994} http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/la-marcha-de-los-indgenas-crece-con-apoyo-a-su-ingreso-a-la-paz_10591905-4 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-15366035Ecuador: Rafael Correa y el neocaudillismo.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/74772.htmlEl PRI presenta queja contra el presidente de México, Felipe Calderón.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/el-pri-presenta-queja-contra-el-presidente-caldern-ante-rgano-electoral_10590044-4 http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/17/world/americas/mexico-politics-crime/index.html?hpt=wo_bn8Argentina: de cara a las presidenciales del domingo 23 de octubre.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/19/actualidad/1319007522_163618.html http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/10/19/internacional/internacional/noticias/5B640A57-EEEA-4766-BACC-47EC5B017B43.htm?id={5B640A57-EEEA-4766-BACC-47EC5B017B43} http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/18/actualidad/1318960474_989283.html http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/74786.htmlOposición pidió anular elección de magistrados del domingo en Bolivia.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/bolivia-vot-para-elegir-magistrados_10577188-4La tensión se agudiza en Nicaragua a dos semanas de las presidenciales.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/18/actualidad/1318919187_018457.htmlPresos mantienen secuestrados a 60 trabajadores de cárcel en Venezuela.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/presos-en-venezuela-secuestran-60-trabajadores-de-una-crcel_10576625-4Brasil: otro escándalo de corrupción involucra a ministro de Dilma.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-brazil-dilma-20111016,0,7107872.storyRevuelta en cárcel mexicana deja al menos20 muertos. Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-mexico-prison-20111016,0,1752360.story Primer Ministro jamaiquino nombra a su sucesor.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/19/world/americas/jamaicas-prime-minister-names-education-official-as-successor.html?ref=world'Sería un duro golpe si Chávez muere': Rafael Correa.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/seria-un-duro-golpe-si-chavez-muere-rafael-correa_10592824-4ESTADOS UNIDOS / CANADÁLos "indignados" redoblan la presión en Estados Unidos.Para más información: http://www.economist.com/blogs/democracyinamerica/2011/10/occupy-wall-street-2 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1415342-los-indignados-redoblan-la-presion#comentar http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/18/actualidad/1318958353_966494.htmlEn visita sorpresa a Trípoli, Hillary Clinton "saluda la victoria" de Libia.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/19/world/africa/clinton-in-libya-to-meet-leaders-and-offer-aid-package.html?ref=world http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/18/actualidad/1318937456_884598.html http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/802020.html http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/18/world/africa/libya-clinton/index.html?hpt=wo_c2En un año fueron deportados de Estados Unidos 400.000 indocumentados.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/19/us/latinos-said-to-bear-weight-of-deportation-program.html?ref=world http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1415799-eeuu-record-de-expulsiones-de-indocumentados#comentar http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/74785.htmlBarack Obama de gira por estados claves en carrera por la reelecciónPara más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/14/world/africa/africa-obama-troops/index.html?hpt=wo_bn10 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/obama-de-gira-por-estados-claves-en-carrera-por-la-reeleccin_10585564-4 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/16/actualidad/1318787773_176962.html http://www.nytimes.com/pages/politics/index.html?hpCain, el republicano hoy le ganaría a Obama.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1415544-cain-la-gran-sorpresa-de-la-campana-en-eeuu#comentar http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/18/actualidad/1318961539_985453.htmlCandidatos republicanos intercambiaron 'golpes' en debate televisivoPara más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-15361428 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/debate-televisivo-entre-candidatos-republicanos-_10591805-4 http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2011/10/19/les-candidats-a-la-primaire-republicaine-promettent-de-solder-le-bilan-d-obama_1590084_3222.html Migración centra debate electoral.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/74784.htmlLos amish salen de su silencio y denuncian ataques en Estados Unidos.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/18/actualidad/1318970940_744477.htmlGobierno de Estados Unidos refuerza sus sitios en la web.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/19/world/africa/united-states-weighs-cyberwarfare-strategy.html?ref=worldEUROPAGrecia otra vez paralizada con una manifestación récord.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-15362678 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1415955-protesta-record-en-grecia#comentar http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/huelga-general-en-grecia-por-medidas-de-austeridad_10591386-4Piden a ETA el cese definitivo de la violencia.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/17/world/europe/spain-eta/index.html?hpt=wo_bn9 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1415479-piden-a-eta-el-cese-definitivo-de-la-violencia#comentar http://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2011/10/19/l-agence-de-notation-moody-s-abaisse-la-note-de-l-espagne_1590072_3234.htmlFrancia, cerca de perder su calificación "triple A".Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1415800-francia-cerca-de-perder-su-calificacion-triple-a#comentarAbsuelven a Berlusconi en un caso de sospechas de fraude fiscal.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/19/world/europe/italys-interior-minister-anticipates-more-unrest.html?ref=world http://www.lemonde.fr/europe/article/2011/10/18/berlusconi-acquitte-des-soupcons-de-fraude-fiscale-et-d-abus-de-confiance_1589912_3214.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1415666-absuelven-a-berlusconi-en-un-caso-de-sospechas-de-fraude-fiscal#comentar http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/19/world/europe/tax-fraud-and-embezzlement-charges-against-silvio-berlusconi-are-dismissed.html?ref=worldEl socialista Hollande encabeza encuesta presidencial en Francia.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-france-socialist-vote-20111017,0,4995709.story http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/802055.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/franois-hollande-fue-elegico-como-el-candidato-del-partido-socialista-para-prximas-elecciones-en-francia_10575324-4 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15365469 http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/19/world/europe/french-campaign-taking-shape-as-3-person-collision.html?ref=world http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/17/actualidad/1318872449_028848.htmlStrauss-Kahn pide declarar ante el juez que instruye un escándalo de prostitución.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/16/actualidad/1318785517_533837.htmlViolencia en la primera marcha global; Roma: escenario de una batalla campal.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1415094-violencia-en-la-primera-marcha-global#comentarLas tensiones en Kosovo y la crisis política en Bosnia y Albania desestabilizan la región.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-15355955 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/16/actualidad/1318793428_156884.html http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/19/world/europe/europe-signals-its-ire-at-ukraines-president-yanukovich.html?ref=world http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-15367388Medvedev emprende la campaña electoral del partido Rusia Unida.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/17/world/europe/russia-putin-interview/index.html?hpt=wo_bn9 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/15/actualidad/1318709881_117330.htmlRusia firma tratado de libre comercio con los ex Estados Soviéticos.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-15363770Una advertencia de Alemania asustó a los mercados.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1415541-una-advertencia-de-alemania-asusto-a-los-mercados#comentarLa justicia pone a la mujer más rica de Francia bajo la tutela de su familia.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/17/world/europe/france-loreal-guardianship/index.html?hpt=wo_bn9 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/17/actualidad/1318850617_214116.htmlReina Isabel comienza tour por Australia.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-15364751Más de 20 muertos en el peor ataque de los últimos años en Turquía.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/archivo/documento/CMS-10591024ASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTEHistórico intercambio en Medio Oriente: Gilad Shalit a cambio de1027 prisioneros palestinos.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/18/actualidad/1318901857_778178.html http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/19/world/middleeast/hard-feelings-after-israel-hamas-swap-for-shalit.html?_r=1&ref=world http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15361312 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/74781.html http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/18/world/meast/israel-prisoner-swap-shalit-future/index.html?hpt=wo_c1 http://www.economist.com/blogs/newsbook/2011/10/gilad-shalit http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-mideast-prisoners-freed-20111019,0,3020421.story http://israelpalestine.blog.lemonde.fr/2011/10/19/pourquoi-il-ne-faut-rien-attendre-de-lechange-shalit-pour-le-processus-de-paix/Los yemeníes desafían al régimen pese a la represión.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/17/world/meast/yemen-unrest/index.html?hpt=wo_bn11 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/16/actualidad/1318794219_261465.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15365980Tropas francesas comienzan a volver de Afganistán.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-15363624 http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2011/10/19/l-armee-francaise-commence-a-se-retirer-d-afghanistan_1590100_3216.htmlAccidente aéreo en Nepal: 6 muertos.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-15363178Disidentes chinos desafían el poder.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/19/world/asia/despite-violence-chinese-dissidents-emboldened-supporters-stream-to-see-him.html?ref=world http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/17/world/asia/china-toddler-hit-and-run/index.html?hpt=wo_bn7"New York Times" analiza: "Irak, la guerra olvidada".Para más información: http://atwar.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/10/17/iraq-the-forgotten-war/?ref=worldContinúa la violencia en Siria.Para más información: http://www.economist.com/blogs/newsbook/2011/10/syrias-uprising-1 http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/17/world/meast/iran-saudi-plot/index.html?hpt=wo_bn11 http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/15/world/meast/syria-unrest/index.html?hpt=wo_bn11Ataque terrorista en Afganistán tenía como objetivo Central de Inteligencia.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/17/world/asia/afghanistan-violence/index.html?hpt=wo_bn7Reactor de Fukushima puede dejar de funcionar antes de lo previstoPara más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/17/world/asia/japan-nuclear/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 http://www.lemonde.fr/japon/article/2011/10/19/dans-les-villes-mortes-autour-de-fukushima_1590284_1492975.htmlInundaciones continúan amenazando a tailandeses.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-15368177La inflación continúa siendo una gran preocupación en China.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-china-inflation-20111015,0,6423694.storyEjecuciones secretas de cientos de disidentes en Irán desde 2009.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/ejecuciones-secretas-de-disidentes-en-irn-desde-2009_10585865-4La guerra fría de Oriente Medio, el caso Irán-Arabia Saudita.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/la-guerra-fra-de-oriente-medio-en-caso-irn-arabia-saudita_10582024-4AFRICALa Haya quiere juzgar en rebeldía a los acusados del asesinato de líder libanés Hariri.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/17/actualidad/1318867023_270193.htmlKenia irrumpe en Somalia para combatir a los islamistas y evitar más secuestros.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/19/world/africa/kenyan-officials-make-surprise-visit-to-somalia.html?ref=world http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2011/10/18/le-kenya-entre-dans-la-guerre-en-somalie_1589711_3212.html http://politica.elpais.com/politica/2011/10/16/actualidad/1318786711_259229.htmlEn visita sorpresa a Trípoli, Hillary Clinton "saluda la victoria" de Libia.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/19/world/africa/battle-for-surt-threatens-libyas-healing-process.html?ref=world http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/18/actualidad/1318937456_884598.html http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/10/19/internacional/_portada/noticias/4B3195A5-934A-4355-AF63-610140F9E0D4.htm?id={4B3195A5-934A-4355-AF63-610140F9E0D4} http://www.lemonde.fr/libye/article/2011/10/18/visite-surprise-d-hillary-clinton-en-libye_1589905_1496980.htmlEn Liberia surge nueva fórmula para las elecciones presidenciales.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-liberia-warlord-20111019,0,74864.storyEstados Unidos envió militares para dar recomendaciones en Uganda.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-us-uganda-20111015,0,3346989.storyHuellas de violencia persisten en Libia.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/middleeast/la-fg-libya-killings-20111017,0,6961741.storyFMI: Se espera un crecimiento económico del 5% en África durante el 2011.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-15366045OTRAS NOTICIAS"El Universal" presenta su portal dedicado al cambio climático.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/coberturas/cobertura3.html"The Economist" presenta su informe semanal: "Business this week".Para más información: http://www.economist.com/node/21532338

Building no. 02. The Regiment House has been called by many names. Although small in stature, it has a diverse history. Not only has its use and title changed many times since it was built, it has also misled some local historians into reporting it as being located at different places. Once affectionately known as "The Little Chapel at Fort Brown," it originally stood with its back to the Rio Grande and faced the parade grounds near the present Gateway International Bridge and Customs facilities. Sources noted it had "been moved from its original location to a point near the international bridge." Another account described the chapel as once being located near the Jefferson entrance and used as a school for African-American soldiers. These minor errors that crept into historical record made Building No. 2. an interesting study. There were actually two chapels; each one moved one time and still in use today. The first chapel was originally built to be used as a school and library. In 1889, plans were originally designed for it to be made of wood. However, a hurricane in 1880 may have convinced the Army that a brick building would last longer. Maps showed that building No. 2 was built between 1882 and 1884. It was used as a school until 1907. Between 1907 and 1922 its use is uncertain. From 1922 to 1941 it was used as a Post Chapel, N.C.O. "Bachelors'" Quarters, Officers' Guests Quarters, Post Office and N.C.O. Quarters, and the Chaplain's office prior to October 1941 as will be explained later. Earliest Post Engineer's records show that a single 20' x 30' ft. bedroom and 16' x 18' living room comprised the floor space with an open porch. At that time it listed a capacity for 50 persons. "The larger room was the chapel's auditorium, while the smaller room was its vestry." Later records show the building was divided with a hall to make three bedrooms and small kitchen to house a single family by 1938. It was also painted at one time. By then, the. porch was screened. In 1951, the Little Chapel at Fort Brown was remembered at the time for being a "popular place for weddings of soldiers and local girls" when it was transferred by the city of Brownsville as a museum to the Brownsville Historical Association. The BHA restored the building and opened it in 1952. The BHA was organized in 1946 and granted a charter by the state of Texas in 1947. They were granted use of the Chapel as a museum for 50 years. However, by 1958, the Stillman house at 1305 E. Washington Street was purchased by Chauncey Stillman, a great-grandson of Charles Stillman, and donated to the BHA as their permanent home. When businessmen in downtown Brownsville heard about this, they petitioned to oppose the BHA relocating there under the charge that "a museum would stifle the growth of the immediate area." The BHA restored the home and moved in by 1960. Now with the expanded Brownsville Heritage Complex, the BHA continues to organize a wide range of activities to promote local history and preserve historical records. From 1960 to 1991, Building No. 2 was used as an office for the General Services Administration (GSA) and a tool and maintenance building. Little maintenance had been done on the building and after thirty years of neglect, the building had seen better days. In 1992 when expansion of the U.S. Customs facility would require that it be removed, the "Little Chapel" was suddenly in need of a few small miracles. Mark Lund, Director of City Planning, (Heritage Officer for Brownsville at the time) had first hand experience from the initial dismantling, storage, and restoration of Building No. 2. He stated that the city had a contract with the GSA to remove (demolish) the building. When the Texas State Historical Commission became involved, the "Planning staff and Heritage Council persuaded the City Commission to intervene such that the building's demolition (disassembly) was done carefully to allow it at a future date to be possibly reassembled." The GSA was anxious to remove Building No. 2 because it delayed construction by standing in the way of a road that had to be widened for trucks to make a sharp turn from the bridge for inspection. Once the Historical Commission was satisfied assessment requirements were met, the process to demolish was approved. When the city was contracted by the GSA to demolish Building No. 2, Mr. Lund involved the Heritage Council and Planning Director Joe Galvan, who spoke with Butch Barbosa of the City Commission, to find what could be done to save the little building. Bricks were not numbered as previously believed. Instead, temporary workers were hired and instructed to carefully remove the bricks and place them on pallets to be stored for future use. The City Manager, Kirby Lellijedahl, sent Parks Department trucks to transport brick and wooden pieces, which were labeled and protected by tarps. There was no funding to immediately relocate the building. One ideal plan was to situate the building near the entrance at the Fort Brown Memorial Golf Course as a visitor's center. Until Building No. 2's fate would be known, components would be temporarily stored in Brownsville Compress warehouses free of rent for several months by compress owners. After several months, the city was asked to begin paying rent. Since the building was eligible to receive funds from the Community Development Block Grant – Community Development Funds (CBDG), approximately $1,200 was used to keep the parts in storage until it could be decided where it would be rebuilt. Around this time Los Caminos Del Rio was producing a film to highlight significant architectural buildings along both sides of the Rio Grande Valley to be aired by the Public Broadcasting System (PBS). The Dallas-based philanthropic Meadows Foundation supported this production and representatives were visiting Brownsville. After learning about Building No. 2, they advised the City to write a formal grant proposal. Once funding by the Meadows Foundation was assured, TSC got involved with the Texas Historical Commission and the City Planning Department in planning a new site for the building on the historical campus. TSC officials must have considered Building 2 as an inherent part of the historical assemblage of fort buildings and that it would be turned over to them, even though it had fallen under ownership of the GSA and later, transferred to the City. The project was entitled "Building Number Two" by the City and an Inter-Local Agreement was signed between the City and TSC under which the City would pay all costs once a $50,000 grant was secured by the Meadows Foundation. Construction was to be supervised by Heritage Officer Mark Lund and progress of the work would be reported to Michael Putegnat, TSC Executive Director. Once the job was completed, the City would "turn over title and control to TSC. Costs involved for TSC would be time and landscaping." Bricks were delivered near the parking lot on the site it would be rebuilt. This pile caused rainwater to flood the parking lot and Michael Putegnat, was pressured to correct this situation. For a short while, stagnant water became known as "Putegnat's Pond." Bricks had to be reset aside to allow for proper drainage. During reconstruction, the contractor became dissatisfied with the amount of his reimbursement when the small building proved to be a bigger challenge than he anticipated. He had stored some of the wooden pieces from the Brownsville Compress in his garage and held up construction. Mark Lund was faced with two problems: One was to hire a new contractor to complete the half-finished project with the amount of funds that were left over (most contractors would not want to bid on a halffinished job) and the second was to get the wooden pieces back. Lund had the police called in as a precautionary measure to ensure parts would be delivered. The Parks Department was used again to deliver wooden parts to the second contractor, Carroll Adams, who saw the project to the end. (His nephew, Jearel Adams, worked on the Cavalry building). Some wooden pieces had become damaged from being taken apart, stepped on, or exposed to moisture. Carroll Adams, having worked on historic building restoration jobs before and seeing Mark had been scraping pieces of interior wood trim so that they may be used again, took it upon himself to purchase wood pieces with his money to see the job be done correctly. Another obstacle to rebuilding was met below the ground on which Building No. 2 now stands. Because of its heavy 12" brick walls, a continuous concrete brick foundation had to be placed below the ground. Utility pipes obstructed digging and created problems for re-builders: Boxed openings were made in the reinforced concrete foundation. Steel pieces were placed on the top of the openings after the concrete cured. This was done to handle the loads of substantial masonry walls. The City sidewalk crew (under the direction of Santana Vallejo) built this concrete foundation. They did very well in dealing with the challenges presented by the existing utilities. The foundation design was done by the City Engineer, P. J. Garcia, P. E. The private contractor was hired to do the subsequent work… after the foundation was completed. Mark Lund also had the odious task of placing insulation from the crawl space beneath the floor of Building No. 2. Work was completed by 1993 and it now sits near the Art Annex Building No. 89. Most peculiar about this building is that there is no historical subject marker on the Little Chapel for visitors to inform them where the building was once located, what it was used for, and to memorialize the people who all worked together to save it. A second Post Chapel (Building No. 62) once stood in the area between Tandy Hall and the Lightner Student Center, next to the Post Theater. This chapel was the actual "Regimental" chapel. It had a larger capacity to hold services for a larger number of men. The large wood-frame structure with a steeple was built in 1941 and had a 350 person capacity. It measured 81'-3" long and 37' wide. The Quartermaster record lists it as a "temporary" building and classify it as a "Regimental Chapel" on the floor plan. It was dedicated on Sunday, October 26, 1941. There was a movable altar for Jewish, Catholic, or Protestant services. Before that, services were held in the service club near Building No. 2. Chaplain Stephan K. Callahan moved his office from Building No. 2 into the new chapel the following Monday. In 1947, the two chapels and other buildings at Fort Brown were declared surplus property by the War Assets Administration (WAA). An appeal was made to the WAA to secure Building No. 2 (The Little Chapel) as a museum for the BHA that had just had its first annual meeting at the Brownsville Chamber of Commerce after being chartered by the State of Texas. Immaculate Conception Church bought Building No. 62 for the St. Joseph Church on the corner of Sixth and 555 W. St. Francis. Luke Waters of Harlingen took the job of moving the building from the fort to its new site. For a job that would have normally lasted a few days or couple of weeks at the most, it actually took nearly five months. It was a burden Mr. Waters carried to the end. Waters began the task in October of 1947. To move it presented a problem because streets were only 30 feet wide. Weighing 150,000 pounds, it was moved by heavy trucks. Telephone cables were either lowered or raised to make way for the chapel. Electric lines were also cut. This upset some people who found themselves temporarily without electricity. The weather caused the greatest problems. Whenever it rained, the job would be halted, as the earth was too soft to move over without getting the load stuck in the mud, which it did at various points. The "front end" was pulled out of one of Water's trucks. Two winch trucks were damaged and cable lines broke several times. Mr. Waters also broke his arm in a fall on January 2nd. Asked if he remembered the exact route that was followed in moving, his reply was "I certainly do. I'll never forget it." After leaving Fort Brown, the building proceeded on Jefferson to East Ninth, turned north to Madison, west on Madison to Seventh, north on Seventh to Van Buren, west on Van Buren across the Southern Pacific railroad tracks to Ninth, south on Ninth to Jackson, west on Jackson between the Resaca and City Cemetery, across Palm Blvd. to West First, south across vacant lots to Jefferson, west on Jefferson to W. Seventh, south to Elizabeth, east to half-way between W. Fourth and Fifth, west again to Seventh, south on Seventh to St. Francis, and finally to its destination at W. Sixth and St. Francis. For the "wandering church" to reach its destination, brush had to be cleared on some vacant lots to move it. It finally reached its destination on February 17, 1948. Father Chateau officiated services and Father Casey was appointed first pastor in 1953. It remained a parish until 1962 when a new church was built across the street. Research material showed that historian A. A. Champion and his wife, Isabel, were members of this church. The church has been covered in brick with an addition on its west side and the steeple has been removed. It now serves as a youth center for the church. ; https://scholarworks.utrgv.edu/ftbrown/1511/thumbnail.jpg

Building no. 62. Constructed in 1941-10-10. O.q.m.g. plan no. 7033-787-1; Regiment chapel. The Regiment House has been called by many names. Although small in stature, it has a diverse history. Not only has its use and title changed many times since it was built, it has also misled some local historians into reporting it as being located at different places. Once affectionately known as "The Little Chapel at Fort Brown," it originally stood with its back to the Rio Grande and faced the parade grounds near the present Gateway International Bridge and Customs facilities. Sources noted it had "been moved from its original location to a point near the international bridge." Another account described the chapel as once being located near the Jefferson entrance and used as a school for African-American soldiers. These minor errors that crept into historical record made Building No. 2. an interesting study. There were actually two chapels; each one moved one time and still in use today. The first chapel was originally built to be used as a school and library. In 1889, plans were originally designed for it to be made of wood. However, a hurricane in 1880 may have convinced the Army that a brick building would last longer. Maps showed that building No. 2 was built between 1882 and 1884. It was used as a school until 1907. Between 1907 and 1922 its use is uncertain. From 1922 to 1941 it was used as a Post Chapel, N.C.O. "Bachelors'" Quarters, Officers' Guests Quarters, Post Office and N.C.O. Quarters, and the Chaplain's office prior to October 1941 as will be explained later. Earliest Post Engineer's records show that a single 20' x 30' ft. bedroom and 16' x 18' living room comprised the floor space with an open porch. At that time it listed a capacity for 50 persons. "The larger room was the chapel's auditorium, while the smaller room was its vestry." Later records show the building was divided with a hall to make three bedrooms and small kitchen to house a single family by 1938. It was also painted at one time. By then, the. porch was screened. In 1951, the Little Chapel at Fort Brown was remembered at the time for being a "popular place for weddings of soldiers and local girls" when it was transferred by the city of Brownsville as a museum to the Brownsville Historical Association. The BHA restored the building and opened it in 1952. The BHA was organized in 1946 and granted a charter by the state of Texas in 1947. They were granted use of the Chapel as a museum for 50 years. However, by 1958, the Stillman house at 1305 E. Washington Street was purchased by Chauncey Stillman, a great-grandson of Charles Stillman, and donated to the BHA as their permanent home. When businessmen in downtown Brownsville heard about this, they petitioned to oppose the BHA relocating there under the charge that "a museum would stifle the growth of the immediate area." The BHA restored the home and moved in by 1960. Now with the expanded Brownsville Heritage Complex, the BHA continues to organize a wide range of activities to promote local history and preserve historical records. From 1960 to 1991, Building No. 2 was used as an office for the General Services Administration (GSA) and a tool and maintenance building. Little maintenance had been done on the building and after thirty years of neglect, the building had seen better days. In 1992 when expansion of the U.S. Customs facility would require that it be removed, the "Little Chapel" was suddenly in need of a few small miracles. Mark Lund, Director of City Planning, (Heritage Officer for Brownsville at the time) had first hand experience from the initial dismantling, storage, and restoration of Building No. 2. He stated that the city had a contract with the GSA to remove (demolish) the building. When the Texas State Historical Commission became involved, the "Planning staff and Heritage Council persuaded the City Commission to intervene such that the building's demolition (disassembly) was done carefully to allow it at a future date to be possibly reassembled." The GSA was anxious to remove Building No. 2 because it delayed construction by standing in the way of a road that had to be widened for trucks to make a sharp turn from the bridge for inspection. Once the Historical Commission was satisfied assessment requirements were met, the process to demolish was approved. When the city was contracted by the GSA to demolish Building No. 2, Mr. Lund involved the Heritage Council and Planning Director Joe Galvan, who spoke with Butch Barbosa of the City Commission, to find what could be done to save the little building. Bricks were not numbered as previously believed. Instead, temporary workers were hired and instructed to carefully remove the bricks and place them on pallets to be stored for future use. The City Manager, Kirby Lellijedahl, sent Parks Department trucks to transport brick and wooden pieces, which were labeled and protected by tarps. There was no funding to immediately relocate the building. One ideal plan was to situate the building near the entrance at the Fort Brown Memorial Golf Course as a visitor's center. Until Building No. 2's fate would be known, components would be temporarily stored in Brownsville Compress warehouses free of rent for several months by compress owners. After several months, the city was asked to begin paying rent. Since the building was eligible to receive funds from the Community Development Block Grant – Community Development Funds (CBDG), approximately $1,200 was used to keep the parts in storage until it could be decided where it would be rebuilt. Around this time Los Caminos Del Rio was producing a film to highlight significant architectural buildings along both sides of the Rio Grande Valley to be aired by the Public Broadcasting System (PBS). The Dallas-based philanthropic Meadows Foundation supported this production and representatives were visiting Brownsville. After learning about Building No. 2, they advised the City to write a formal grant proposal. Once funding by the Meadows Foundation was assured, TSC got involved with the Texas Historical Commission and the City Planning Department in planning a new site for the building on the historical campus. TSC officials must have considered Building 2 as an inherent part of the historical assemblage of fort buildings and that it would be turned over to them, even though it had fallen under ownership of the GSA and later, transferred to the City. The project was entitled "Building Number Two" by the City and an Inter-Local Agreement was signed between the City and TSC under which the City would pay all costs once a $50,000 grant was secured by the Meadows Foundation. Construction was to be supervised by Heritage Officer Mark Lund and progress of the work would be reported to Michael Putegnat, TSC Executive Director. Once the job was completed, the City would "turn over title and control to TSC. Costs involved for TSC would be time and landscaping." Bricks were delivered near the parking lot on the site it would be rebuilt. This pile caused rainwater to flood the parking lot and Michael Putegnat, was pressured to correct this situation. For a short while, stagnant water became known as "Putegnat's Pond." Bricks had to be reset aside to allow for proper drainage. During reconstruction, the contractor became dissatisfied with the amount of his reimbursement when the small building proved to be a bigger challenge than he anticipated. He had stored some of the wooden pieces from the Brownsville Compress in his garage and held up construction. Mark Lund was faced with two problems: One was to hire a new contractor to complete the half-finished project with the amount of funds that were left over (most contractors would not want to bid on a halffinished job) and the second was to get the wooden pieces back. Lund had the police called in as a precautionary measure to ensure parts would be delivered. The Parks Department was used again to deliver wooden parts to the second contractor, Carroll Adams, who saw the project to the end. (His nephew, Jearel Adams, worked on the Cavalry building). Some wooden pieces had become damaged from being taken apart, stepped on, or exposed to moisture. Carroll Adams, having worked on historic building restoration jobs before and seeing Mark had been scraping pieces of interior wood trim so that they may be used again, took it upon himself to purchase wood pieces with his money to see the job be done correctly. Another obstacle to rebuilding was met below the ground on which Building No. 2 now stands. Because of its heavy 12" brick walls, a continuous concrete brick foundation had to be placed below the ground. Utility pipes obstructed digging and created problems for re-builders: Boxed openings were made in the reinforced concrete foundation. Steel pieces were placed on the top of the openings after the concrete cured. This was done to handle the loads of substantial masonry walls. The City sidewalk crew (under the direction of Santana Vallejo) built this concrete foundation. They did very well in dealing with the challenges presented by the existing utilities. The foundation design was done by the City Engineer, P. J. Garcia, P. E. The private contractor was hired to do the subsequent work… after the foundation was completed. Mark Lund also had the odious task of placing insulation from the crawl space beneath the floor of Building No. 2. Work was completed by 1993 and it now sits near the Art Annex Building No. 89. Most peculiar about this building is that there is no historical subject marker on the Little Chapel for visitors to inform them where the building was once located, what it was used for, and to memorialize the people who all worked together to save it. A second Post Chapel (Building No. 62) once stood in the area between Tandy Hall and the Lightner Student Center, next to the Post Theater. This chapel was the actual "Regimental" chapel. It had a larger capacity to hold services for a larger number of men. The large wood-frame structure with a steeple was built in 1941 and had a 350 person capacity. It measured 81'-3" long and 37' wide. The Quartermaster record lists it as a "temporary" building and classify it as a "Regimental Chapel" on the floor plan. It was dedicated on Sunday, October 26, 1941. There was a movable altar for Jewish, Catholic, or Protestant services. Before that, services were held in the service club near Building No. 2. Chaplain Stephan K. Callahan moved his office from Building No. 2 into the new chapel the following Monday. In 1947, the two chapels and other buildings at Fort Brown were declared surplus property by the War Assets Administration (WAA). An appeal was made to the WAA to secure Building No. 2 (The Little Chapel) as a museum for the BHA that had just had its first annual meeting at the Brownsville Chamber of Commerce after being chartered by the State of Texas. Immaculate Conception Church bought Building No. 62 for the St. Joseph Church on the corner of Sixth and 555 W. St. Francis. Luke Waters of Harlingen took the job of moving the building from the fort to its new site. For a job that would have normally lasted a few days or couple of weeks at the most, it actually took nearly five months. It was a burden Mr. Waters carried to the end. Waters began the task in October of 1947. To move it presented a problem because streets were only 30 feet wide. Weighing 150,000 pounds, it was moved by heavy trucks. Telephone cables were either lowered or raised to make way for the chapel. Electric lines were also cut. This upset some people who found themselves temporarily without electricity. The weather caused the greatest problems. Whenever it rained, the job would be halted, as the earth was too soft to move over without getting the load stuck in the mud, which it did at various points. The "front end" was pulled out of one of Water's trucks. Two winch trucks were damaged and cable lines broke several times. Mr. Waters also broke his arm in a fall on January 2nd. Asked if he remembered the exact route that was followed in moving, his reply was "I certainly do. I'll never forget it." After leaving Fort Brown, the building proceeded on Jefferson to East Ninth, turned north to Madison, west on Madison to Seventh, north on Seventh to Van Buren, west on Van Buren across the Southern Pacific railroad tracks to Ninth, south on Ninth to Jackson, west on Jackson between the Resaca and City Cemetery, across Palm Blvd. to West First, south across vacant lots to Jefferson, west on Jefferson to W. Seventh, south to Elizabeth, east to half-way between W. Fourth and Fifth, west again to Seventh, south on Seventh to St. Francis, and finally to its destination at W. Sixth and St. Francis. For the "wandering church" to reach its destination, brush had to be cleared on some vacant lots to move it. It finally reached its destination on February 17, 1948. Father Chateau officiated services and Father Casey was appointed first pastor in 1953. It remained a parish until 1962 when a new church was built across the street. Research material showed that historian A. A. Champion and his wife, Isabel, were members of this church. The church has been covered in brick with an addition on its west side and the steeple has been removed. It now serves as a youth center for the church. ; https://scholarworks.utrgv.edu/ftbrown/1388/thumbnail.jpg

State of the Union address by United States president James K. Polk regarding national interests regarding Texas and the possibility of war. ; The U.S. Serial set is a specially bound, consecutively numbered version of all House and Senate reports and documents. Many of the government documents in the Americas archive come originally from the U.S. Serial set, although were bound together at some later point into the collection that is now represented in this collection.

With a whirlwind of dramatic events gripping the world's attention, it can be easy to forget that we are now less than one year away from the 2024 presidential election.Despite their expected focus on domestic issues, candidates will have a lot to answer for this cycle when it comes to foreign policy as the war in Ukraine drags on and U.S.-China relations continue to deteriorate.The Democratic Party has chosen not to hold debates despite growing concerns about President Joe Biden's chances next year. With only a couple of months to go before the primaries start, the Quincy Institute decided that it would be useful to survey Biden's challengers from the left on how they would handle a range of foreign policy issues if elected.The candidates' responses show interesting differences on a range of questions, from a potential Israeli-Saudi normalization deal to the possibility of using military force to fight the cartels in Mexico. The questionnaire went out before the October 7 Hamas attacks against Israel and the subsequent war in Gaza, but we pulled together candidates' reactions to the events where possible.We received responses from Democratic candidate Marianne Williamson as well as independent candidates Robert F. Kennedy Jr. and Cornel West. Biden's campaign declined to participate, so we have aggregated relevant quotes and information about the president's stances where possible. We did the same for Rep. Dean Phillips (D-Minn.), who entered the race in late October and has not responded to our requests. We will update this page if we receive further responses.Biggest challenges to U.S. security; how to avoid war with China; potential negotiations to end the war in Ukraine; U.S. role in Saudi-Israeli normalization; withdrawing troops from Middle East; military force and the Mexican cartels; Israel-Hamas warWhat, in your view, are the three most pressing challenges to U.S. national security?Joe Biden (D)While President Biden has not directly addressed this question, his national security adviser said the following about the White House's 2022 National Security Strategy: "Our strategy proceeds from the premise that the two strategic challenges — geopolitical competition and shared transnational threats — are intertwined. We cannot build the broad coalitions we need to out-compete our rivals, if we sideline the issues that most directly impact the lives of billions of people." He further argued that "this is a decisive decade for shaping the terms of competition, especially with the PRC [China]. This is a decisive decade for getting ahead of the great global challenges — from climate to disease to emerging technology."Marianne Williamson (D)"The three most pressing challenges to U.S. national security are the nuclear threat, climate change, and our inability to go beyond the adversarial positioning in which countries view each other. We are closer to nuclear war than we've been in a long time. We must move towards a nuclear-free world, and we must begin by adopting a no first use policy. Once we adopt this policy, it will be much easier for us to get other nuclear-armed countries to do the same. There is no threat I am more concerned about than climate change. We are living through the last few years where we have a chance to save humanity. We must immediately undergo a just transition from a dirty fossil fueled economy to a clean renewable economy, and create millions of good jobs in the process. The time for incrementalism on climate is over. If we only view other countries through an adversarial lens, in terms of how they can harm or serve our interests, then we cannot deal with these crucial issues that challenge the security of all of us. We must work together with the international community for the common interest so that we can begin to deal with climate change, nuclear weapons, pandemics, and other threats."Robert F. Kennedy Jr. (I)"The most pressing challenges are the ones we have created ourselves. First is the risk of nuclear war, which belligerent and provocative U.S. policy has elevated to levels not seen since the Cold War.The second is the bankrupting of America's wealth, the result of decades of elevated military spending. The trillions spent on armaments could have gone toward building modern infrastructure, feeding and housing people, tackling chronic disease, and nourishing a thriving domestic economy.A third threat to national security is the epidemic of violence in our streets and in our homes. When we wage endless wars abroad, their mirror image afflicts us at home. Realistically, our nation is not threatened by an armed invasion by a foreign power. We have to broaden what we mean by 'national security' to include the things that actually make Americans feel insecure."Cornel West (I)"Climate Change: Climate change is not an endpoint that awaits us in the distant future, it is among us right now and impacting lives across the country and the entire world, especially the most vulnerable and most disadvantaged populations here in the U.S. — Black, Brown, Indigenous, and the poor. According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), climate change-related damages cost the United States an estimated $165 Billion in 2022, Hurricane Ida, a Category 4 storm that massacred communities in Florida, including the loss of 150 lives, cost taxpayers approximately $112.9 Billion alone. Moreover, NOAA estimates that in the last 40 years, 341 storms exacerbated by climate change have cost the nation more than $2.5 Trillion. To put that into perspective, that's $80 Billion more than the national deficit of approximately $1.7 Trillion, thus far, for Fiscal Year 2023, and 1.5 percent of the national debt that stands at $161.7 trillion and counting. A nation already in massive debt, coupled with the astronomical costs of a growing climate crisis is the direct antithesis of national security. It's undeniable that more calamities associated with the climate crisis, including more powerful weather incidents that induce extreme flooding, extreme heat, and other environmental stressors, are inevitable. These events will have profound impacts on myriad systems and institutions that are necessary to maintain a livable society including, but not limited to, the production of food, access to clean water sources, the quality and availability of housing, transportation, education, and healthcare. The collapse of these systems could reasonably engender massive social unrest that would result in the massive displacement and forced migration of people as we are already witnessing with the United Houma Nation, Pointe-au Chien Indian Tribe, and Biloxi-Chitimacha-Choctaw of present-day Louisiana, who are the first federally recognized climate migrants, whose land is literally sinking due to oil and gas extraction in the Gulf of Mexico, which has rendered their land susceptible to the impacts of climate change. In fact, the United Nations Office of the High Commissions for Refugees has predicted that more than 200 million people, globally, will be forced to relocate due to climate change, including 40% of United Statesians who currently reside in coastal areas. From the atrocities of Hurricane Katrina to the current situation at the United States border with Mexico, we have already witnessed the consequences of climate-related breakdowns of social, economic, and other systems necessary to maintain quality of life and life itself breakdown all coupled with mass migration of innocent people seeking refuge.Increased Militarism: The United States is the single biggest military spender in the world with an annual budget roughly the size of the next seven largest military budgets combined. According to records kept by the National Priorities Project at the Institute for Policy Studies (IPS), in any given year, military spending accounts for over half of the federal government's annual discretionary budget. The U.S. military's bloated budget is utilized to build weapons and warcraft, which are in turn utilized to threaten other nations and demand their cooperation with the perceived U.S. military hegemony or offered to cooperative nations as part of military alliances. In FY 2023 alone, out of a $1.8 trillion federal discretionary budget, $1.1 trillion – or 62 percent – was for militarized programs. On top of war and weapons for the Pentagon, these expenditures include domestic militarism for police departments across the country and mass incarceration, as well as increased detentions and deportation, which represent direct threats to the security of Black, Brown, Indigenous and poor people in the United States. As we are witnessing right now, the current administration is complicit in thousands of civilian deaths by giving Israel military aid at $3.8 billion this year, half of which goes to Israel's missile system. They are now requesting a combined supplemental aid package at $106 billion for Israel along with Ukraine, Taiwan and the Indo-Pacific region, and US immigration enforcement at the US-Mexico southern border. To put this in perspective, combined with the estimated $113 billion in military aid the US has already sent to Ukraine, should the Congress grant President Biden's additional $105 billion package to Ukraine and Israel, this would represent almost 60% of the initially estimated $379 billion in climate change expenditures over 10 years included as part of the so-called Inflation Reduction Act. Further, the $105 billion military aid package to Israel and Ukraine is one hundred times the paltry $1 billion that the US pledged to the Green Climate Fund earlier this year, to fund climate mitigation and adaptation in the formerly colonized countries of Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Pacific. Our friends at IPS also indicate that the U.S. could safely redirect at least $350 billion from the Pentagon's current spending per year and achieve true security by ending wars, reducing our aggressive posture overseas, and reining in military contracts that drain public coffers for private gain - all measures that would actually increase national security, while making resources available for critical domestic needs including, but not limited to, increased access to healthcare, improving the nation's broken education system - including an iniquitous student loan debt crisis, and real action to address the climate crisis. With the largest military in the world, the US is the single largest greenhouse gas emitting institution and consumer of fossil fuels on the entire planet, with a carbon footprint bigger than 140 other countries. The environmental and climate impacts of global militarism and war are staggering. Militarization continues to increase greenhouse gas emissions and pollute and poison land, water and air through weapons production, storage, and use, which is ironic Defense Secretary, Lloyd Austin, himself recently declared, 'There is little about what the Defense Department does to defend the American people that is not affected by climate change. It is a national security issue, and we must treat it as such.'Rising White Supremacy and Nationalism: We have already observed how the interlinked crises of the calamities associated with climate change, which push those disproportionately impacted further to the margins and thereby increasing the militarization of the southern border, urban areas, and throughout the world to address associated entropy of social systems and infrastructure tends to increase sentiments that beguile far too many U.S. residents to embrace elements of white supremacy ideology, thereby increasing instances of violence and acceptance of authoritarian and fascist paradigms that represent clear and present dangers to national security – no one knows this better than the U.S. Department of Justice. In 2001, Attorney General, Merrick Garland admonished the Senate Appropriations Committee stating, in part, "Domestic violent extremists pose an elevated threat in 2021 and in the FBI's view, the top domestic violent extremist threat we face comes from racially or ethnically motivated violent extremists, specifically those who advocate for the superiority of the white race." This salient issue has the potential to literally tear our nation asunder. A nation this divided is itself a national security risk that can be taken advantage of by nations hostile to the U.S. due to imperialist and interventionist past and present foreign policies of our country and their lasting impacts to [a] marked number of nations across the globe. Dismantling growing white supremacy and nationalism will require a multifaceted and intersectional approach that seeks to deracinate the root causes of this epidemic that prevents the U.S. from living up to its best self while also remaining a seemingly indelible threat. This will require tying requisite economic relief from an oligarchic approach to wealth accumulation and redistribution that exacerbates the white supremacy ideology ensconced in the fabric of this nation in such a way that has been negatively radicalizing poor white folk who may not even realize how the capitalist domination system upheld by the political duopoly extract from them as much as non-white people they are bamboozled to hate and stigmatize. I am confident that my Economic Justice prescriptions that include establishing a federal Universal Basic Income commission, wealth tax on all billionaire holdings and transaction, ending all tax loopholes for the oligarchy, and establishing a national $27 minimum wage, with special considerations for specific geographies where $27/hour would not be a family-sustaining wage, will be key steps in eviscerating the rise of white supremacy and nationalism in our nation that hurts the people perpetrated against as much as the people doing the perpetrating."As president, what would you do to avoid a direct military confrontation with China?Joe Biden (D)Biden has not directly addressed this question since becoming president, but a White House readout from his meeting with Chinese President Xi Jinping last year gives a good summary of his administration's stated approach to relations with China. "President Biden explained that the United States will continue to compete vigorously with the PRC, including by investing in sources of strength at home and aligning efforts with allies and partners around the world. He reiterated that this competition should not veer into conflict and underscored that the United States and China must manage the competition responsibly and maintain open lines of communication. The two leaders discussed the importance of developing principles that would advance these goals and tasked their teams to discuss them further. President Biden underscored that the United States and China must work together to address transnational challenges – such as climate change, global macroeconomic stability including debt relief, health security, and global food security – because that is what the international community expects."Marianne Williamson (D)"We absolutely cannot have a direct military confrontation with China, which would be one step away from World War III and nuclear Armageddon. The U.S. must accept that we are in a multipolar world. While I am deeply concerned about China's authoritarianism and serious violations of human rights, I do not think that China is interested in invading the U.S. or in starting a war with us. While we should do what we can through peaceful diplomacy to lessen Chinese human rights violations, we cannot start World War III between two nuclear-armed countries. Our military must stop trying to encircle China in the South China Sea. Instead, we must talk to China and seek peaceful coexistence."Robert F. Kennedy Jr. (I)"We believe that China has no desire for military confrontation. We will therefore ratchet down the tensions and cease the provocations in the South China Sea and elsewhere. We will adopt a posture that does not see China as an 'adversary,' and begin to negotiate arms control treaties in good faith so that both countries can reduce military spending to better the lives of their citizens."Cornel West (I)"We all know where a direct military confrontation with the People's Republic of China (PRC) will lead — irreparable nuclear holocaust that will lead to the loss and alteration of hundreds of millions of innocent lives over a conflict engendered by two so-called superpowers. We need to be honest with the people of the world, the U.S. and PRC are currently in a cold war that must be thawed to save lives and a global economy both hanging in the balance. The first step in thawing the current cold war will require a cessation to the myriad proxy wars that use nations like Ukraine, Taiwan, and numerous global south nations from Africa to Southeast Asia, to Latin America as pawns in an arms and resource extraction race. As president I will cease the saber rattling and chest beating that are doing nothing but instigating the PRC with military war games in waterways of Southeast Asia such as the Sea of Japan, Yellow Sea, East China Sea and others. I am confident this will open pathways for diplomacy that leads to cooperation in lieu of competition with the PRC. I agree with the Quincy Institute's assessment that the current administration's rhetoric of competition with the PRC is a feckless attempt to marginalize and exclude the nation from the global community, which in turn pushes them to form alliances with nations the U.S. also finds itself in a contemporary cold war with including, but not limited to, the Islamic Republic of Iran and Russia. One area where I believe we should especially be cooperating rather than competing with the PRC is the climate crisis. While it's true that the PRC is the largest emitter in the world, the U.S. remains the largest historic emitter despite only representing five percent of the world's population. Planetary survival literally requires less finger pointing at who is most responsible for the climate crisis and more finger pointing towards mutual and cooperative solutions. And rather than compete with the PRC for requisite critical resources to develop the infrastructure for renewable energy and regenerative economies, we must cooperate with them such that we don't render the need to address the climate crisis into a rationalization for casus belli over possession critical resources that will also drag global south nations into proxy wars they want no part of. The PRC, the U.S., and the entire world has a collective interest in protecting lives and the planet from the impacts of climate change. As president, my first step in avoiding a military confrontation with the PRC would be to invite and work with them to be a leading partner in addressing the climate crisis by exchanging ideas, resources, and technologies that can rapidly emancipate both nations from reliance on fossil fuels, which will improve relations, cooperation, and the habitability of the planet at once, while also preventing a military confrontation that will take more lives than the climate crisis."Is it in the U.S. national interest for the president to convene negotiations in an effort to end the war in Ukraine?Joe Biden (D)Biden generally emphasizes that Ukraine should be the driving force behind any peace negotiations and has argued that Russian President Vladimir Putin has not shown signs that he is ready to negotiate. He has, however, helped to convene several international conferences to discuss a diplomatic path forward, one of which reportedly included discussions about concessions that Ukraine may make in exchange for peace. (The administration denied these reports.)Marianne Williamson (D)"Firstly, this question is framed in terms of the 'U.S. national interest,' but I think it's time we start concerning ourselves more with the interests of humanity as a whole than the interests of the American government or American corporations, which is usually what is meant by 'U.S. national interest.'Yes, I think the U.S. should convene negotiations with Russia and Ukraine. Russia's invasion of Ukraine is a despicable crime, and we should support Ukraine and their autonomy. However, we need to do what we can to bring about a just but realistic peace. It seems extremely unlikely that either side in this conflict will have a complete victory over the other anytime soon, so if we don't want to let this draw out for two decades like our war in Afghanistan, then we should press for negotiations. I think that the withdrawn letter by progressive Congress members from last year that urged negotiations was a good and reasonable letter, and they should not have buckled to pressure and withdrawn it."Robert F. Kennedy Jr. (I)"Yes. Current U.S. strategic thinking is that the war serves the national interest by weakening Russia. That thinking is faulty on two counts. First, it is not weakening Russia. Second, a weak and unstable Russia would make us much less secure, not more secure. The United States and the world will be best served when Russia knows that we are not out to destroy her."Cornel West (I)"The conflict between Ukraine and Russia is not going to be ameliorated by military means. With $113 billion of taxpayer dollars already sent to Ukraine leading to no more than an endless war of attrition, as well as poll numbers indicating dithering support for a series of blank checks to continue it, it's clear the people of the United States have had enough. It's not just in the national interest for a diplomatic solution to this conflict, it's the duty of the President of the United States to lead this process with our global partners in Europe, Asia, and Africa. As president, I will give Ukraine no other choice but to enter a diplomatic process as part of my commitment to cease all war funding and weapons to Ukraine and instead invest in peacemaking."If Saudi Arabia agreed to normalize relations with Israel but requested a guarantee from the United States to defend the Kingdom militarily in exchange, would you seek to ratify a treaty making that commitment?Joe Biden (D)President Biden has not directly commented on this proposal, but his administration has led the initiative to negotiate a defense commitment in exchange for normalization.Rep. Dean Phillips (D)Phillips has endorsed the Biden administration's approach. "Never did we imagine it possible in our lifetimes to see the possible normalization of relations between the Saudis and Israelis. It's an extraordinary and historic opportunity not just for these two countries, but for the entire world," he told NPR. "The United States plays a significant role relative to a defense pact with the Saudis equipment and materiel relative to their military and potentially a civilian nuclear program as well. If those things can be met and also meeting some of the needs of the Palestinians, this could be an extraordinary legacy at a time the world surely needs it." Marianne Williamson (D)"No. The U.S. cannot get involved in another war in the Middle East – especially not in order to defend Saudi Arabia, arguably the worst human rights violator in the region. It is time the U.S. stops aiding Saudi Arabia and Israel in their egregious human rights violations."Robert F. Kennedy Jr. (I)"We think the premise of this question to be unlikely. Saudi Arabia is armed to the teeth and has no need of such a guarantee. As it has good relations with most other nations, its [only] plausible national security threat is Iran. However, much of the Sunni-Shiite conflict in the past arose from U.S. geopolitical maneuvering that elevated tensions throughout the region."Cornel West (I)"I wouldn't even qualify this request as a treaty as it would be more of a death sentence for innocent civilians in the region and more service members, too many who have already been lost due to U.S. empire building in the Middle East, mainly to protect oil profits of fossil fuel cartels both domestically and globally. We need less iron domes and a more iron-clad diplomatic process that leads to lasting peace and mutual dignity for all people in the Middle East. To this end, as president I would insist that any normalization of relations between the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the State of Israel include immediate steps to liberate Palestinian people from occupation and a wanton cycle of violence that's killing precious Palestinian and Israeli lives alike."As Commander-in-Chief, would you bring home the U.S. troops currently stationed in Iraq and Syria?Joe Biden (D)While Biden has not directly addressed this question, a senior Pentagon official recently said the U.S. "has no intent to withdraw in the near future" from Syria.Marianne Williamson (D)"Yes I would, but in Syria, I would first negotiate an agreement that ensures the Kurds will not be harmed before withdrawing the troops that are protecting them."Robert F. Kennedy Jr. (I)"Yes. Those nations do not want our troops there. I will instigate bold peace initiatives in places where there are still military tensions, in some cases replacing troops with international peacekeepers."Cornel West (I)"As indicated in my Policy Pillars Rooted in a Movement of Truth, Justice, and Love, as president I would immediately embark on a responsible and expeditious closure of global U.S. military bases as part of a larger initiative to cease and desist U.S. empire building and maintenance and slash the bloated military budget, including the disbanding of NATO, such that we can reinvest those funds in myriad social and economic justice programs domestically. As tensions in the Middle East associated with the crisis in Palestine/Israel grow, the U.S. presence is only exacerbating an already incendiary situation while putting brave service people in harm's way for no other reason than to maintain U.S. empire and a military hegemony in a region that needs less bullets and rockets and more diplomacy. To this end, as president, I would bring those troops home immediately, honor them for their service and ensure a Just Transition so that they can use the skills they gained in the military and put them to use for beneficial services to the people of the U.S."If elected, would you request an authorization from Congress to use military force against drug cartels in Mexico?Joe Biden (D)Biden has not commented directly on calls to authorize military force against the cartels, but a National Security Council spokesperson said in April that the administration "is not considering military action in Mexico.""Designating these cartels as foreign terrorist organizations would not grant us any additional authorities that we don't already have," the spokesperson added.Marianne Williamson (D)"No. The U.S. has invaded and militarily intervened in Latin America time after time, and it has only brought violence and misery and fueled the immigration that we now complain about. It is time we reject the imperialist Monroe Doctrine, which declared Latin America our backyard. It is time we respect our neighbors to the south and stop invading their countries."Robert F. Kennedy Jr. (I)"Absolutely not. The Mexicans have the power to overcome the drug cartels themselves. We can aid them by sharing intelligence, by shutting down the illegal weapons trade, by cracking down on money laundering activities of US banks, and by prosecuting the cartels' collaborators in this country."Cornel West (I)"Absolutely not. To be clear, asking the Congress for authorization to use military force in Mexico would essentially be asking Congress to approve a military invasion through a declaration of war against Mexico. The so-called war against drugs in the United States has been and continues to be an abject failure. This 50-year war has been used as a rationalization for crimes against humanity, especially those most marginalized by failed drug policies - Black, Brown, Indigenous and poor people, who have been subjected to a racialized and classist mass incarceration pogrom that has needlessly locked up over 400,000 people for non-violent drug-related crimes between 1980 and 1997 alone. A failed domestic drug war should not be an impetus to start a foreign drug war in the sovereign territory of one of our North American partners. It should instead be an impetus to enact efficacious policies that treat addiction as a national threat to public health. Instead of increasing militarism and launching a foreign war, we should declare war against the lack of access to healthcare and the lack of economic opportunities that contribute to drug use. Reducing and decriminalizing drug use in the United States will directly reduce the amount of drugs that are smuggled across the border, thereby reducing revenues for drug cartels in Mexico. This is less an issue of militarism and more an issue of addiction driven by supply and demand."Reactions to Israel-Hamas warJoe Biden (D)In a speech on Oct. 20, Biden said: "In Israel, we must make sure that they have what they need to protect their people today and always.The security package I'm sending to Congress and asking Congress to do is an unprecedented commitment to Israel's security that will sharpen Israel's qualitative military edge, which we've committed to — the qualitative military edge.We're going to make sure Iron Dome continues to guard the skies over Israel. We're going to make sure other hostile actors in the region know that Israel is stronger than ever and prevent this conflict from spreading.Look, at the same time, [Prime Minister] Netanyahu and I discussed again yesterday the critical need for Israel to operate by the laws of war. That means protecting civilians in combat as best as they can. The people of Gaza urgently need food, water, and medicine."Rep. Dean Phillips (D)In a long tweet, Phillips said, "The destruction of Hamas is necessary, but the military campaign must follow international law and conventions of civilized nations. [...]I support a pause in hostilities and the immediate safe passage of civilians from Gaza into temporary shelters in Egypt and/or Jordan and the largest humanitarian relief effort in world history.I am pro-Israeli and anti the Netanyahu government — and [its] enabling of settlements on Palestinian land. [...]Israel has a right to exist, defend itself, and ensure the terror and butchering of Oct 7 never happens again.Palestinians have a right to a nation of their own, and that begins with a free and fair election for the first time since 2006 in which a choice can be made; peace or war.Israelis must also be afforded the same right to choose peace or war."Marianne Williamson (D)Williamson tweeted: "For Israel to prosecute an all out war on Gaza is already a catastrophe for the people of Gaza. It can easily become a catastrophe for the people of Israel as well. There's no end game there, for them or for the rest of the world, that doesn't multiply the horror. The United States should join an international consortium — Egypt, Jordan and others — in efforts to secure release of the hostages and cessation of the bombing."Robert F. Kennedy Jr. (I)On Oct. 7, Kennedy said the following in a statement: "This ignominious, unprovoked, and barbaric attack on Israel must be met with world condemnation and unequivocal support for the Jewish state's right to self-defense. We must provide Israel with whatever it needs to defend itself — now. As President, I'll make sure that our policy is unambiguous so that the enemies of Israel will think long and hard before attempting aggression of any kind.I applaud the strong statements of support from the Biden White House for Israel in her hour of need. However, the scale of these attacks means it is likely that Israel will need to wage a sustained military campaign to protect its citizens. Statements of support are fine, but we must follow through with unwavering, resolute, and practical action. America must stand by our ally throughout this operation and beyond as it exercises its sovereign right to self-defense."Kennedy later warned against using the attacks and subsequent war as a justification for war with Iran. "It didn't take long for the neocons in Washington to spin the Hamas terror attacks to advance their agenda of war against Iran," he tweeted on Oct. 27. "If President Biden doesn't resist them, they might get their wish."Cornel West (I)














In a recent statement, West said, "US taxpayers want no part in funding the Israeli war machine that is committing genocidal war crimes in Gaza. We need stronger, clearer headed representation like this within our highest levels of government." He has also said, "We want a ceasefire. We want an end of the siege. We want an end of occupation. We want equal rights, equal dignity, and equal access for Palestinians and Jews."

In einer Welt, die sich zunehmend der Wichtigkeit des Umweltschutzes bewusst wird, ist es an der Zeit, über ein Thema zu sprechen, das nicht nur unsere Ökosysteme betrifft, sondern auch tiefergreifende soziale Ungerechtigkeiten aufdeckt. Wir sind alle Zeugen und Verursacher des Klimawandels und seiner verheerenden Auswirkungen. Nun wollen wir genauer hinsehen und verstehen, wie dieser Wandel bestimmte Gemeinschaften in unverhältnismäßigem Maß betrifft. Die Rede ist von Umweltrassismus.Im Folgenden soll gezeigt werden, dass Umweltprobleme nicht gleichmäßig auf alle Bevölkerungsgruppen verteilt sind, sondern oft die treffen, die bereits benachteiligt sind. Dafür wird zuerst der Begriff Umweltrassismus aus verschiedenen Perspektiven betrachtet. Anschließend wird an Beispielen genauer aufgezeigt, was für Arten es gibt, bevor es um Lösungsvorschläge gehen wird.In dem Beitrag wird von BIPoC gesprochen. BIPoC steht für "Black, Indigenous and People of Colour". Das Akronym setzt sich also aus politischen Selbstbezeichnungen von Menschen zusammen, die von rassistischer Unterdrückung betroffen sind.Ursprung des Begriffs "Umweltrassismus"?Dass die Folgen des Klimawandels immer verheerender werden, ist nichts Neues. Und dass dies enorme Gesundheitsfolgen mit sich bringt, ist auch bekannt. Dabei wird zwischen direkten (primären) Folgen und indirekten (sekundären und tertiären) Folgen unterschieden. Zu den direkten Folgen zählen eine erhöhte Sterbe- und Erkrankungsrate durch Ereignisse wie Hitzewellen, Überschwemmungen oder Waldbränden. Zu den indirekten Folgen gehören Auswirkungen wie Nahrungsmittelknappheit, Zunahme von Infektionskrankheiten und Allergien. Außerdem gibt es sozial bedingte Folgen, beispielsweise Hungersnöte, Entwicklungsstagnation oder Kriege (Kuehni, Egger 2012, S. 190). Doch was ist, wenn Teile der Erde oder bestimmte Gruppen schlimmer unter den Folgen des Klimawandels leiden als andere? In diesem Zusammenhang wird mittlerweile immer häufiger von "Umweltrassismus" gesprochen.Der Begriff kam Anfang der 1980er Jahre auf. Damals suchte der Bundesstaat North Carolina einen Ort, an dem man mit Polychlorierte Biphenylen (PCB) verseuchte Erde entsorgen kann. Zuerst war eine Entsorgungsdeponie in einem Bezirk mit hauptsächlich weißen Menschen geplant. Eine Bürgerinitiative verhinderte dies. Daraufhin war schnell klar, dass die Deponie in einem der Bezirke mit hauptsächlich schwarzen, armen oder anderweitig benachteiligten Nachbarschaften errichtet werden sollte.1982 wurde beschlossen, die verseuchte Erde in einer kleinen Gemeinde namens Afton zu entsorgen. Diese Stadt liegt in Warren County, dem damals ärmsten Landkreis in North Carolina mit einem schwarzen Bevölkerungsanteil von 65 %. Die Bevölkerung versuchte dagegen anzugehen. Zuerst gerichtlich, doch als das nichts half, gab es über sechs Wochen Sitzblockaden, Straßensperren und Demonstrationen. Dabei wurden mehr als 500 Demonstrierende verhaftet. Doch alle Bemühungen halfen nichts. Die Mülldeponie wurde dennoch gebaut. (Ituen/Tatu Hey 2021, S. 4-5). Kurz darauf wurde PCB weltweit verboten, da es sich als hochgiftig, krebserregend und erbgutschädigend herausstellte (Warda 2020).Trotz der Niederlage bei dem Bau der Deponie waren diese Proteste von großer Bedeutung und wurden von vielen anderen als Vorbild genommen. Aus Kämpfen gegen diese Art von Umweltrassismus ist schließlich die Bewegung für Klimagerechtigkeit hervorgegangen, welche erstmals Fragen sozialer Gerechtigkeit im Zusammenhang mit umweltpolitischen Aspekten betrachtete (FARN, o.J.). Geprägt wurde der Begriff Umweltrassismus von dem Bürgerrechtler Dr. Benjamin F. Chavis Jr., der an den Demonstrationen in Afton beteiligt war. Er definiert Umweltrassismus als"the intentional siting of polluting and waste facilities in communities primarily populated by African Americans, Latines, Indigenous People, Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders, migrant farmworkers, and low-income workers" (Ihejirika 2023)Chavis veröffentlichte im Jahr 1987 gemeinsam mit der United Church of Christ (UCC) Kommission eine Studie zum Thema "Toxic Wastes and Race in the United States". Aus der Studie ging hervor, dass drei von fünf BIPoC nahe einer Giftmülldeponie wohnen. In einem Dokumentarfilm sagte Davis:"The issue of environmental racism is an issue of life and death. It is just not an issue of some form of prejudice where someone doesn't like you because of the color of your skin. This is an issue that will take your life away, if you don't get involved." (United Church of Christ 2023 / o.J.).Die Protestaktion und der Film löste eine nationale Debatte über Umweltrassismus aus (United Church of Christ 2023). Die Studie von 1987 wurde bis 2007 fortgesetzt und zeigte, dass nach wie vor eine Ungleichheit herrscht und Menschen aufgrund ihrer Hautfarbe einem höheren Risiko von umweltschädlichen Stoffen ausgesetzt sind. Noch immer werden Mülldeponien eher an Standorten mit einem hohen Anteil an BIPoC erbaut, als dort, wo weiße Menschen leben (Bullard et. al. 2007, S. 155).Seither gibt es immer mehr Studien zu Umweltrassismus. Diese bestätigen, dass PoC viel stärker Umweltrisiken ausgesetzt sind als weiße Personen. Die Ursache liegt vor allem darin, dass die Industrie sich meistens dort ansiedelt, wo hauptsächlich BIPoC leben. Deshalb sind schwarze Menschen 1.5 Mal, Hispanics 1.2 Mal und einkommensschwache Menschen 1.3 Mal so viel Feinstaub ausgesetzt wie weiße Menschen bzw. einkommensstarke (Warda 2020). Durch die Studien und Veröffentlichungen zum Thema Umweltrassismus hat sich der Begriff weiterentwickelt. Der amerikanische Soziologe Robert Bullard definiert ihn als"any policy, practice or directive that differentially affects or disadvantages (where intended oder unintended) individuals, groups or communities based on race or color" (Batiste 2022, S. 1).Das Projekt "ENRICH" (Environmental Noxiousness, Racial Inequities, and Community Health) unterscheidet zwei Bestandteile des Umweltrassismus. Zum einen gibt es die räumliche Verteilungsungerechtigkeit, die sich auf die Standortwahl industrieller Umweltverschmutzer und anderer umweltgefährdender Projekte bezieht. Zum anderen handelt es sich um die Verfahrensungerechtigkeit. Dabei stehen die institutionellen Mechanismen und Richtlinien im Mittelpunkt, welche die Ungerechtigkeit aufrechterhalten (ENRICH o.J.).Umweltrassismus, Klimawandel und Kolonialismus Durch den Klimawandel werden weitere, ganz neue Seiten von Umweltrassismus aufgezeigt. Die Ursachen und Folgen des Klimawandels sind ungleich über den Planeten verteilt. Länder im globalen Süden sind meist viel stärker von den Auswirkungen des Klimawandels betroffen. Und das, obwohl sie deutlich weniger CO2-Emissionen erzeugen als der globale Norden (Warda 2020). Das zeigt, dass die Klimakrise die (globale) soziale Krise und somit den Umweltrassismus in großen Dimensionen enorm beeinflusst. Um dieses Ungleichgewicht von Nord- und Südkugel, welches mit dem Klimawandel einhergeht, zu erfassen, muss der Kolonialismus berücksichtigt werden.Im Zuge der Kolonialisierung kam es zu neuartigen globalen Handels- und Machtbeziehungen, welche bis heute anhalten. Dadurch blühte der globale Norden auf und erreichte Reichtum und Wohlstand (Bendix 2015, S. 273). Die Länder des globalen Südens galten als "Ressourcen- und Absatzmärkte" und halfen den Ländern auf der Nordhalbkugel, ihren Reichtum zu vermehren (Öztürk 2012, S. 2).Viele westliche Firmen wollen günstig in ärmeren Ländern produzieren. Meist haben die ärmeren Länder zudem eine fragile staatliche Struktur. Westliche Länder und Firmen nutzen dies aus und verschmutzen dadurch dort vor Ort die Natur und achten wenig auf Einheimische (Warda 2020). Der globale Süden wird ausgebeutet und leidet unter den massiven Eingriffen in deren Ökosysteme von außerhalb (Ziai 2012, S. 23).Aktuell zeigt sich eine erhebliche Diskrepanz im durchschnittlichen Pro-Kopf-Ausstoß von Emissionen zwischen den ärmsten Ländern, zu welchen Niger, Somalia und die Zentralafrikanische Republik gehören. Dieser Ausstoß ist in den ärmsten Ländern mehr als 140 Mal niedriger als beispielsweise in Deutschland. Dazu kommt die historische Verantwortung des Globalen Nordens hinsichtlich des Klimawandels. Der größte Teil der Emissionen, der sich seit Beginn der Industrialisierung in der Atmosphäre gesammelt hat, geht auf den Globalen Norden zurück (Kurwan 2023).Eine interessante Abbildung zu den Pro-Kopf-CO2-Emissionen im Jahr 2021 findet ihr hier. Dort wird der durchschnittliche Verbrauch von fast jedem Land dargestellt. Durch Klicken auf das Land kann man sehen, dass zum Beispiel Deutschland einen durchschnittlichen Pro-Kopf-Verbrauch an Emissionen von 8.09 hatte. Eine klare Nord-Süd Trennung der Welt ist erkennbar.Damals wie auch heute sind die Länder im globalen Süden zudem stark von der Landwirtschaft abhängig. Ihre Existenz steht babei auf dem Spiel. Um sich vor den Auswirkungen zu schützen, fehlt den Menschen, aber auch den Ländern, oftmals das Geld. Von außerhalb kommt wenig Hilfe und das, obwohl der Klimawandel ein globales Problem ist. Dennoch gibt es auf politischer Ebene einen einseitigen Fokus, welcher nur auf den vergleichsweise geringen Auswirkungen auf den globalen Norden liegt. Die Länder des globalen Südens werden mit den schlimmen gesellschaftlichen und ökologischen Folgeschäden nahezu allein gelassen.Das bedeutet nicht, dass einzelne Personen, welche die Entscheidungen treffen, eine konkrete diskriminierende Absicht haben (Bellina 2022, S. 64), aber dass viele die globalen Konsequenzen außen vor lassen und nicht bedenken. Die Folge? Sie müssen fliehen. Menschen können aufgrund der Probleme, die durch den Klimawandel ausgelöst werden, nicht in ihrer Heimat bleiben (Warda 2020).Laut einem Bericht des Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (iDMC) aus dem Jahr 2015 verlassen seit 2008 jedes Jahr durchschnittlich 26.4 Mio. Menschen, ihre Heimat aufgrund von Naturkatastrophen. Das ist eine Person pro Sekunde. Die Zahl der geflohenen Personen sollen sich in den nächsten Jahren vervielfachen. Hauptursachen hierbei sind wetterbedingte Katastrophen wie Stürme, Überschwemmungen und Sturmfluten. Zu eher schleichenden Umweltproblemen wie Dürren oder dem ansteigenden Meeresspiegel gibt es (noch) keine konkreten Zahlen. Das sind deutlich mehr Personen, die aufgrund von Naturkatastrophen fliehen müssen, als aufgrund von Krieg. Oft stehen Umweltkatastrophen mit anderen Konflikten im Zusammenhang, beispielsweise Wasserknappheit (Yonetani 2015, S. 8). Umweltrassismus beeinflusst also das reale Überleben dieser Menschen.Doch nicht nur zwischen Süd und Nord gibt es Unterschiede. Auch die Einkommensunterschiede innerhalb eines Landes tragen dazu bei. So treffen die Folgen des Klimawandels die Menschen mit weniger Einkommen oft härter. Zum einen, weil sie weniger Wohnraum und somit weniger Rückzugsorte haben, zum anderen haben Einkommensschwache meist auch kein Auto oder eine andere Möglichkeit, am Straßenverkehr teilzunehmen und vor der Katastrophe zu fliehen (Adick 2022).Es kann auch Diskriminierung zwischen Geschlechtern und Generationen geben. Besonders Frauen und Kinder sind von den Folgen der Klimakrise betroffen (Kurwan 2023). Und das, obwohl Männer durchschnittlich mehr zur Klimaerwärmung beitragen als Frauen. Ein Grund dafür ist, dass Warnungen bei Naturkatastrophen größtenteils im öffentlichen Raum stattfinden, Frauen sich allerdings eher zuhause aufhalten und sich dort um Kinder und Haushalt kümmern und darum erst später davon erfahren. Sie sind auch bei der Flucht für Kinder und die Pflege der älteren Angehörigen zuständig (DGVN 2016). Ein weiterer Grund ist gerade bei Flutereignissen, dass Frauen seltener schwimmen können und schlechteren Zugang zu Verkehrsmitteln haben (Kurwan 2023).Eine Folge von Umweltkatastrophen, die nichts direkt mit Umweltrassismus zu tun hat, möchte ich dennoch nicht unerwähnt lassen. Laut Studien steigt die Anzahl der gewaltsamen Übergriffe auf Frauen nach Umweltkatastrophen enorm. Oftmals verdoppeln sich die Zahl der Gewalttaten von Männern gegenüber Frauen. Warum das konkret nach Katastrophen häufiger auftritt, hängt wahrscheinlich mit den fehlenden Strukturen im Chaos zusammen. Frauen sind dadurch weniger geschützt (DGVN 2016).Umweltrassismus kann also gegen einzelne Personen, Gruppen oder auch Länder auftreten. Aus den Kämpfen gegen Umweltrassismus erfolgten verschiedene Bewegungen für Klimagerechtigkeit. Einige sind uns allen bekannt, wie "Fridays for Future". Sie setzen sich nicht nur für Klimapolitik und Klimaschutz ein, sondern auch für Klimagerechtigkeit, wodurch dem Umweltrassismus entgegengewirkt werden soll (Fridays for Future 2020). Es handelt sich dabei also nicht nur um eine Klimabewegung, sondern um eine Klimagerechtigkeitsbewegung.FallbeispieleUm noch deutlicher zu zeigen, was für Arten von Umweltrassismus es auf der Erde gibt und wie oft diese auftreten, werden im Folgenden einige Beispiele aufgeführt.Das erste Beispiel handelt von den USA, genauer gesagt von den Gemeinden eines über 130 km langen Landstrichs entlang des Mississippi von Baton Rounge bis New Orleans in Louisiana. Hier haben sich insgesamt über 150 Ölraffinerien, Kunststofffabriken und andere chemische Anlagen angesiedelt, die viele Emissionen ausstoßen. Und das direkt an den zuvor bestehenden Siedlungen. Gleichzeitig weist der Abschnitt eine sehr hohe Inzidenz- und Sterblichkeitsrate im Vergleich zum Rest der USA auf. Auch die Krebsrate ist viel höher als im Rest des Landes. Aufgrund dessen wird dieser Abschnitt auch "Cancer Alley", die Allee der Krebskranken, genannt. In kaum einem anderen Bundesstaat ist die Luft so schlecht wie in Louisiana (Batiste 2022, S. 1).Doch nicht alle Menschen am Mississippi sind gleichermaßen betroffen. Vor allem die hier lebenden schwarzen Menschen auf der einen Seite des Flusses kämpfen gegen den Krebs. Verantwortlich dafür wird die Industrie gemacht. Auf der anderen Seite des Flusses leben hauptsächlich weiße Menschen, oftmals derselben Gemeinde. Aufgrund von Protesten wurden dort keine Industrieanlagen erbaut. Diese sehen die Industrie mittlerweile als Chance für neue Arbeitsplätze und Steuereinnahmen. Aber nur, wenn sie in einem bestimmten Abstand erbaut werden. Studien haben gezeigt: Je näher die Menschen an den Industrieanlagen wohnen, desto höher das Gesundheitsrisiko. Und da sich die Industrie hier auffällig nahe in Nachbarschaften mit hauptsächlich BIPoC oder Armen angesiedelt haben, gehen diese von einem rassistischen Motiv aus. Sie haben das Gefühl, geopfert zu werden, an zweiter Wahl zu stehen (Schmidt 2023).Eine Studie aus den USA zeigt, dass es eine besonders hohe Sterberate bei BIPoC gibt im Zusammenhang mit Hitzewellen. Vor allem in Großstädten sterben doppelt so viele wie weiße Menschen. Das liegt an den Temperaturdifferenzen innerhalb der schwarzen und weißen Nachbarschaft, welche bei bis zu 1.7° Celsius liegen kann (Ituen/Tatu Hey 2021, S. 12/13).Doch Umweltrassismus gibt es auch in Deutschland. So wurde durch verschiedene Studien festgestellt, dass es beispielsweise in Kassel eine erhöhte Luftverschmutzung in den Bezirken gibt, in welchen Menschen mit niedrigen sozioökonomischen Status und Migrationshintergrund wohnen (Ituen/Tatu Hey 2021, S. 9). Auch andere marginalisierte Gruppen, wie Sinti*zza und Rom*nja erleben dies immer wieder. Meistens werden sie in Gegenden mit einer hohen Umweltbelastung geschoben und von Umweltgütern wie sauberem Trinkwasser ausgeschlossen (Ituen/Tatu Hey 2021, S. 8).Eine neue Studie aus Chicago verdeutlicht, dass Schwarze während der Pandemie für 50 % der Corona-Infektionen und sogar 70 % der Todesfälle verantwortlich waren. Und das, obwohl sie lediglich 30 % der Bevölkerung von Chicago ausmachen. Und auch in Großbritannien zeigt sich, dass schwarze Menschen fast doppelt so häufig wie weiße Menschen einem erhöhten Risiko ausgesetzt sind, an Covid-19 zu sterben (Ituen/Tatu Hey 2021, S. 13).Ebenso können ganze Länder von Umweltrassismus betroffen sein, wie beispielsweise Senegal. Der globale Süden ist durch Kolonialisierung und jahrhundertelange Ausbeutung viel später in die Industrialisierung eingestiegen. Bis dahin haben die Länder des Nordens schon viel, viel mehr CO2 ausgestoßen, welches über 100 Jahre in der Atmosphäre bleibt. Trotzdem sollen die Länder des globalen Südens genau so viel CO2 einsparen wie die Länder auf der Nordhalbkugel. Gleichzeitig sollen sie die Schulden gegenüber dem globalen Norden abbauen. Das führt dazu, dass Länder im Süden (z.B. Senegal) ihre fossilen Energieträger von Industrienationen ausbeuten lassen, um nicht noch tiefer in die Schulden zu stürzen (Adick 2022).Umweltrassismus bekämpfenDie Bekämpfung von Umweltrassismus wird von Land zu Land unterschiedlich gehandhabt. Der gemeinsame Kern ist jedoch, dass das Leid der betroffenen Personen gemindert werden soll. Diese wollen auf sich aufmerksam machen und gegen das Unrecht ankämpfen. So war es auch bei Cancer Alley. Gemeinsam mit Anwälten wurden Klagen gegen staatliche Einrichtungen oder chemische Fabriken angestrengt (Schmidt 2023). Robert Taylor, der Gründer der Initiative gegen die Chemiefabriken, kämpft für eine bessere Zukunft. Vor allem für die BIPoC-Kinder der Gemeinden. Weitere Forderungen sind Verschärfungen von Vorschriften der EPA (Envioronmental Protection Agency), welche eine unabhängige Behörde der USA ist und sich für den Umweltschutz und den Schutz der menschlichen Gesundheit einsetzt, und eine Wiedergutmachung für die betroffenen und hinterbliebenen Personen (Batiste 2022, S. 29).Mittlerweile hat auch Präsident Joe Biden davon gehört und Taylor ins Weiße Haus eingeladen. Hier soll er verdeutlichen, dass Umweltschutz oberste Priorität hat und somit auch dem Umweltrassismus entgegengewirkt werden kann. Es gibt den Anwohner*innen und Umweltgruppen Hoffnung. Außerdem verlangen sie mehr Forschung zu dem Thema, um besser ihr Leid belegen zu können. Sie glauben, dass die Politik ihnen dann mehr Glauben schenkt (Schmidt 2023). Die daraus resultierende nationale Aufmerksamkeit soll der Wendepunkt von Cancer Alley sein (Batiste 2022, S. 29).Ein weiteres einzigartiges und innovatives Projekt wurde 2012 von Dr. Ingrid Waldron in Kanada ins Leben gerufen. Dabei handelt es sich um das sogenannte ENRICH-Projekt (Environmental Noxiousness, Racial Inequities, and Community Health), welches sich auf die sozialen, ökologischen, politischen und gesundheitlichen Auswirkungen von Umweltrassismus in Mi´kmaq-Gemeinden (Ureinwohner*innen) und Nova Scotia, einer kleinen Provinz in Kanada, spezialisieret (ENRICH o.J.). Die hauptsächlich dort lebenden BIPoC berichten von Krankheiten wie Krebs oder Diabetes, welche aufgrund von Mülldeponien, die 1974 und 2006 eröffnet wurden, hervorgerufen wurden. Außerdem hatten sie kaum Zugang zu sauberem Trinkwasser, da das Wasser viele Giftstoffe enthielt. Der Müll zog zudem Bären, Waschbären und Insekten an (Klingbeil 2016).Das Projekt will Wege finden, um räumliche wie verteilungstechnische Arten des Umweltrassismus in diesen Gemeinden anzugehen und mithilfe der Bürger*innen die Politik bzw. Politiker*innen zum Handeln zu zwingen. Des Weiteren wollen sie national über die Ansiedlung und Regulierung von Industrieanlagen im Zusammenhang mit Umweltrassismus informieren. Das machen sie mithilfe von Interessenvertretungen, gemeinschaftlichem Engagement, Mobilisierung und Kapazitätsaufbau in betroffenen Gemeinden, öffentlicher Bildung, Studierendenausbildung, sektorübergreifenden Partnerschaften, Workshops und Kommunikation (ENRICH o.J.). Auch ihnen ist es in erster Linie wichtig, auf diese Umstände aufmerksam zu machen. Die Beteiligten schafften es, dass im Jahr 2015 zum ersten mal in Kanada ein Gesetzesentwurf zum Thema Umweltrassismus eingebracht und bis zur zweiten Lesung durchgebracht wurde. Allerdings wurde das Gesetz nicht verabschiedet (Klingbeil 2016).Das Projekt sorgte weltweit für Aufsehen. Im April 2018 veröffentlichte Waldron das Buch "There´s something in the water" und verwendete Nova Scotia als Fallbeispiel, um die Auswirkungen von Umweltrassismus und dessen gesundheitliche Folgen auf indigene und schwarze Gemeinschaften in Kanada zu untersuchen. Das Buch erhielt zwei Preise. 2019 wurde der gleichnamige Dokumentarfilm veröffentlicht.Das sind einzelne Projekte, die wichtig sind und von denen Betroffene profitieren können. Jedoch können sie nicht dem globalen Umweltrassismus entgegenwirken, welcher heute enorme Dimensionen angenommen hat. Nicht nur Bevölkerungsgruppen, sondern auch Länder sind unterschiedlich von den Folgen des Klimawandels betroffen. Die Politik kann und muss dagegen ankämpfen. Es gibt schon Lösungsideen, wie dem Umweltrassismus entgegengewirkt werden kann.Ein Prinzip, das dabei beachtet werden sollte, ist das Verursacherprinzip. Dabei sollen nicht nur die aktuellen Emissionen berücksichtigt werden, sondern auch die historische Verantwortung. Das bedeutet, dass beachtet werden muss, welches Land wie viel CO2 in der Vergangenheit ausgestoßen hat. Dadurch verändert sich das CO2-Budget der Länder im Norden. Teilweise wäre das Budget schon komplett aufgebraucht. Außerdem sollen die Nationen des globalen Nordens die Verantwortung als hauptsächliche Verursacher des Klimawandels auf sich nehmen und für die Kosten von Anpassungsstrategien und klimabedingten Schäden in Ländern des globalen Südens aufkommen müssen (Kurwan 2023).Eine weitere Lösung, die das Problem beheben könnte, ist ein Schuldenerlass. Das führt dazu, dass fossile Energieträger des globalen Südes im Boden bleiben können und die Länder das Geld anders investieren können. Beispielsweise in eine Veränderung, die sozial und ökologisch gerecht wäre. Des Weiteren könnten sie mit dem Geld die Klimaanpassung (mit-)finanzieren. Viele Wissenschaftler*innen oder auch der Internationale Währungsfonds (IWF) haben sich positiv zu dieser Lösung geäußert. Somit könnte den ärmeren Ländern mehr finanzieller Spielraum gegeben werden. Das kann ein Hilfsmittel gegen die Ungerechtigkeit sein. Jedoch kann es diese nicht komplett lindern. Der Norden muss definitiv noch mehr investieren. Denn wie schon weiter oben gesagt, hängt die Klimakrise eng mit der sozialen Gerechtigkeit und somit dem Umweltrassismus zusammen.FazitDer Beitrag beleuchtete das komplexe Thema des Umweltrassismus. Der Begriff wurde Anfang der 1980er Jahre geprägt und bekommt immer mehr Bedeutung. Umweltrassismus hat viele Facetten. Es tritt auf, wenn Umweltprobleme und Umweltverschmutzung unverhältnismäßig stark bestimmte Gemeinschaften betreffen. Meist betrifft es die Menschen, die bereits benachteiligt sind.Umweltrassismus ist also nicht nur eine Frage der Umwelt, sondern auch eine der sozialen Gerechtigkeit, wenn nicht sogar eine Frage von Leben und Tod. Neben BIPoC können auch Geschlechter und Generationen sowie ganze Länder direkt oder indirekt betroffen sein. Häufig trifft es Frauen, Kinder und Einkommensschwache am stärksten.Der globale Norden, der historisch für einen Großteil der CO2-Emissionen verantwortlich ist, leidet weniger unter den Folgen des Klimawandels als der globale Süden. Und das, obwohl der Süden deutlich weniger Emissionen verursacht.Um dem Umweltrassismus entgegenzuwirken, gibt es verschiedene Lösungsansätze. Diese reichen von gemeindebasierten Initiativen und internationaler Zusammenarbeit bis hin zu Gerichtsverfahren und politischen Maßnahmen. Ein wichtiger Schritt dabei ist es, die historische Verantwortung anzuerkennen und den globalen Norden zur Verantwortung zu ziehen. Ein Schuldenerlass für die Länder des globalen Südens könnte ihnen zudem finanzielle Ressourcen verschaffen, die sie in umweltfreundliche Technologie stecken können.Mit diesem Beitrag soll ein Bewusstsein für Umweltrassismus geschaffen werden. Das Ziel ist es, dass weniger CO2 freigesetzt wird, um eine nachhaltige Welt zu schaffen, in der Umweltressourcen und Chancen fair verteilt werden und niemand aufgrund seiner Hautfarbe oder seines sozialen Status benachteiligt wird. Es erfordert Engagement auf individueller und globaler Ebene, um die notwendigen Veränderungen herbeizuführen.LiteraturverzeichnisAdick, Katharina (2022): SPEZIAL: Klimagerechtigkeit – So wird Klimaschutz sozialer (Audio-Podcast). 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Le motivazioni che mi hanno spinto a redigere questo elaborato sono diverse. Una su tutte il senso di responsabilità verso una frase di H., pastore palestinese e leader della resistenza nonviolenta nelle colline a sud di Hebron, che ho sentito particolarmente ispirante: "il vostro ruolo qui è molto importante, ma è più importante in Italia". Molte sono state le spinte che ho ricevuto in questo senso durante la mia esperienza in Palestina/Israele della primavera scorsa, quando, tramite Operazione Colomba, il Corpo Nonviolento di Pace della Comunità Papa Giovanni XXIII, mi sono recato in qualità di volontario di breve periodo nella parte meridionale della Cisgiordania, nelle colline a sud di Hebron. Su queste colline ho trascorso tre mesi vivendo ad At-Tuwani, il villaggio più grande dell'area, situato nella zona denominata come Masafer Yatta. Questa esperienza, valida anche come tirocinio formativo del corso di laurea magistrale in Scienze per la Pace: cooperazione internazionale e trasformazione dei conflitti, mi è stata utile, soprattutto, per conoscere la verità su quanto accade nei territori palestinesi occupati. Dopo aver conosciuto la triste situazione di precarietà che vivono le famiglie palestinesi della comunità delle South Hebron Hills e dopo aver visto con i miei occhi la prassi nonviolenta che hanno deciso di adottare come metodo di resistenza attiva all'occupazione militare e civile israeliana, in questo elaborato ho provato a trovare il risvolto pratico e "tornare alla teoria" di quanto studiato in Teoria dei conflitti. Le asimmetrie dei conflitti, le teorie e le strategie di resistenza e le differenze di approccio ai conflitti, dopo esser stato immerso totalmente all'interno di una comunità palestinese periferica, sono state ancor più nitide e trasparenti. Oltre ad aver ascoltato numerose testimonianze di volontari internazionali ed essermi informato mediante la lettura di articoli di giornale, saggistica e siti internet, ho conosciuto la situazione israelo-palestinese attraverso i racconti di tre ragazzi provenienti da altrettante famiglie palestinesi: Bashar, Khaled e Hassan. Quattro anni fa, tra il settembre 2008 e il febbraio 2009 ho studiato per sei mesi – tramite il programma Erasmus svolto all'interno del mio precedente ciclo di laurea triennale – presso l'università di Brno, in Repubblica Ceca. In quel luogo ho avuto la possibilità di conoscere giovani provenienti da tutto il mondo e stringere una forte amicizia con i tre ragazzi, due giordani e un siriano. Nel dicembre del 2008, durante i tristi giorni della violenta campagna militare israeliana su Gaza denominata "Piombo Fuso", mi sono trovato così a comprendere ciò che accadeva al di là del Mediterraneo, attraverso coloro che avevano, in un certo modo, subito le stesse sofferenze. Fu per me molto forte condividere quella situazione attraverso i racconti dei figli dei profughi palestinesi. Attraverso il quotidiano aggiornamento delle notizie, gli approfondimenti, le discussioni, le manifestazioni di piazza, la visione di documentari e filmati, audio, sessioni in arabo ed inglese di Al Jazeera e soprattutto mediante numerosi racconti personali di storie raccontategli a sua volta dai genitori e parenti, profughi del '48 e del '67, mi resi conto, in quei mesi, delle forti ingiustizie che avevano luogo in quello spicchio di terra, che prima, per me, non aveva un cosi forte significato. Avendo conosciuto la questione di "Palestina/Israele" tramite questi giovani e le storie delle loro famiglie, ho trovato le giuste motivazioni per svolgere, tre anni e mezzo più tardi, un esperienza con Operazione Colomba nei territori palestinesi. L'esperienza all'estero – anche se per soli tre mesi – è stata fondamentale per la scrittura di questo elaborato poiché ha stravolto il mio modo di vedere e leggere quella ingarbugliata situazione. I pastori palestinesi che abitano le colline a sud di Hebron non hanno il linguaggio tipicamente geopolitico che spesso si sente nei salotti televisivi o nelle discussioni europee mentre si argomenta riguardo la questione israelo-palestinese. La lingua della gente è quella della dignità e della resistenza, chiede a gran voce la tutela dei più elementari diritti di cui vengono privati ogni giorno e mostra in maniera pratica la possibilità che nei salotti televisivi non viene mai presa in considerazione: la rivoluzione nonviolenta e la trasformazione del conflitto. É questa la ragione, dopo aver esser stato volontario di Operazione Colomba, che mi ha suscitato l'intenzione di redigere questa tesi di laurea. Sentendo forte la necessità di aiutare quella resistenza nonviolenta anche in Italia, ho provato a concedergli lo spazio meritato all'interno di una discussione accademica e ho tentato di farla rientrare a pieno diritto all'interno delle categorie teoriche studiate nella Teoria dei conflitti. Per cercare di non focalizzare l'attenzione solo su una dimensione del conflitto, ho deciso di avvalermi di molteplici strumenti. Ho utilizzato i diari dei volontari, report e articoli scritti sui vari siti delle associazioni che lavorano "sul campo", classici manuali e saggi, documentari, film e interviste video e audio. Oltre alla mia esperienza e al mio diario, ho avuto il prezioso aiuto di alcuni volontari di Operazione Colomba che, attraverso una breve intervista composta da tre domande, hanno riflettuto e poi descritto quelle che sono, secondo il loro parere, le caratteristiche del Corpo Civile di Pace con cui sono partiti per un esperienza all'estero e la metodologia di intervento. Nel redigere questo elaborato, ho provato, come richiede una tesi di laurea magistrale, ad essere oggettivo nel descrivere in maniera analitica tutte le dimensioni, anche quelle che ho vissuto in prima persona. Da italiano e quindi da "parte terza" nel conflitto israelo-palestinese, ho cercato di essere imparziale, pur sapendo le difficoltà in cui incorre qualsiasi autore che redige un determinato documento, accademico o giornalistico che sia. Il mio desiderio è stato quello di cercare l'imparzialità e l'oggettività del narratore, seguendo il modello tracciato dalla nuova storiografia israeliana di T. Segev, B. Morris e I. Pappe. La storia – come sostiene un opuscolo pubblicato da un'associazione di Siena – va ricercata "nelle mani di chi coltiva la speranza, negli sguardi di chi è ebbro di vita, nella fatica di chi ara la terra e accudisce l'olivo"1. L'imparzialità nell'analisi della situazione israelo-palestinese, dal punto di vista grammaticale, è resistita sino alla fine del quarto capitolo, poiché, nella quinta ed ultima sezione, intervistando volontari con cui ho vissuto ad At-Tuwani o che comunque ho conosciuto di persona, raccontando e analizzando anche la mia esperienza personale con la Colomba, non son riuscito a trattenere il mio spirito di forte partecipazione. Se non son riuscito ad essere completamente oggettivo nella descrizione della storia e delle vicende di israeliani e palestinesi significa che sono stato colto da errore e me ne assumerò le responsabilità. Essendo quello su cui ho argomentato un conflitto – come molti altri – ricco di mitologia, le narrazioni presentate al grande pubblico sono quasi sempre solo due e sempre polarizzate una dall'altra. La realtà dei fatti è che entrambe le storie omettono molti passaggi ed eventi diventando così faziose. Il mio tentativo è stato quindi quello di cercare di andare oltre a questa dicotomia e raccontare la storia il piu veritiera e obiettiva possibile. "Lo storico francese Fernand Braudel ha ideato una teoria che paragona il processo storico a un fiume. Ciò che si trova in superficie scorre a grande velocità mentre ciò che si trova sott'acqua si sposta lentamente. Gli avvenimenti scorrono veloci ma nello stesso tempo si nota anche una grande stabilità delle vecchie strutture e dei vecchi modi di pensare. Questi ultimi cambiano molto più lentamente."2 Con questo concetto ben stampato nella mente, anch'io ho cercato di comprendere avvenimenti "di superficie" e i cambiamenti delle "vecchie strutture". Nel primo capitolo ho analizzato gli eventi storici in maniera alternativa, cercando di raccontare i fatti tramite le parole dei protagonisti e provando a ricostruire gli eventi attraverso una pluralità di informazioni. Non mi sono documentato solo dai classici manuali di saggistica, ma ho deciso di avvalermi anche di video-documentari, filmati, report di associazioni, articoli di giornale e siti internet. Inoltre non ho solo incrociato le fonti bibliografiche ma ho cercato di informarmi sottolineando le discrepanze tra le diverse letture che ho svolto. Avendo riflettuto molto sulle parti riportate in questo capitolo e non volendo rinunciare a segnalare alcun autore, forse, il risultato ne è stata una variante un po' troppo estesa. Mi sono prolungato sugli eventi dal 1880 in poi, perché ho considerato necessario soffermarmi su alcuni nodi storici per comprendere meglio la complessità della quotidianità palestinese e israeliana. Ho cercato di rappresentare alcuni aspetti e dimensioni della storia di tutta l'area dando un peso particolare alla questione della terra e delle risorse, evidenziando, quando ne ho avuto la possibilità, la situazione delle popolazioni periferiche, della situazione scolastica, e di coloro che svolgono un lavoro legato a pastorizia, allevamento e agricoltura. Ho tentato di analizzare maggiormente queste dimensioni per comprendere alla radice le cause dei problemi attuali che vivono i pastori palestinesi che abitano le colline a sud di Hebron. La situazione di quest'area periferica l'ho analizzata nel secondo capitolo, proponendo un percorso storico dal 1948 in poi, dal 1967 con l'occupazione militare, l'insediamento delle colonie e degli avamposti ebraici, fino ad arrivare alla divisioni in aree degli accordi di Oslo, sino alle ultime dinamiche ed eventi accaduti ai giorni nostri. Ho utilizzato esempi provenienti dalla quotidianità della politica di occupazione militare e civile israeliana e come agisce privando i palestinesi che vivono la zona dei più elementari diritti. La situazione paradossale che si crea in quell'area, che secondo gli accordi di Oslo è area C quindi a completa amministrazione militare e civile israeliana è ancora più forte se si pensa alla situazione dei bambini delle South Hebron Hills che, dal 2005 ad oggi, dopo una decisione della Commissione per i diritti dell'infanzia della Knesset, il parlamento israeliano, devono aspettare tutte le mattine e tutti i pomeriggi, una scorta armata dell'IDF che li protegga dagli attacchi dei coloni per poter fare in sicurezza il tragitto da casa a scuola, e viceversa. I capitoli tre e quattro rappresentano il nocciolo della questione, poiché rappresentano quanto mi ero proposto di analizzare e argomentare, espressione del titolo dell'elaborato. Nel terzo ho descritto la situazione di vita complessa e difficile e come viene ribaltata dalla scelta nonviolenta che ha adottato la comunità palestinese che abita le colline a sud di Hebron e del Comitato di Resistenza Popolare, nato nel 2000. Una resistenza, quella di questi palestinesi, che non ha nulla a che vedere con le immagini che i maggiori media nazionali ed internazionali propugnano alla televisione. Una paziente e quotidiana resistenza, che è attiva e decisa nel combattere le ingiustizie e che proviene, in prima istanza, dall'essenza pacifica dei pastori stessi. Alla minaccia di arresto da parte dei soldati o agli attacchi e alle provocazioni dei coloni ai danni di un palestinese su un dato territorio loro rispondono tornando su quell'area organizzando marce e manifestazioni pacifice. Alle demolizioni di strutture o danni ai caseggiati, i nonviolenti palestinesi rispondono ricostruendo quanto distrutto e denunciando le ingiustizie subite presso gli enti preposti. Ai danni degli oliveti e dei campi di grano che sono dislocati su tutte le colline intorno ai villaggi, i palestinesi replicano facendo rinascere la vita, piantando nuovi ulivi e seminando grano per l'anno successivo. Il Comitato, ente preposto per l'organizzazione della resistenza, ha anche il ruolo di organizzare marce per la pace, azioni nonviolente, training di formazione alla nonviolenza e ha avuto l'appoggio di numerosi gruppi di attivisti israeliani e internazionali che vivono e lavorano nell'area. Essendo quella nonviolenta una scelta di massa e popolare, i palestinesi che vivono ad At-Tuwani e nei villaggi vicini hanno avuto l'opportunità, oltre a ricevere in visita numerose delegazioni di israeliani, attivisti e non, di accogliere due gruppi di internazionali, i Christian Peacemaker Team e Operazione Colomba. Oltre alla solidarietà e al supporto, dal 2004 i due gruppi vivono nell'area, condividendo i pericoli e le ostilità quotidiane e accompagnando i pastori palestinesi che pascolano i loro greggi sulle colline. In particolare, sul finire del capitolo ho focalizzato l'attenzione su come il Comitato Popolare delle South Hebron Hills si inserisce nelle questioni nazionali e sulla forza delle donne del villaggio e il loro prezioso ruolo nella resistenza nonviolenta e nelle dinamiche della vita del villaggio. Nel quarto capitolo ho cercato di sintetizzare la resistenza nonviolenta all'interno delle categorie tipiche della Teoria dei conflitti: il conflitto asimmetrico e la risoluzione del conflitto mediante un cambiamento di paradigma. La trasformazione nonviolenta del conflitto, almeno per quanto concerne la situazione nelle South Hebron Hills, è partita dal circuito virtuoso scatenato dalla scelta nonviolenta della comunità palestinese. Le relazioni tra palestinesi e israeliani sono cominciate a differire e il cambiamento pacifico, descritto da Miall in Emergent Conflict and Peaceful Change, ha cominciato a mostrare sin da subito i risultati. Oltre a questioni teoriche legate al conflitto e alla sua trasformazione ho concentrato gli sforzi nel ripercorrere gli anni precedenti la nascita dello stato d'Israele e in particolare nell'accezione nonviolenta, culturale e religiosa di un tipo di sionismo, che con la nascita dello stato Ebraico non ha saputo vincere il braccio di ferro con il sionismo politico di Herzl e Ben Gurion. Infine ho portato altri esempi di prassi nonviolenta e possibili scenari futuri di pace per Palestina/Israele. Nel paragrafo intitolato "Immaginare un altro Israele", ho analizzato uno scambio di missive che è avvenuto sul finire degli anni '30 tra Gandhi e due intellettuali ebrei, seguaci del sionismo culturale, Martin Buber e Judah Magnes. In questo carteggio ho riscontrato differenze sostanziali tra i tre pensatori nonviolenti che ho poi sintetizzato sottolineando in particolare l'importante aspetto della relazione tra politica e religione nelle tre diverse accezioni. Nel quinto ed ultimo capitolo ho mi sono soffermato su Operazione Colomba, le attività che svolge in Palestina/Israele e negli altri luoghi in cui è presente attualmente. Ho portato alla luce la storia del Corpo Nonviolento di Pace che nel 2012 ha festeggiato i primi vent'anni di vita e i tre pilastri fondamentali con cui è intervenuto in zone di conflitto: la scelta nonviolenta, la condivisione della vita con le vittime della guerra e la neutralità dell'intervento o equivicinanza tra le parti. Mi sento orgoglioso del paragrafo "Essere una Colomba" poiché credo fermamente nell'azione di questa organizzazione e nel suo modo di agire. Con l'aiuto di alcuni volontari che ho intervistato, ho riflettuto sul significato di essere una Colomba, all'estero e in Italia e sulla forza della nonviolenza attiva. Infine ho preso ad esempio il lavoro di Operazione Colomba per rilanciare il discorso – ultimamente accantonato – sui Corpi Civili di Pace. La necessità di tale istituzione è, secondo la mia modesta opinione, un'urgenza e un bisogno impellente. Proveniendo dal corso di laurea di Scienze per la pace, ho avuto la possibilità di studiare in maniera interdisciplinare i parametri giuridici e la cornice burocratica all'interno della quale si dovrebbe vedere la nascita di tali Corpi Nonviolenti di Pace, il cui ruolo sarà decisivo per il raggiungimento di quell'obiettivo sancito nella costituzione repubblicana, che è la difesa della Patria con altri mezzi. Infine, ho trovato necessario concludere il mio elaborato, senza assumermi la responsabilità di mettere il punto finale ad una storia, che è ancora in divenire. Ho scelto quindi di chiudere il mio elaborato e il mio percorso di studi, tramite delle conclusioni (o nonconclusioni) dal finale aperto, perchè in corso di scrittura. Ho predisposto, in allegato all'elaborato, alcune mappe geografiche per poter comprendere meglio le complicate questioni dibattute in precedenza.

Dottorato di ricerca in Economia e territorio ; L'oggetto della tesi è la ricerca e la sperimentazione in campo di un modello interpretativo degli impatti prodotti dal cambiamento climatico sulla sicurezza alimentare e nutrizionale delle popolazioni residenti del Nicaragua. L'obiettivo specifico è lo sviluppo e la sperimentazione di una metodologia di analisi della vulnerabilità/stabilità all'insicurezza alimentare dei sistemi agroalimentari locali in Nicaragua in relazione agli effetti del cambiamento climatico, finalizzata alla identificazione di politiche di mitigazione. Il raggiungimento di questo obiettivo ha comportato un'amplia ricerca bibliografica e un'indagine di campo in Nicaragua di circa due mesi tra il Marzo e l'Aprile del 2010. Durante la permanenza in Nicaragua sono state realizzate numerose interviste e focus group con stakeholders sia istituzionali che del settore privato. L'analisi degli impatti generati dal cambiamento climatico sull'ambiente e sulle attività economiche è tanto più difficile e incerta quanto più si procede all'interno di un ambito territoriale ristretto. A livello locale, le dinamiche sociali e l'incidenza dell'azione antropica sull'ambiente possono risultare infatti determinanti nella creazione di condizioni favorevoli o avverse rispetto al benessere della popolazione insediata, ben più della variabilità climatica. La complessità dei fenomeni che legano il clima alle attività umane è ancor più manifesta quando si pretende di mettere in relazione i cambiamenti del clima indotti dal riscaldamento globale col tema della sicurezza alimentare di una determinata comunità. Quest'ultimo tema infatti riunisce aspetti sociali ed economici molto diversificati, come la produzione degli alimenti, la loro conservazione e l'accessibilità in base ai redditi familiari, le condizioni igienico-sanitarie e la proporzione con cui gli alimenti stessi vengono consumati. Investigare sulla relazione economica tra sistemi complessi, come il sistema climatico da una parte e la sicurezza alimentare dall'altra, comporta quindi l'attivazione di modelli interpretativi altrettanto complessi, così come di strumenti analitici di tipo sia quantitativo che qualitativo, tanto più preponderanti questi ultimi, quanto maggiore è la carenza di dati e serie storiche attendibili. Lo spunto iniziale della tesi consiste nella ricostruzione critica a posteriori del modello di interpretazione dell'impatto del cambiamento climatico sui sistemi ecologici e sociali sul quale si fonda l'attuale assetto delle politiche promosse dal governo nicaraguense in tema di sicurezza alimentare e di mitigazione dell'impatto del cambiamento climatico. In questo quadro si è analizzato in particolare l'Indice Aggregato di Insicurezza Alimentare e Nutrizionale elaborato da un'agenzia delle Nazioni Unite (il Programma Mondiale per l'Alimentazione), attualmente utilizzato in Nicaragua nella identificazione delle aree più esposte al rischio di sicurezza alimentare. A fronte delle critiche che si avanzano nei confronti di questo indice, si propone un modello di riferimento più completo per la misurazione della vulnerabilità delle realtà locali, ovvero l'Indice Aggregato Dinamico di Insicurezza Alimentare e Nutrizionale (IADIAN). Questo indice utilizza variabili dinamiche (tassi di variazione) riferite ai fattori socio-economici che determinano l'insicurezza alimentare e al tempo stesso cattura i fattori ambientali locali che maggiormente incidono sulle potenzialità produttive. Purtroppo una esemplificazione applicativa dell'IADIAN è impedita dalla mancanza dei necessari dati in serie storica, ma la sua formulazione fornisce comunque una direttrice operativa che si ritiene utile alla pianificazione della raccolta dei dati statistici (attualmente scarsi e mal organizzati) e all'ordinamento delle fonti statistiche. A fronte delle criticità metodologiche emerse nel corso delle analisi precedentemente illustrate, si passano in rassegna modelli interpretativi alternativi accreditati in letteratura, identificando nel modello concettuale classico, il "DPSIR" (Drivers, Pressures, State & Trends, Impacts and Responses) il più adatto allo sviluppo del tema in oggetto. Il DPSIR è finalizzato, oltreché all'interpretazione dei fenomeni, all'elaborazione di policies volte alla prevenzione e alla mitigazione degli effetti del cambiamento climatico. L'applicazione del modello DPSIR, una volta adattato al tema specifico della sicurezza alimentare e nutrizionale, si è rivelato particolarmente utile alla identificazione delle attuali carenze conoscitive, soprattutto per quanto riguarda gli impatti (impacts), e le risposte (responses). Nel quadro dell'analisi degli impatti si è sviluppato una Matrice Multicriteriale degli Impatti e della stabilità dei sistemi agro-alimentari rispetto al cambiamento climatico di due regioni agrarie del Nicaragua. Questa matrice disaggrega i sistemi agro-alimentari nelle loro componenti strutturali (produzione, distribuzione e consumo), mettendole in relazione con gli elementi ("pilastri") costitutivi della sicurezza alimentare e nutrizionale, ovvero: la disponibilità, l'accessibilità e l'uso biologico degli alimenti. La matrice è costruita sulla base di valutazioni di tipo prevalentemente qualitativo, ma offre anche un sistema si "scoring" che consente una priorizzazione dei problemi e, per via comparativa, anche una priorizzazione dei sistemi più vulnerabili. La regione dove si sono potuti apprezzare processi di adattamento e mitigazione degli effetti del cambiamento climatico non è tanto quella che dispone di maggior capitale naturale bensì quella che, contando su comunità di più antico e stabile insediamento, ha sviluppato nel tempo un maggior capitale sociale (come la Regione Agraria delle "Pianure agro-industriali della Costa Pacifica"). La regione agraria della "Nuova Frontiera Agricola e Costa Caraibica", pur contando su un elevato capitale naturale e su un alto potenziale produttivo, è caratterizzata invece da tipologie produttive altamente distruttive e sostenute da una popolazione pioniera che non ha sviluppato ancora modelli di aggregazione comunitaria stabili né un tessuto sociale collettivamente reattivo. L'analisi delle "risposte" si è concentrata su 6 modelli di intervento adottati attualmente dalle istituzioni nazionali (centrali e locali) con l'appoggio della comunità internazionale. Questa analisi ha evidenziato come nessun modello di intervento, considerato isolatamente, riunisca tutte le caratteristiche di efficienza ed efficacia necessari a innescare processi sostenibili di "resilienza" e sviluppo. Nessun intervento si può considerare dunque come una "buona pratica", soprattutto se non inserito in un quadro coordinato e coerente di interventi identificati in ragione di un contesto locale specifico. La durata di tutti gli interventi analizzati è inoltre insufficiente a garantire il successo delle azioni intraprese, tantomeno la loro sostenibilità. In molti casi infatti le iniziative analizzate sollevano aspettative di continuità che nella maggior parte dei casi restano frustrate. E' emersa dunque la necessità di promuovere azioni di sostegno alla sicurezza alimentare e alla mitigazione degli effetti del cambiamento climatico che assumano come criteri guida: - l'integralità, ovvero l'inserzione del tema della sicurezza alimentare nei processi di sviluppo del territorio, evitando che queste rimangano sganciate da una strategia di lotta contro la povertà, di rimozione delle sue cause strutturali e di tutela ambientale, - la coerenza istituzionale, in modo che le azioni di sicurezza alimentare e di mitigazione si coordino sempre con le istituzioni di riferimento, per armonizzare le metodologie di lavoro in vista di una possibile continuità delle azioni intraprese, - coerenza spaziale, ovvero una focalizzazione delle azioni in base a criteri che mettano in relazione le priorità di sicurezza alimentare con quelle ambientali. Dall'insieme delle analisi condotte sembra che si possa affermare dunque che l'insostenibilità ambientale delle pratiche agricole attuali (deforestazione, avanzamento incontrollato della frontiera agricola mediante l'uso del fuoco e dell'apertura di pascoli estensivi, agricoltura nomadica, ecc.) e la debolezza del capitale sociale siano le cause determinati del perpetuarsi di condizioni croniche di insicurezza alimentare. Anche se non suffragata da misurazioni quantitative, sembra credibile inoltre l'ipotesi che le variazioni micro-agro-climatiche a livello locale, originate dalla cattiva gestione delle risorse naturali, incidano attualmente molto più sulla insicurezza alimentare di quanto non facciano gli effetti del cambiamento climatico dovuto al riscaldamento globale. Le attuali politiche di intervento nel campo della sicurezza alimentare e le strategie di mitigazione degli effetti del cambiamento climatico non considerano sufficientemente gli aspetti sopra richiamati e la loro integrazione operativa è ancora insufficiente. Per evidenziare questa discrepanza si è elaborato una matrice degli interventi di mitigazione dell'impatto del cambiamento climatico sulla sicurezza alimentare e nutrizionale. La matrice proposta mette in relazione le carenze politiche e le priorità emerse dall'analisi DPSIR con una serie di proposte di azione politica, riferite in particolare alle due regioni agrarie selezionate. La comunità internazionale dei donanti (UE in primis), che sostiene le politiche ambientali e di sicurezza alimentare del governo nicaraguense, ha la responsabilità di promuovere interventi sinergici e coordinati, volti soprattutto a rimuovere gli ostacoli di carattere strutturale che impediscono l'equità d'accesso al capitale terra e all'alimentazione. Nell'ambito dell'aiuto internazionale dovranno essere inoltre maggiormente considerati gli studi volti al miglioramento delle conoscenze dei fenomeni che legano la variabilità climatica, la sicurezza alimentare e lo sviluppo economico. Il coinvolgimento della società civile nella gestione delle reti di solidarietà (ad esempio le reti di allerta precoce) e nella raccolta dei dati socio-economici e agro-climatici locali è inoltre di cruciale importanza. Solo uno sforzo congiunto delle comunità locali, delle istituzioni nazionali e della comunità internazionale, col supporto di adeguate conoscenze e di più efficaci strumenti di analisi, potrà invertire il processo di riproduzione delle condizioni ambientali e socio-economiche che determinano oggi l'esposizione al rischio di insicurezza alimentare per vasti strati della popolazione nicaraguense. ; The thesis deals with a research and an on-field testing of an impact interpretation model of climate change on food security in Nicaragua. The specific purpose is the development and testing of a vulnerability/stability analysis method of the effects of the climate change on two sample food systems in Nicaragua. The method is also aimed at the identification of prevention and mitigation policies. The achievement of this objective is based on a wide bibliographical research and a two months field survey in Nicaragua (March and April 2010). During the field survey a large number of interviews and focus groups with both private and institutional stakeholders was carried out. The more an impact analysis of climate change on environment and economic activities is focused on a restricted area, the less it results easy and reliable. Social dynamics and human action on environment at local level can be more crucial in creating adverse or favourable living conditions to people than climate variability. The complex relationship between climate and human activities is even more apparent when attempting to relate climate changes and food security of a specific community. Food security concept gets together different meanings, such as food production and conservation, income based food accessibility and biological use of food (diet patterns and hygienic conditions of food consumption). Therefore, dealing with economic relations between complex systems, as climate and food security, involves the use of articulated interpretation models as well as quantitative and qualitative analytical tools, being the latter prevalent in a condition of scarce or unreliable data and time series. The starting point of the thesis is a critical analysis of the current interpretation model of the impact of climate change on ecological and social systems on which the present food security and climate change impact mitigation policies of the Government of Nicaragua are based. In this framework the Aggregated Food and Nutritional Insecurity Index - elaborated by the World Food Programme and presently adopted in Nicaragua in the identification of the areas mostly exposed to food insecurity – is also analysed and discussed. As a consequence of this analysis a more complete model is proposed, named Dynamic Aggregated Food and Nutritional Insecurity Index. This index uses dynamic variables (rates of variation) referring to socio-economic factors which determine food security. At the same time this index captures the most production-related environmental factors at local level. Unfortunately a sample application of this index is impeded by the lack of the necessary time series. Nevertheless its formulation offers a useful operational direction to data collection planning and organization. As a consequence of the critical methodological issues emerged in the previous analysis, a review of alternative interpretation models is proposed and discussed. The "DPSIR" (Drivers, Pressures, State & Trends, Impacts and Responses) model is then identified as the most suitable for the achievement of the thesis objective. The DPSIR model is aimed at interpreting environmental and human contexts as well as at focusing policies makers on prevention and mitigation measures. Once specifically adjusted to food and nutritional security issues, the DPSIR model resulted particularly useful to identifying the existing knowledge deficiencies, about impacts and responses in particular. The "impact analysis" is complemented with a multi-criteria matrix of impacts of climate change on food systems of two different agricultural regions of Nicaragua (stability analysis). This matrix relates the food systems components (food production, distribution and consumption) to the corresponding pillars of the food security concept (availability, accessibility and biological use). The matrix converts quantitative and qualitative assessments into a scoring system allowing for identifying the most relevant problems and comparing stability / vulnerability levels of different food systems. The agricultural region where adjustment and mitigation processes are more visible is not the one counting with a more consistent natural capital (New Agricultural Frontier and Caribbean Cost) but the one relying on old and stable human settlements and more consistent social capital (Agro-industrial lowlands of the Pacific Cost). The first agricultural region, even if provided with a consistent natural capital and a high production potential, is characterised by the highly destructive production patterns of a pioneer population which has not yet developed either aggregative community models or collective resiliency experiences. The "response analysis" is focused on 6 different prevention/mitigation models presently adopted by the national authorities (both central and local) with the support of the international donors community. This analysis stresses that none of the models gets together all the necessary characteristics of efficiency and effectiveness for trigging resiliency and development processes. None of the models can be considered as a "good practice" per se, mainly if not included in a locally focused, coordinated and coherent framework of measures. Furthermore, the duration of the institutional actions applying these models is generally too reduced for ensuring their success and sustainability and fulfilling the expectations of the beneficiaries. From the "response analysis" clearly emerged the need to adopt the following general criteria in the effort to support food security and mitigate the effects of climate change: - Wholeness of the approach: the insertion of any food security action (programme, project, initiative) in the framework of land development process, including actions against poverty and environmental protection, - Institutional coherence: both food security and climate change impact mitigation actions should be always coordinated with the competent institutions, in order to harmonise working methods, - Spatial coherence: the identification of priority action areas should consider food security problems and environmental vulnerability simultaneously. The environmental unsustainability of the present agricultural practices (deforestation, advance of the agricultural frontier by slashing and burning the natural cover, nomadic agricultural patterns, etc.) and the weakness of the social capital perpetuate chronic food insecurity conditions. Even though not supported by quantitative evaluations, it seems apparent that micro-agro-climatic changes due to the mismanagement of local environmental resources affect food security much more than the effects of global climatic change. Present food security policies and climate change impact mitigation strategies do not consider the analysis above and their harmonisation is insufficient and not operational. In order to highlight this discrepancy a comparative policy matrix is presented ad discussed. This matrix shows a comparative analysis between the political deficiencies and priorities emerged thanks to the DPSIR approach and a number of action proposals referred to the two sample agricultural regions. The international donors community (UE first) supporting both food security and environmental policies of the Government of Nicaragua has the responsibility to cooperate in order to remove the structural constraints impeding an equitable access to fertile farming land and food. In the framework of the international aid, more investments in research should be considered in order to improve the knowledge of all factors relating climatic variability to food security and economic development. The involvement of civil society in the management of social solidarity networks (i.g.: food crisis early alarm networks) and the collection of basic socio-economic and climatic data at local level ore of crucial importance. Only a joint effort of the local communities, the national institutions and the international donors' community, supported by adequate knowledge and more effective analytical tools, will revert the process that determines the adverse environmental and socio-economic conditions which currently expose a large number of Nicaraguan people to food insecurity.

AMÉRICA LATINA Ocupan una de las mayores favelas de Río.Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1382958-ocupan-una-de-las-mayores-favelas-de-rio http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/americas/06/19/brazil.rio.raid/index.htmlhttp://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/06/20/internacional/internacional/noticias/C1EF9604-7DCD-46FF-8517-987BAE6F1741.htm?id={C1EF9604-7DCD-46FF-8517-987BAE6F1741}Presidenta argentina Cristina Fernández lanzó candidatura a reelección.Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/presidenta-argentina-cristina-fernandez-buscara-la-reeleccion_9689464-4 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1383352-cristina-kirchner-lanza-el-programa-lcd-para-todoshttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/774113.htmlCentroamérica: Zetas, maras y violencia.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Centroamerica/Zetas/maras/violencia/elpepuint/20110620elpepuint_13/TesPresidencia del Fondo Monetario Internacional y el candidato latinoamericano.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/candidato/latinoamericano/elpepiint/20110620elpepiint_10/Tes http://www.miamiherald.com/2011/06/15/2268484/latin-americas-candidate-to-imf.htmlFidel y Raúl Castro visitan a Chávez en el hospital donde convalece en La Habana.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Fidel/Raul/Castro/visitan/Chavez/hospital/convalece/Habana/elpepuint/20110618elpepuint_11/TesLa tormenta tropical Beatriz se acerca a costas mexicanas.Para más información:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/43462141/ns/weather/Un tribunal chileno suspende temporalmente la construcción de cinco presas en la Patagonia.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/sociedad/tribunal/chileno/suspende/temporalmente/construccion/presas/Patagonia/elpepusoc/20110620elpepusoc_19/TesUn periodista, su esposa, y su hijo son asesinados en México.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Asesinado/Mexico/periodista/esposa/hijo/elpepuint/20110620elpepuint_20/Tes http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/43466780/ns/world_news-americas/ http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-mexico-journalist-killing-20110621,0,511653.storySe captura a responsable de asesinato de 72 migrantes en México.Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-fg-mexico-arrest-20110618,0,6670881.storyDetienen a importante capo mexicano del cartel de drogas 'La Familia'.Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/detenido-capo-del-cartel-la-familia_9689668-4Más de 23 mil jóvenes han sido reclutados por los carteles del narcotráfico en México.Para más información:http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/06/20/internacional/internacional/noticias/A3939B68-E019-4BF5-B12C-622F587D8B9A.htm?id={A3939B68-E019-4BF5-B12C-622F587D8B9A}El Gobierno toma el control sobre revuelta en una cárcel de Venezuela.Para más información:http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/06/20/internacional/internacional/noticias/1389CBE2-D471-4D0D-B231-3ADDC09E91CB.htm?id={1389CBE2-D471-4D0D-B231-3ADDC09E91CB}http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/43457741/ns/world_news-americas/http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Gobierno/toma/control/carcel/Venezuela/elpepuint/20110618elpepuint_2/TesBrasil tendrá cárceles privadas.Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1383050-brasil-tendra-carceles-privadas50 años más tarde, en Cuba se publica diario del Ché Guevara.Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/americas/06/14/cuba.che.guevara/index.htmlMinorías que se transformaron en mayorías en Brasil.Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/americas/06/16/brazil.race/index.htmlHumala logra 70% de apoyo en primeras semanas como presidente electo.Para más información:http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/06/20/internacional/internacional/noticias/65EE5763-9142-4CF3-9CF2-690AA7E106D4.htm?id={65EE5763-9142-4CF3-9CF2-690AA7E106D4}Escándalo por el millonario fraude en Las Madres de Mayo.Para más información:http://www.economist.com/node/18836612 http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Madres/Mayo/intocables/elpepiint/20110619elpepiint_1/TesFrancia abrirá proceso de extradición a Panamá de Manuel Noriega.Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/francia-abrir-proceso-de-extradicin-a-panam-de-manuel-noriega_9674645-4 http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/43451632/ns/world_news-americas/ http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/06/20/internacional/internacional/noticias/A55F2FBD-59FA-4A4A-B887-732D3D019035.htm?id={A55F2FBD-59FA-4A4A-B887-732D3D019035} http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/europe/06/20/france.noriega.extradition/index.htmlChicas mexicanas son entrenadas para ser asesinas de los carteles de droga.Para más información:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/43445168/ns/world_news-americas/Cenizas del volcán chileno siguen causando inconvenientes en varias partes del globo.Para más información:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/43448061/ns/world_news-americas/ http://www.miamiherald.com/2011/06/14/2266881/volcanic-ash-from-chile-continues.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-13852885ESTADOS UNIDOS / CANADÁEstados Unidos reconoce contactos preliminares con los talibanes.Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/20/world/asia/20afghanistan.html?ref=world http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Estados/Unidos/reconoce/contactos/preliminares/talibanes/elpepuint/20110619elpepuint_4/Tes http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/asiapcf/06/18/afghanistan.us.taliban/index.html http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/06/20/internacional/internacional/noticias/7F7354C1-77AB-456E-9022-B92F4EB7DC00.htm?id={7F7354C1-77AB-456E-9022-B92F4EB7DC00}Estados Unidos registra una de las peores temporadas de incendios.Para más información:http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/774127.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-13868191Hackers: la nueva amenaza mundial .Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1382771-cibertempestadlas-potencias-se-alistan-para-un-pearl-harbour-electronicoAmenaza de bomba retrasa vuelos en Washington.Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/amenaza-de-bomba-retrasa-vuelos-en-washington_9670645-4Hillary Clinton: mujeres saudíes tienen razón al exigir derecho a conducir.Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/clinton-mujeres-saudes-tienen-razn-al-exigir-derecho-a-conducir_9685927-4Estados Unidos busca acelerar la salida de Afganistán: 'probablemente' retirará 10.000 soldados .Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/EE/UU/busca/acelerar/salida/Afganistan/elpepiint/20110620elpepiint_1/Tes http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/773857.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/retiro-de-tropas-estadounidenses-de-afganistn_9687465-4La peligrosa ofensiva contra los indocumentados en Estados Unidos.Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1383112-la-peligrosa-ofensiva-contra-los-indocumentados-en-eeuuRepublicanos y demócratas muy cerca de un acuerdo para salvar el TLC con Colombia.Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/republicanos-y-demcratas-muy-cerca-de-un-acuerdo-para-salvar-el-tlc_9676064-4Estados Unidos añade ocho áreas de alto tráfico de drogas.Para más información:http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/773788.htmlWeiner presenta renuncia formal a Congreso de los Estados Unidos.Para más información:http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/773851.html EUROPAIndignados inician marcha de 33 días por España.Para más información:http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/773690.html http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-06/19/content_12733706.htm http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1383108-siguen-las-protestas-de-los-indignados http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1382947-marcha-de-indignados-en-toda-espana http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/europe/06/19/spain.protests/index.html http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/06/20/internacional/_portada/noticias/79CA934D-B104-4739-805E-86CD14E6FECE.htm?id={79CA934D-B104-4739-805E-86CD14E6FECE} http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/protestas-de-los-indignados-en-madrid_9668004-4Murió Elena Bonner, viuda del Nobel de la Paz Andrei Sajarov e importante disidente de la URSS.Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/20/world/europe/20bonner.html?ref=world http://www.latimes.com/news/obituaries/la-me-yelena-bonner-20110620,0,5167114.story http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/06/20/internacional/internacional/noticias/4B60FD93-92BA-4AFD-8784-CAEF0FAC220A.htm?id={4B60FD93-92BA-4AFD-8784-CAEF0FAC220A}Antiguo líder de ETA: "la lucha armada ya no procede".Para más información:http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/06/20/internacional/internacional/noticias/EEFC2FDE-715D-45CA-A3CF-BB22FD44A014.htm?id={EEFC2FDE-715D-45CA-A3CF-BB22FD44A014}El ex presidente francés Chirac será definitivamente juzgado en setiembre.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Chirac/sera/definitivamente/juzgado/septiembre/elpepuint/20110620elpepuint_14/Tes http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/773717.htmlPedro Passos Coelho asume el cargo de primer ministro de Portugal.Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/passos-coelho-asume-el-cargo-de-primer-ministro-luso-centrado-en-la-crisis_9684424-4http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/nuevo/gobierno/centro-derecha/portugues/empieza/mal/pie/elpepuint/20110620elpepuint_18/Tes http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Liga/Norte/apremia/Berlusconi/acentuar/politicas/derechas/elpepiint/20110620elpepiint_8/TesLa ONU asegura que solo el 2% de los refugiados libios han huido hacia Europa.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/ONU/asegura/solo/refugiados/libios/han/huido/Europa/elpepuint/20110620elpepuint_4/TesDetenido el ex secretario de Estado de Sarkozy acusado de violación y agresión sexual.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Detenido/ex/secretario/Estado/Sarkozy/acusado/violacion/agresion/sexual/elpepuint/20110620elpepuint_17/TesImportante crisis económica en Grecia.Para más información:http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-06/20/content_12733714.htmCrece la alarma mundial por Grecia: el FMI advirtió sobre el riesgo de un contagio global.Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1383187-crece-la-alarma-mundial-por-grecia http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1383144-para-los-griegos-el-problema-es-de-europa http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/europe/06/20/greece.debt/index.htmlAdvierten sobre el contagio de la crisis griega a cinco países europeos.Para más información:http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-06/20/content_12733714.htm http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1382736-advierten-sobre-el-contagio-a-cinco-paises http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/20/world/europe/20merkel.html?ref=world http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/3036034/ns/world_news-europe/ http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/43462624/ns/business-world_business/El efecto de la crisis en Grecia podría ser peor de lo pensado.Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1383229-el-efecto-de-la-crisis-en-grecia-podria-ser-peor-que-el-causado-por-el-colapso-financiero-enGobierno griego sobrevive a voto de confianza.Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-13869428http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fgw-greece-vote-confidence-20110621,0,1671733.story http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2079240,00.htmlLa Unión Europea acordó la creación de fondo de ayuda permanente para la Eurozona.Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/fondo-de-ayuda-permanente-para-la-eurozona_9674124-4Europa demora en el pago de 17 billones a Grecia.Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-eu-greece-finances-20110621,0,792178.storyÉxodo rural en Grecia causado por la situación económica.Para más información:http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2079205,00.htmlMedvedev desea un segundo mandato.Para más información:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/43460212/ns/world_news-europe/Según ONG Save the Children el mejor país para nacer es Suecia, y el peor es Somalia.Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/los-mejores-lugares-del-mundo-para-nacer_9684425-4Choque de avión deja 40 muertos en Rusia.Para más información:http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/773874.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-13851697 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/accidente-de-avin-en-rusia_9680425-4 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1383137-accidente-aereo-deja-al-menos-44-muertos-en-rusia http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2078895,00.htmlMedvedev se opone en la ONU a resolución para condenar la violencia en Siria.Para más información:http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-06/20/content_12733715.htmASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTECondena internacional el régimen sirio por violencia.Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/20/world/middleeast/20diplo.html?ref=world http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/43460832/ns/world_news-mideast_n_africa/ http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/20/world/asia/20afghanistan-taliban.html?_r=1&ref=world"El País" de Madrid analiza: ¿Por qué el mundo no detiene la matanza en Siria?.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/mundo/detiene/matanza/Siria/elpepuint/20110620elpepuint_12/Tes175 muertos y 1.6 millones de evacuados por inundaciones en China.Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/asiapcf/06/20/china.floods/index.html http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/43469501/ns/weather/Militares sirios frenan éxodo hacia Turquía.Para más información:http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/06/20/internacional/internacional/noticias/4E49B2CC-7133-44A7-B82C-98A250EDA60A.htm?id={4E49B2CC-7133-44A7-B82C-98A250EDA60A}Importante ataque de coches bomba en Irak.Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13853886 http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2079062,00.html http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/meast/06/14/iraq.attack/index.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/explosin-de-dos-carros-bomba-causa-25-muertos-y-34-heridos-en-irak_9684804-4Reunión secreta entre las Coreas en China.Para más información:http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-06/15/content_12710490.htmError del ejército surcoreano no tuvo víctimas fatales.Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/asiapcf/06/20/south.korea.civilian.plane/index.html http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-06/19/content_12733804.htmNuevo reporte sobre los estragos de la crisis nuclear en Japón .Para más información:http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-06/19/content_12733806.htmPara presidente israelí:"La paz con los palestinos es cuestión de urgencia".Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/meast/06/19/israel.mideast.peace/index.htmlPresidente de Siria promete reformas: miles de manifestantes lo tildaron de 'mentiroso'.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Asad/afirma/habra/reformas/medio/sabotaje/caos/elpepuint/20110620elpepuint_6/Tes http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/meast/06/20/syria.unrest/index.html http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/773751.html http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/21/world/middleeast/21syria.html?ref=worldIndignación y protestas en Siria tras otro discurso de Al-Assad.Para más información:http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2078683,00.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1383110-indignacion-y-protestas-en-siria-tras-otro-discurso-de-al-assadMisterio por enfermedad que mató a 28 niños en India.Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-13852963Nuevo jefe de Al Qaeda: el número dos de Bin Laden.Para más información:http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-qaeda-zawahiri-20110617,0,7986312.story http://www.miamiherald.com/2011/06/16/2269190/al-qaida-says-al-zawahri-has-succeeded.html#ixzz1PyKlPqTD http://www.miamiherald.com/2011/06/16/2269190/al-qaida-says-al-zawahri-has-succeeded.htmlDetenida una niña en Pakistán con un chaleco explosivo.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Detenida/nina/Pakistan/chaleco/explosivo/elpepuint/20110620elpepuint_21/Tes ÁFRICATensión política en Somalía.Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/20/world/africa/20somalia.html?ref=world Mueren 21 individuos tras enfrentamiento entre soldados y militares en Yemen.Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/20/world/middleeast/20yemen.html?ref=world http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/meast/06/20/yemen.unrest/index.htmlContinúa la violencia en Libia.Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/20/world/africa/20rape.html?ref=world http://www.miamiherald.com/2011/06/19/2273908/libya-says-nato-airstrike-hits.html http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/06/20/libya.war/index.htmlhttp://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/43469194/ns/world_news-mideast_n_africa/ http://www.miamiherald.com/2011/06/19/2273908/libya-says-nato-airstrike-hits.htmlOTAN admite haber bombardeado por error un edificio de civiles en Trípoli.Para más información:http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/06/20/internacional/internacional/noticias/831A7FFC-622C-4783-93DC-28A4ACBFC2C3.htm?id={831A7FFC-622C-4783-93DC-28A4ACBFC2C3} http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-06/20/content_12733713.htmCiviles construyen armas caseras para enfrentar a Gadhafi.Para más información:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/43460246/ns/world_news-mideast_n_africa/Elecciones en Egipto suponen divisiones en la Hermandad Musulmana.Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/20/world/middleeast/20egypt.html?ref=worldTúnez condena a Ben Ali a 35 años de cárcel.Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2011/06/20/world/africa/news-us-tunisia-benali.html?ref=worldhttp://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Tunez/condena/rebeldia/Ben/Ali/35/anos/carcel/elpepuint/20110620elpepuint_10/TesMichelle Obama en Sudáfrica.Para más información:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/43449828/ns/politics/http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-south-africa-obama-20110621,0,6723760.story http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/06/20/michelle.obama.africa/index.html5 muertos tras ataque a estación de policía en Nigeria.Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/06/16/nigeria.blast/index.htmlComisión investigará crímenes post electorales en Costa de Marfil.Para más información:http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/06/16/ivory.coast.abuses/index.html http://today.msnbc.msn.com/id/43271397/ns/today-good_news/Rey de Marruecos anuncia reforma para una monarquía constitucional.Para más informaciónhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/cambios-constitucionales-en-marrueco_9656824-4La campaña por el referéndum constitucional divide a Marruecos.Para más información:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/campana/referendum/constitucional/divide/Marruecos/elpepuint/20110620elpepuint_3/Tes OTRAS NOTICIAS La ONU aprobó "histórica resolución" sobre derechos de homosexuales.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/resolucin-de-la-onu-sobre-los-derechos-de-los-homosexuales_9656710-4 http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/europe/06/17/un.lgbt.rights/index.htmlPaíses en desarrollo acogen a 43.7 millones de refugiados.Para más información:http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/773739.html http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/20/world/20refugee.html?ref=worldBan Ki-moon fue reelegido Secretario General de la ONU.Para más información:http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/774074.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/ban-ki-moon-reelegido-como-secretario-general-de-la-onu_9687766-4 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-13868655"El Universal" presenta su portal dedicado al cambio climático.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/coberturas/cobertura3.html"The Economist" presenta su informe semanal: "Business this week".Para más información: http://www.economist.com/node/18683179

From the pages of The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte by Marx and understanding the political and social events in France between 1848 and 1852, several interpretations have been made, by Marxist and non-Marxist authors alike, regarding the role played by the lower middle class in moments of crisis. Particularly, after the advent of fascism in 20th century Europe, many voices have risen to signal the XVIII Brumaire as Marx's call of attention on the dangers set by the lower middle class's counterrevolutionary and reactionary spirit. Even more, some think of the XVIII Brumaire, and Marx's take on Bonapartism as the first, and extremely prophetic, definition and description of a modern fascist regime. The purposes of this essay are to: first, define and describe the lower middle class and its social and political consequences according to Marx; and, second, to explore how the lower middle class has been analyzed by a selection of Marxist and non-Marxist authors as a crucial sociological and historical problem. The latter has been taken to the extent of even comparing the political phenomenon of Bonapartism to Fascism and the lower middle class historical relationship in both of them. Bonapartism and Fascism are very distinct types of political regimes, even if they share some similarities. Nevertheless, it would be ahistorical to describe Louis Bonaparte's regime as fascist. Even so, Marx's typically coined reactionary or counter-revolutionary role played by the lower middle class in both cases was similar. (1)Several designations have been used to differentiate the lower middle class from the higher middle class or big bourgeoisie: petite bourgeoisie, Kleinburgertumand, the unpleasant, lumpen-bourgeoisie. It is impossible to assign fixed meanings in distinct times and places to those concepts. What they mean, and enfold, in different historical moments is determined by historically concrete political, social and economic structures and conditions. A social lower middle stratum was economically, but not so much politically, active during the preindustrial era. Its internal structure, predominantly formed by independent peasants, corporate-guild artisans and shopkeepers, and the nature of its relationship to the rest of society was particularly different from the economically, socially and more politically active, lower middle class of primarily dependent clerks, independent peasants, technicians, professionals and small shop owners of capitalist society (2). From Marx to the present there have been few attempts to define the lower middle class because the main issue was not the Kleinburgertum's own historical, social and political particularities; but, the fact that the petite bourgeoisie conformed a "classes class". In Marxist terms, the lower middle class was a class in but not foritself. This meant that the petty bourgeoisie was dependent on its own fate but not on its own existence. The lower middle class was torn, and it still may be today, between two possible outcomes: proletarianization or embourgeoisement (3). In the first one, the petite bourgeoisie is condemned to being proletarianized. In fact, during the early industrialization period of England the small artisans and some specialized technicians were dissolved or forced into the industrial working class (4). In the second scenario, they would integrate with the big bourgeoisie finally accomplishing a long social aspiration. It would, certainly, diminish the fears and concerns of being proletarianized and, lastly and possibly, would allow clerks and professionals to be the frontrunners of a classless postindustrial society (5). Accordingly, as Marx said in the XVIII Brumaire, the lower middle class should be viewed as a transitional class whose members would finally end up being part of the proletarians or the bourgeoisie. Nevertheless, the lower middle class has had a pivotal role in certain historically crucial events: revolutions and counterrevolutions. Marx attributed no apparent class-consciousness to the petite bourgeoisie, except in times of severe crisis. The lower middle class, following Marx, lacked its own class-consciousness because it was afraid to become proletarian and aspired to attain the bourgeoisie's style of living and class standing in society even though it also despised the big bourgeoisie's productive means and way of life. Marx, in a prophetic Freudian style analysis, would ascribe this apparent contradiction to the lower middle class own self-hate. Nevertheless, lacking its own class-consciousness did not mean that the petite bourgeoisie was not capable of generating its own separate culture, life-style and Weltanschauung. The problem was that it engendered its own ethos in direct opposition to the proletarian and bourgeoisie ones; affecting, then, its own cultural authenticity. All this said, the lower middle class may not have been self-conscious but it certainly was self-aware. It had distinctive class awareness (6). The interest of Karl Marx in the lower middle class was provoked by the role the author gave to it during the events that unfolded in France between February 1848 and December 1852, particularly the role played by the petite bourgeoisie in the ascendance to power of Louis Bonaparte in the coup d'état of December 1852. First of all, it is imperative to define how Marx understood the social composition of the lower middle class in mid-nineteen century France. Small independent peasants, clerks and small artisans and shopkeepers were Marx's main petty bourgeoisie members. All of them were part of this classless class because they lacked the property of the main means of capitalist production, that in mid-nineteen century France Marx attributed to the industrial, large-retail and financial sectors; and, because they were not even proletarians either because they were small owners (particularly small peasants and shopkeepers) or because their work did not constitute an intensive manual waged labor (artisans and specially State's clerks). Marx did not see in them any economic conditions of existence, under which they lived, that could separate their mode of life, their interests and their culture from those of other classes. Given this situation, the small peasants, clerks and shopkeepers were not in any hostile opposition (as a clearly defined class with its own interests, culture and mode of life) to the bourgeoisie or the proletariat. Marx did not witness any sense of class-consciousness in them. He only viewed a local interconnection among small peasants, shopkeepers and clerks; but there was no sense of identification of interests between all of them that could beget unity and political organization. But even if they did not conform a class on itself, they were aware of their own uncertain socio-economic circumstances: at any given moment the big bourgeoisie, either by the action of retail competition or that of bank executions of failed mortgage payments, could toss them into the proletarian class. This socio-economic fear of becoming part of a propertyless class put them in direct opposition with the working class and drove them into the arms of the big bourgeoisie in moments of severe political crisis. Only here did Marx perceive the existence of class-consciousness in the petty bourgeoisie. In the XVIII Brumaire Marx distinguishes three moments where the lower middle class acted as a class in itself: in the February Revolution of 1848 when they rebelled, alongside sectors of the big bourgeoisie and the proletarians, against the Orleanist monarchy; in June 1848 when they actively collaborated with the big bourgeoisie in crushing the proletarian rebellion; and finally, in December 1852 when they endorsed Louis Bonaparte's coup d'état against the bourgeoisie republic. In the first episode, Marx observes a revolutionary role embedded in the lower middle class. He recognizes a class-consciousness in them; a strive to enact political and social change in the wellbeing of their own interests. In June 1848, Marx assigns them a counter-revolutionary role. They react out of fear and misguided by the bourgeoisie. They are afraid that a proletarian revolution would forever kill their socio-economic aspiration to become part of the bourgeoisie. According to Marx they are right to be fearful. A proletarian revolution would lead to a dictatorship of the proletariat and to the end of all classes. Alas, their desire of a bourgeoisie life-style as a "heaven on earth" would be tromped. A classless society would take away from them what distinguished them from the proletariat and what would, eventually, provided them upwards-social mobility: small private property and better paid and socially-respected professional labor. It has to be added that Marx also makes the bourgeoisie responsible for the lower middle class actions in the June rebellion. The former convinced the latter not to support and even to fight the proletarians by guaranteeing them access to better social standing, better financial and trade benefits and inclusion into the higher middle class. These were all false promises, which lack of satisfaction led to the events of December 1852. The lower middle class, betrayed by the bourgeoisie and immersed in deeply economic despair (which they made the big bourgeoisie responsible for) decided to fully endorse Louis Bonaparte's coup d'état. Again, and maybe more than ever if Marx's argument is to be followed, the lower middle class acted as a fully conscious class and had a counter-revolutionary and, even more, a reactionary role against the French bourgeoisie republic. Why did the lower middle class support Bonapartism? According to Marx, Napoleon III was the only one that could represent the petty bourgeoisie's interests. They did not have any sense of class-consciousness, which meant that they were unable to express their interests in a collective way. Meaning, that they were, like Marx says, incapable of enforcing their class interests in their own name through a parliament or any other democratic convention or institution. The lower middle class needed, and were also longing for, a paternalistic, authoritarian and charismatic figure that would represent their interest and implement policies accordingly. Louis Bonaparte mirrored everything the lower middle class was pursuing: the protection of their interests by identifying them with France's interests; the understanding of France as an economically based petite bourgeoisie country in opposition to big bourgeoisie enterprises (banks and big retails companies); and, the conversion of the lower middle class's aspiration forgrandeur through the Second French Empire's expansionist foreign policy (7).Bonapartism protected them from the rapacious big bourgeoisie, assured their vital place in society as France's economic engine protecting small private property from socialist distribution of wealth drives coming from the working class and satisfied their sumptuousness desires by establishing a lower middle class based Empire as Europe's major power. Marx's perceptions and warnings on the lower middle class counter-revolutionary and reactionary roles in periods of political and economic crisis has been regarded, by Marxist and non-Marxist authors alike, as an indication for future revolutionary moments and as a prophetic alert on future authoritarian regimes like fascism. Lenin himself defined the petite bourgeoisie as a "half-class" or "quasi-workers" or "quasi-bourgeois" class that would be more difficult to eradicate than the big bourgeoisie and that would be politically unreliable (8). The lower middle class unpredictable behavior and dislike for radical policies could produce a reactionary backlash that could only be prevented by a rapid proletarization of all society. Nevertheless, even if Lenin was afraid of the possibility of an authoritarian government led by Kornilov and backed by the petty bourgeoisie (9); he later acknowledged, particularly by implementing the New Economic Policy, the lower middle class economic importance and envisaged them as a transitory class towards a proletarian society (10). Lastly, several authors have taken the XVIII Brumaire in order to compare Bonapartisim to fascism, even affirming that Napoleon's III rule was the first fascist regime in history, or to seek the social origins of both kinds of regimes in the lower middle classes. Jacob Schapiro not only sees the origins of 20th century fascism in 19th century Bonapartist France, he even defines Bonapartism as a type of fascism based on Marx's description of the regime in the XVIII Brumaire (11). Jost Dulffer analyses such comparison and, even if similarities are found, completely rejects its. He actually trends the historical origins of such comparisons to Trotsky's and August Thalheimer's writings on Nazism during the 1920s and 30s (12). Finally, Seymour Martin Lipset popularized the notion that fascism, just like Bonapartism, was an expression of the lower middle class resentments. According to Lipset, fascism was politically transformed rage of independent artisans, shopkeepers, small peasants and clerks that found themselves squeezed between better organized industrial workers and big businessmen and were "missing the boat" within the rapid social and economic changes of modern society (13). However, Ian Kershaw, Robert Paxton and Thomas Childers empirically confirm that fascism was not only a lower middle class phenomenon and that without the acquiesce of the conservative elites and sectors of the big bourgeoisie it would never had have come to power (14). Even if the comparisons between Bonapartism and fascism are historically pointless it is worth noticing, like Arno Meyer did, that Karl Marx was the first one to tackle the problem of the lower middle class lack of class-consciousness (15). Marx is correct in pointing out the lower middle class's awareness of itself and its dysfunctional and contradictory relationship vis-à-vis the big bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Even more so, Marx accurately identifies the social, political and historical role of the petty bourgeoisie: to gain consciousness in moments of crisis and pivotally function either as a revolutionary actor, alongside the bourgeoisie and the working class, or as a counter-revolutionary one, against the proletariat, or as reactionary one against the big bourgeoisie. This is, maybe, Marx's most important and timeless legacy from The Eighteen Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte.(1) Crossick, Geoffrey and Haupt, Heinz-Gerhard, The Petite Bourgeoisie in Europe 1780-1914, Rutledge, New York, 1998, pp. 16-38.(2) Mayer, Arno J., "The Lower Middle Class as Historical Problem", The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 47, No.3, Sep. 1975, pp. 409-436. (3) See Thompson, Edward, The Making of the English Working Class, Random House, New York, 1963.(4) See Bell, Daniel, The Coming of Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting, Basic Books, New York, 1999. (5) See Giddens, Anthony, The Class Structure of Advanced Societies, Unwin Hyman, London, 1989.(6) See, Zeldin, Theodore, The Political System of Napoleon III, Macmillan, London, 1958.(7) Lenin, V. I., "Left-Wing" Communism: An Infantile Disorder: A Popular Essay in Marxian Strategy and Tactics, University of the Pacific Press, San Francisco, 2001, pp. 9-52. (8) Fitzpatrick, Sheila, The Russian Revolution, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2008, pp. 60.(9) Ibid, pp. 93-149.(10) Schapiro, Jacob S., Liberalism and the Challenge to Fascism, McGraw Hill, New York, 1949, pp. 308-31.(11) Dulffer, Jost, "Bonapartism, Fascism and National Socialism", Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 11, No.4, 1976, pp. 109-128.(12) Lipset Seymour M., Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1981, pp. 127-182.(13) See, Childers, Thomas, "The Social Bases of the National Socialist Vote",Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 11, No.4, 1976, pp. 17-42; Kershaw, Ian,"The Hitler Myth": Image and Reality in the Third Reich, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2001; Kershaw, Ian, The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2000; and, Paxton, Robert, The Anatomy of Fascism, Random House, New York, 2004.(14) Mayer, Arno J., "The Lower Middle Class as Historical Problem", The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 47, No.3, Sep. 1975, pp. 409-436. *Estudiante de Doctorado, New School for Social Research, New YorkMaestría en Estudios Internacionales, Universidad Torcuato Di Tella, Buenos AiresÁrea de Especialización: Procesos de formación del Estado moderno, sociología de la guerra, terrorismo, genocidio, conflictos étnicos, nacionalismos y minorías.E-mail: guere469@newschool.edu

India víctima del terrorismo El pasado 26 de noviembre ocurrieron diez ataques terroristas coordinados en Bombay, capital financiera ubicada al este de India.Unas 155 personas han muerto, incluyendo 6 extranjeros, y 327 resultaron heridas. La operación fue reivindicada por un grupo islamista poco conocido: los Muyahidines del Decán.El pasado martes al menos tres personas murieron y 29 resultaron heridas al explotar una bomba en un vagón de tren en el noroeste de India Varios medios informan al respecto:"El País" de Madrid:"India crea un organismo federal antiterrorista: Dimite el ministro del Interior por la tardía respuesta al ataque de Bombay": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Rice/urge/Pakistan/colaborar/investigacion/atentados/Bombay/elpepuint/20081201elpepuint_3/Tes"Los terroristas de Bombay fueron entrenados en dos bases de Pakistán": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/terroristas/Bombay/fueron/entrenados/bases/Pakistan/elpepiint/20081202elpepiint_4/Tes"El Gobierno indio acusa del ataque a Bombay a terroristas "de fuera":El primer ministro indio dice que los terroristas tenían su base en el exterior de India, en alusión a Pakistán.- Tres de los detenidos confiesan su pertenencia a un grupo islámico paquistaní": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Gobierno/indio/acusa/ataque/Bombay/terroristas/fuera/elpepuint/20081128elpepuint_8/Tes"New York Times":"Analysts Say It Will Be Difficult to Shield Luxury Hotels From Terrorist Attacks":http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/01/world/asia/01hotel.html?ref=world"Cabinet Minister Resigns in Wake of India Attacks":http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/01/world/asia/01mumbai.html"Le Monde":"L'Inde proteste officiellement auprès du Pakistan après les attentats":http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2008/12/01/l-inde-proteste-officiellement-aupres-du-pakistan-apres-les-attentats_1125630_3216.html#ens_id=1123577"Le processus de paix indo-pakistanais menacé":http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2008/12/01/le-processus-de-paix-indo-pakistanais-menace_1125382_3216.html#ens_id=1123577"La cohésion confessionnelle, principal enjeu de l'après-Bombay en Inde":http://www.lemonde.fr/international/son/2008/12/01/la-cohesion-confessionnelle-principal-enjeu-de-l-apres-bombay-en-inde_1125618_3210.html#ens_id=1123577"CNN"Presenta sitio web con artículos relacionados a los atentados: http://edition.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2008/news/mumbai.attacks/"Hand over militants, India tells Pakistan":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/12/02/india.attacks/index.html"BBC":"EE.UU. "advirtió" a India sobre Bombay": http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/international/newsid_7761000/7761477.stm"Bombay, una mexicana y un sueño roto": http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/international/newsid_7761000/7761172.stm"MSNBC""Official: Train blast kills 3, wounds 29 in India: Bombing in insurgency-hit area not thought to be linked to Mumbai attacks":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/28009719/"U.S. official: Indian attack has Pakistani ties: Washington says it warned of possible waterborne attack on Mumbai": http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/28015877/"La Nación":"India pidió a Paquistán la extradición de 20 presuntos terroristas: Realizó el pedido formal y aguarda la respuesta oficial del país vecino; es por la ola de atentados en Bombay":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1076532"Los hoteles de lujo, un imán para los terroristas: Los expertos advierten que es muy difícil convertirlos en fortalezas":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1076392"EL Universal" de México:"Al menos tres muertos por nueva bomba en India: El tren viajaba desde Lumding, en la provincia central de Assam, con destino al activo centro comercial de Tinsukhia, en el este, dijo Sahu":http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/559859.html"Ofrece Pakistán a India una comisión sobre ataque a Bombay: El ministro de Exteriores paquistaní reiteró la intención de su Gobierno de cooperar para llevar ante la Justicia a quienes perpetraron ese atroz acto terrorista": http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/559767.html"The Economist": "India under attack: A terrorist onslaught of stunning scope and horror": http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12708194"Los Ángeles Times":"In Mumbai, terrorists and survivors sought":http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-mumbai28-2008nov28,0,3880571.story"India terrorist attacks leave at least 101 dead in Mumbai":http://www.latimes.com/news/printedition/front/la-fg-mumbai27-2008nov27,0,4127780.story "Miami Herald":"Landmark Mumbai hotel targeted in terrorist spree":http://www.miamiherald.com/business/breaking-news/story/789813.html"Timeline for Mumbai terrorist attacks":http://www.miamiherald.com/691/story/790274.html"Times":"Mumbai attacks - city fears five terrorists are 'missing'":http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article5265938.ece"'Free our Mujahideens' demand Bombay terrorists":http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article5242602.eceAMERICA LATINA"MSNBC" informe: "37 killed in Tijuana over 3 days: Toll includes 4 children and 9 decapitated men; police chief fired":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27990143/"MSNBC" anuncia: "Mexican president vows to clean up corruption: He also pledges to never negotiate with drug lords": http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27984780/"Le Monde" publica: "Venezuela : Hugo Chavez se voit gouverner "jusqu'en 2019, jusqu'en 2021":http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2008/12/01/venezuela-hugo-chavez-se-voit-gouverner-jusqu-en-2019-jusqu-en-2021_1125392_3222.html#ens_id=1120093"CNN" plantea: "Chavez again seeks way past term limit":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/americas/11/30/venezuela.chavez.vote/index.html"BBC" anuncia: "Venezuela: enmienda con fecha":http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/latin_america/newsid_7759000/7759907.stm"El País" de Madrid informa: "Hugo Chávez reabre el proceso para su reelección indefinida: El líder venezolano ignora la consulta que tumbó la reforma constitucional": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Hugo/Chavez/reabre/proceso/reeleccion/indefinida/elpepuint/20081130elpepuint_11/Tes"La Nación" anuncia: "Reelección en Venezuela: Chávez: "Empieza la ofensiva"": http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1076471"El País" de Madrid informa: "La asignatura pendiente de Brasil: Lula no ha cumplido su promesa de un reparto justo de tierras cultivables": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/asignatura/pendiente/Brasil/elpepuint/20081201elpepuint_4/Tes"CNN" publica: "Brazil officials track disease from flood-tainted water":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/americas/12/02/brazil.floods/index.html"CNN" plantea: "Chileans angry over Peru general's 'body bag' remark":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/americas/12/01/peru.chile/index.html"La Nación" publica: "La nueva vida de Ingrid, entre viajes y reuniones: Antes de su visita a América latina, la ex rehén recorrió varios países, fue recibida por importantes líderes y distinguida con varios galardones":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1076579"The Economist" analiza: "Latin American diplomacy: Friends of opportunity. China, rather than Russia, is the new partner that matters":http://www.economist.com/world/americas/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12684849ESTADOS UNIDOS-CANADA"El País" de Madrid informa: "Obama confirma a Hillary Clinton como secretaria de Estado: Robert Gates seguirá al frente de Defensa.- El presidente electo anuncia los nombres que tendrán la misión de recuperar la credibilidad de EE UU en el mundo": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Obama/confirma/Hillary/Clinton/secretaria/Estado/elpepuint/20081201elpepuint_9/Tes"BBC" analiza: "¿Líder antiguerra, gabinete bélico?: Tras semanas de especulación, de críticas y elogios adelantados, el presidente electo de Estados Unidos, Barack Obama, le presentó al mundo su equipo de Relaciones Exteriores, y describió a quienes lo conforman como individuos con "fuertes personalidades" para desatar "vigorosos debates".":http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/international/newsid_7759000/7759630.stm"El Universal" de México informa: "Obama plantea "nuevo liderazgo": Reitera su intención de sacar tropas de Irak en 16 meses": http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/59785.html"El Mercurio" de Chile anuncia: "La gran oportunidad de Hillary para hacer gala de sus credenciales : Analistas coinciden en que la "marca registrada" de Clinton y la popularidad de Obama a nivel internacional lograrán mejorar la imagen de EE.UU. en el mundo.":http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/12/02/internacional/internacional/noticias/86FA1457-7630-45F2-A88D-5D76D7644465.htm?id={86FA1457-7630-45F2-A88D-5D76D7644465}"La Nación" publica: "Gobernadores con cuentas en rojo se reunieron con Obama: El presidente electo norteamericano atendió solicitudes de miles de millones de dólares para financiar la atención médica y proyectos de infraestructura en sus estados":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1076626"BBC" plantea: "Bush defiende su gestión: A poco más de un mes de dejar la Casa Blanca, el saliente presidente de Estados Unidos George W. Bush defendió su gestión diciendo que tomó decisiones difíciles, pero que no comprometió sus principios.":http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/international/newsid_7759000/7759902.stm"La Nación" anuncia: "Bush confesó que cometió su mayor error en Irak: El presidente de EE.UU. indicó a ABC News que no debió confiar en los informes de inteligencia que indicaban que Saddam Hussein tenía armas de destrucción masiva":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1076597"La Nación" informa: "Temen un ataque terrorista con armas biológicas antes de 2013: Un estudio efectuado durante seis meses por el Congreso norteamericano concluyó también que hay "materiales nucleares" en todo el mundo que están "pobremente protegidos" y que podrían ser utilizados en atentados":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1076664EUROPA"El País" de Madrid informa: "'L'acqua alta' inunda Venecia: Las fuertes lluvias de los últimos días y el viento del sur provocan una subida del nivel del agua que deja bajo el agua gran parte de la ciudad": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/L/acqua/alta/inunda/Venecia/elpepuint/20081201elpepuint_8/Tes"CNN" anuncia: "Italian police arrest suspects for alleged terror plot":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/europe/12/02/milan.terror.suspects/index.html"El País" de Madrid publica imágenes sobre la inundación en Venecia:http://www.elpais.com/fotogaleria/Venecia/desbordada/agua/6008-1/elpgal/"CNN" plantea: "Romania parties in coalition talks after vote":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/europe/12/02/romania.vote.ap/index.html"El Mercurio"de Chile informa: "Rusia modernizará sus misiles en respuesta a escudo espacial : El objetivo es lograr que las ojivas puedan volar fuera del alcance del sistema de defensa de EE.UU. También se planea adquirir proyectiles capaces de atravesarlo.":http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/12/02/internacional/_portada/noticias/A30128DD-96AA-42BC-8578-0A39E4F809E0.htm?id={A30128DD-96AA-42BC-8578-0A39E4F809E0}"CNN" anuncia: "EU probes causes of Georgian conflict":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/europe/12/02/georgia.eu.war/index.htmlAsia – Pacífico /Medio OrieNTE"El País" de Madrid informa: "Diecinueve muertos en dos ataques suicidas en Pakistán y Afganistán":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Diecinueve/muertos/ataques/suicidas/Pakistan/Afganistan/elpepuint/20081201elpepuint_7/Tes"New York Times" plantea: "In Wake of Attacks, India-Pakistan Tensions Increase":http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/02/world/asia/02mumbai.html?hp"BBC" publica: "Opositores dejan el aeropuerto":http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/international/newsid_7761000/7761563.stm"New York Times" anuncia: "Thai Protesters to Focus on Airports":http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/02/world/asia/02thai.html?hp"CNN" informa: "Thai protesters to end siege as PM ousted":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/12/02/thailand.protests/index.html"MSNBC" analiza: "Thai leader ousted; airports to reopen: Ruling parties dissolved over fraud; anti-government protesters to lift siege":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/28007819/"La Nación" publica: "Tailandia: ordenan disolver el partido oficialista e inhabilitan al premier: Lo decidió la Corte Constitucional acusándolo de fraude electoral; el primer ministro aceptó el fallo y anunció su alejamiento del cargo":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1076530"CNN" plantea:"Israel buries victims of Mumbai terror attacks":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/12/02/india.attacks.israel.funerals/index.html"Israel to free 250 Palestinian prisoners":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/meast/11/30/israel.prisoners.ap/index.html"Bombers kill dozens in Iraq":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/meast/12/01/iraq.main/index.html"Rocket attack near U.N. site in Baghdad kills 2":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/meast/11/29/iraq.main/index.html"MSNBC" anuncia: "Intercambio de cuerpos: Irán e Irak intercambiaron cuerpos de soldados muertos durante la guerra entre ambos países, por primera vez desde la caída de Saddam Hussein y también por vez primera sin intermediarios.":http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/international/newsid_7758000/7758533.stm"MSNBC" informa: "Iraqi women seek freedom of roads again: With sharp drop in violence, female drivers venturing behind the wheel":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/28007108/AFRICA"El País" de Madrid informa: "Zimbabue sufre una nueva epidemia de cólera: Nueve de diez provincias se encuentran azotadas por la enfermedad.- El líder de la oposición pide la ayuda internacional para superar la crisis": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Zimbabue/sufre/nueva/epidemia/colera/elpepuint/20081201elpepuint_10/Tes"CNN" anuncia: "Capital lacks clean water, cholera kills hundreds in Zimbabwe":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/12/01/zimbabwe.cholera/index.html"MSNBC" analiza: "Zimbabwe police skirmish with soldiers: Frustration over unpaid wages touches off a riot in capital":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/28002804/"CNN" plantea: "Nigeria forces impose peace after deadly riots":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/12/01/nigeria.clashes/index.html"BBC" anuncia: "Etiopía anuncia retirada de Somalia: El gobierno de Etiopía informó que retirará sus tropas de Somalia a finales del próximo mes, luego de combatir a insurgentes islamistas durante dos años.": http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/international/newsid_7754000/7754688.stm"Le Monde" informa: "L'échec de l'Ethiopie en Somalie promet une victoire aux islamistes":http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2008/12/01/l-echec-de-l-ethiopie-en-somalie-promet-une-victoire-aux-islamistes_1125387_3212.html#ens_id=1112246"CNN" publica: "No way to stop us, pirate leader says":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/12/01/pirate.interview/index.html"La Nación" plantea: "Piratas atacan un crucero turístico con mil pasajeros cerca de Somalía: Los delincuentes llegaron en dos lanchas y comenzaron a disparar; el barco estadounidense logró escapar":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1076545"El Universal" de México publica: "Aprueba ONU combate de piratería en Somalia: Avala que los gobiernos de la región incursionen militarmente en las aguas territoriales de la región para incautar y decomisar las embarcaciones, armas y demás equipo utilizado para cometer actos de piratería": http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/559945.html"MSNBC" informa: "New hope on AIDS in corner of ravaged Africa: Progress in treating disease protects unborn children against infection":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27983459/ECONOMÍA"The Economist" presenta su informe semanal: "Business this week":http://www.economist.com/business/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12705958"CNN" anuncia: "Asian, Pacific stock markets plunge": http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/12/01/global.markets/index.html"BBC" analiza: "EE.UU.: días de vacas flacas: Una prestigiosa organización de análisis en temas económicos de Estados Unidos dice que el país ya se encuentra oficialmente en recesión.": http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/business/newsid_7759000/7759831.stm"La Nación" publica: "Ya es oficial: EE.UU. está en recesión: Un comité de expertos informó ayer que la contracción comenzó en diciembre de 2007; tras el anuncio, se derrumbó 7% el Dow Jones":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1076460 "China Daily" informa: "US officially in recession, Dow falls sharply": http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2008-12/02/content_7258334.htm"China Daily" plantea: "Oil tumbles below $50 as recession called": http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2008-12/02/content_7259936.htm"The Economist" informa: "The price of oil: Down it goes. The price of oil has fallen below $50 a barrel. Why that may not be entirely welcome news": http://www.economist.com/finance/displayStory.cfm?story_id=12716182&source=features_box_main"The Economist" analiza: "Barack Obama's economic team: Off to work they go: Barack Obama has stacked his cabinet with clever economists, but can they work together? And what will they do?": http://www.economist.com/world/unitedstates/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12685546 OTRAS NOTICIAS"El País" de Madrid publica sección con: "Los 100 iberoamericanos protagonistas del año": http://www.elpais.com/especial/protagonistas/"El País" de Madrid analiza:"Moscú vuelve al Caribe: El presidente ruso Medvédev corteja a Cuba y Venezuela en una gira por América Latina": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/opinion/Moscu/vuelve/Caribe/elpepiopi/20081201elpepiopi_2/Tes"MSNBC" anuncia: "Pirates chase, open fire on U.S. cruise ship: Official: Boat carrying 1,000 passengers 'very fortunate' to escape hijack bid":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/28011013/"La Nación" informa: " Rusia desafía a EE.UU. y moderniza sus mísiles: Las armas podrían quebrar el escudo norteamericano de defensa":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1076425"China Daily" publica: "First days after HIV infection may hold vaccine key": http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2008-12/02/content_7259798.htm