Suchergebnisse

Il contributo si sofferma sul contenuto della risoluzione 2272(2016) del Consiglio di sicurezza quale passo in avanti significativo nella politica delle Nazioni Unite di tolleranza zero verso i casi di abuso e sfruttamento sessuale posto in essere dai peacekeepers.

Con la risoluzione 2272(2016) il Consiglio di sicurezza ha riconosciuto il potere del Segretario generale dell'ONU di rimpatriare interi contingenti partecipanti a operazioni di peacekeeping allo scopo di contrastare gli atti di abuso o sfruttamento sessuale posto in essere da peacekeepers. Il contributo analizza le caratteristiche e i limiti del potere del Segretario generale più sopra richiamato soffermandosi anche sulle interrelazioni tra responsabilità statale e delle Nazioni Unite.

Illicit acts committed against local populations during peacekeeping missions may entail the international responsibility/tortious liability of international organisations and their member States. Since military contingents deployed during peacekeeping missions are State organs placed at the disposal of international organisations, it is very difficult to establish which entity is responsible for the wrongful acts and omissions put in place by peacekeepers. To give an answer to this question, it is necessary to understand the rules concerning attribution of conduct of State organs placed at the disposal of an international organisations. Though considerable work has been done in in this regard, the issue is still debated. Moreover, it is not easy to determine which remedies are available to individuals injured by peacekeeping missions, because of lack of practice and information. The objective of the research activity was, on one side, to get more insight into the meaning of 'effective control' (i.e. the criterion suggested by the United Nations International Law Commission within the Draft articles on responsibility of international organisations to solve the issue of attribution of conduct of peacekeepers) in order to identify its constitutive elements; on the other side, the research was aimed at analyzing existing reparation mechanisms, in order to evaluate their efficiency and their compatibility with the so called equivalent protection theory. In reference to attribution, the study allowed to elaborate a notion of 'effective control' which should be able to attribute the conduct of peacekeepers to the entity that under the specific circumstances of the case presents a factual link with them. For what regards the remedies issue, the research allowed to identify the shortcomings affecting existing mechanisms and to formulate some de lege ferenda proposals to improve their efficiency.

The twentieth century (characterized by the gruesome and haze of horror of two World Wars, the Cold Wars-CW, dictatorships, civil wars, genocides, etc.) has seen a great transformation in warfare but to the expense of the innocent civilians and yet in the full view of regulatory internationally recognized war-laws. So, if at one point in history, civilian populations hardly suffered war directly, the order of the state of affairs has now changed. Many civilians perish simply because warlords so desire; extremes of violence, killings and destruction of property is predominantly preferred. As if that is not enough, the indifference of the majority of the public in tranquil zones of the world towards the fate of the civilians in zones under by fire kind of provide implicit licenses to violence planners to do whatever it takes to "win". Consequently, great numbers of survivors are seen trying to escape from situations of assured death to that of probable death. It is against this background that we feel moved to take on this dissertation. Bearing in mind the generally complex and challenging contemporary conflicts that acutely breeds volatile security environments (for civilians), our thesis is that there needed to be an increased, noteworthy and continued applicable innovation of approaches to civilian protection. To be precise, as a strategy to sustainable peace, we have aspired after a world where the United Nations Peacekeeping Department (UNPKD) is not singly considered the sole custodian of the concept of civilian protection but (based on contexts and cases) as one but a leader among other stakeholders (local and foreign) able and ready to contribute to the common-pool of operational arenas. Thinking about these other stake holders, we have in this work stood by those that: firstly, move towards more civilian-centered operations that are; secondly, carried out by (a mixture of grassroots and international) unarmed civilians by means of; thirdly, engages nonviolent approaches and practices that in themselves anticipate the basic constituents of successive bottom-up Peacemaking (PK) and Peacebuilding (PB) in the hic et nunc of their Peacekeeping (PK) initiatives and applications. All these basics, in our view, do not just add up to drawing a continuous line that intersects the just mentioned Three Approaches to Peace (PK, PM, PB) coined by Johan Galtung way back in 1975; they also open avenues to sustainability. The thesis is taken on through three different parts; each subdivided into two chapters. With due attention to intrastate contemporary violent conflicts, the first part tries to demonstrate the reason why in PK there has been indeed need for rethinking the protection of civilians (PoC) and/or for enriching the methods until now employed in bringing it about. In the first chapter of the part, we kind of gave a sketchy attention to the historical journey that the patterns of violent conflicts in relation to the fate of non-combatants have made. It emerges that, unlike in the past, the pattern of contemporary violent conflict, especially with reference to the CW (especially in third-world countries) and post-CW periods, have become severely complex to handle. Wars have continued and proved to be very hot especially on the populations on the periphery; on those who are minimally directly concerned with and honestly ignorant of its objectives. In the period in question, these innocent men, women and children are more than ever struck hard not just by its direct consequences but also the indirect ones and their hopes are constantly put at the brink of mere survival and of the grave. Mores so the lucky ones who manage to escape these snares, continue to unwaveringly hope for bread, freedom, justice and peace, instead of iron that kills and destroys. In chapter II of the same part, looking at the commitments borne by the UN right from its early years in keeping, initially, the interstate and successively also the intrastate peace (of those tormented by reign of violence and terror), we acknowledge the strides gradually taken along the years. These strides has better late than never embraced a multidimensional point in time where civilian protection counts as a primacy. Accordingly, we recognize that the UN military PK is certainly capable of reducing the level of tension in conflicts but we also negated that, by so doing, it is able to guarantee a durable peace not only because of the application of the non-peaceful means which is limited to separating the conflicting parties but also because it lacks the strategic concern of fostering an active citizenship which is a basic ingredient to democratic populace. In Part Two, we have concentrated on the vision and the peculiar picture of the practitioners of the alternative way, particularly; the Nonviolent Peaceforce (NP) which operates on a benchmark of bottom-up strategic empowerment of local civilian unarmed and nonviolent efforts by international unarmed and nonviolent civilians to protect civilians, prevent, reduce and stop violent conflicts. The first chapter of this second part begins by singling out some of the nuts and bolts (Like: The centrality of sustainability; strategic, local and multilevel capacity and relational empowerment and mediation for peace; conflict transformation as the adequate language; nonviolence and nonpartisanship as a philosophy) that make Unarmed Civilian Protection (UCP) stands out faithfully to the above stated aspirations. Without giving importance to the chronological specifics and with a particular reference to the assessment of the practicality of the project that, on a later date, would organizationally become the NP, an extensive attention is paid to the vicissitudes that surrounded the founding of this UCP protection agency and especially to the foundations of the formative elements entailed. Chapter II does not only build on the findings and stimuli of Chapter I, it supersedes it and makes real a new and distinct reality. Herein, a unique place is devoted to the formative components reserved to the practitioners as a strategy for guaranteeing the competencies and high professionalism needed for the successful execution of field strategies attached to the NP UCP objectives, principles, key methods and practices. Through the analysis of the UCP Training Course entitled "Strengthening Civilian Capacities to Protect Civilians; A joint UNITAR- Nonviolent Peaceforce online Course" the chapter tries to show how the activities of the organization intrinsically flow from its very being; from elements which define it. And this is illustrated in how the very life of the NP UCP is blended with its formative spirit and content; a sort of transformative training that seeks to promote transformative operational frameworks that applicable to situations and contexts. The third part of the work is an applied one. It is dedicated to our chosen case study, namely, NP's intervention in the longtime violence-stricken Republic of South Sudan; in a country which (Thomas Hobbes would say) has once again reverted to its natural state; a harsh reality of hand to mouth living and a never ending search for sustenance in an ambiance virtually challenging to change. In chapter I, the pragmatic implementation of NP UCP in strengthening the local civilians' capacity, security and sense of safety in situation of violent conflict is marked out. Here, some concrete instances of this intervention are presented to exemplify the claim that a multiple base of actors (UCPs, the inviting civil society and/or local NGOs of an UCP presence and local partners) can sustainably and strategically provide the PoC work that for a long time was and is still largely entrusted to the military. And at the end of the day PK, PM, PB resources are considered to consist in not only financial and material supports, but also, and (in the same way) importantly, the socio-cultural resources of the affected people. And in this way people in conflict settings are seen as resources rather than recipients. Even though we evidently confirmed that the alternative way counts exceptionally big in strategically promoting, developing, and implementing sustainable unarmed civilian PK as a tool for preventing, reducing and stopping violence and protecting civilians in situations of violent conflict, we also acknowledge that it is not without challenges. These are actually what chapter two of the part extensively dwells on. The second chapter is instead dedicated (at length) to looking at the challenges that NP faces not only with regard to its missions lands but also in general. We have gone about this in the form of a comprehensive assessment and in some humble recommendations are advanced. Among these challenges we have particularly paid attention to issues like: The meager UCP funding and the dominant top-down mentality; the violent bully character of some major world power wielders; the need for more practitioners to carry out UCP; the dynamicity and complexity of conflict nature as a challenge; conflict prevention challenges like delays in capturing the signs of time so as to effectively intervene; the presence of spoilers as a challenge; the challenge of effective sustainable credibility. Recommendations proposed include among others: Investing in systematic reflections on the extent of the progress and failures so far registered in efforts to involve the UN, regional bodies and other donor agencies or individuals in the cause of NP (UCP) and reflecting on the philosophy that underpins the reasons why financial assistance to UCP and NP in particular is founded; more emphasis on the already existing engagement with political leaders and other influential people and embarking on popular campaigns to propagate a concretely evidenced knowledge of the feasibility of the alternative way, instituting and investing in "School Project" (dedicated to preferably to high schools) within the NP Advocacy and Outreach office and insisting on the positives of volunteers' contribution; enriching a little more the content of the just elaborated online UCP training course; etc. Hereafter, the general conclusion of our dissertation will be drawn. A profound acknowledgement of the UNPK pivotal role with its actual multidimensional fronts in PK basically intended as PoC specifically in the contemporary intrastate violent conflicts. It is also observed that, thanks to the appropriate blending of local and international capacities giving priority to the former, UCP's strategic approach to PK (which is not limited to the PoCs but is also anchored to preventing, reducing and ending not just those that are already on but also lays for standing up to the future possible ones) could be counted on. Thus far, it is on one hand, admissible that, despite all the challenges that there may be, NP (UCP) mechanisms is already proffering a great deal to this end, and on the other, it is evident that it can and should still do more. The ability of its interventions to stand the test of time and to stand up to the future conflicts (i.e. its sustainability) resides in a time which is not yet at hand and in the continuous involvement and inventiveness of many. As per now, if the Italian proverb "Il buongiorno si vede dal mattino" (Meaning: You can tell how something will go by how it begins) holds, then it is, up till now, realistic to count on NP as one of the most outstanding Bottom-up UCP organizations in the PoC in (selected) contemporary violent conflict situations. All that is needed is the building and the consolidation of international interest and support for UCP that presents the hope and reality of alternatives to over dependence on armed intervention; alternatives that chances the revitalization of local communities and the restoration of the social fabrics and capital of the affected people.

La presente tesi verte sul ruolo del teatro sociale come strumento di mediazione e trasformazione dei conflitti nei contesti di post-guerra. A tal fine il primo passo (Capitolo 1) è stato costruire un quadro interpretativo interdisciplinare, con cui analizzare le caratteristiche ricorrenti e le differenze nelle esperienze già esistenti in questo ambito, e da cui poter trarre indicazioni circa il disegno progettuale. Per il raggiungimento di questi obiettivi, sono stati esaminati criticamente i lavori sul campo e le osservazioni teoriche di Hannah Reich, Guglielmo Schininà e John Paul Lederach, unitamente alle teorie di Johan Galtung e Pat Patfoort. Il secondo passo (Capitolo 2) è stato individuare alcuni casi di studio che consentissero di validare il modello interpretativo elaborato. Ho dunque innanzitutto censito le esperienze già realizzate recentemente o in corso d'opera, per poi applicare ad esse dei criteri di selezione desunti dall'analisi teorica, specie dal lavoro di Hannah Reich. Tali criteri si sono rivelati molto restrittivi al punto che ho potuto selezionare solo due dei molti casi di studio individuati, il progetto Let's see… Let's choose… Let's change… della armena ONG Peace Dialogue e il progetto di teatro partecipativo promosso dalla americana ONG Search for Common Ground. I due casi di studio (Capitolo 3) sono stati analizzati criticamente al fine di verificare e di proporre un'ipotesi di concezione, pianificazione e implementazione sul medio/lungo periodo di progetti di teatro sociale con sessioni di formazione in mediazione e trasformazione dei conflitti in processi di peacebuilding. Il quadro teorico (Capitolo 1) comprende un ampio panorama che esamina non solo il peacebuilding e il teatro sociale, ma anche i cosiddetti approcci di peacebuilding basati sull'arte (art-based peacebuilding). Il concetto di peacebuilding viene presentato nella elaborazione data da Galtung negli anni '70 e nelle più recenti definizioni a cura delle Nazioni Unite. In particolare viene dato risalto al contributo del UN Secretary-General's Policy Committee del 2007 in comparazione con le Strategie Europee riguardo la 'Gestione del Ciclo del Progetto in Cooperazione e Sviluppo'. Infatti in entrambi i documenti, emerge il ruolo cruciale svolto - nel peacebuilding come nella cooperazione allo sviluppo – dalla partecipazione, intesa come appropriazione da parte delle comunità locali del processo di cambiamento, e dall'equità, intesa come parità di accesso ai diritti e imparzialità nella trasformazione dei conflitti. A seguire vengono esposte la teoria di trasformazione dei conflitti di Johan Galtung (2004) e quella sulla comunicazione nonviolenta di Pat Patfoort (2011). Successivamente si chiariscono la definizione e la genesi del teatro sociale. La terminologia anglosassone che si utilizza nella tesi, diversamente da quella italiana, lo definisce applied theatre. Grazie alle rivoluzioni teatrali del Novecento e al contributo della pedagogia contemporanea, si sviluppa una nuova forma di teatro, collocata fuori dal mainstream teatrale e dallo show business. Tra i pionieri e fondatori del teatro sociale, Augusto Boal è considerato uno dei maggiori esponenti. Il metodo inventato da Boal, Il Teatro dell'Oppresso, è un'organizzazione sistematica di tecniche e strumenti teatrali per comprendere e contrastare le oppressioni sociali ed economiche dell'individuo e della società. Infine, nell'ultima parte del capitolo, vengono riassunte le posizioni di John Paul Lederach, ideatore della Moral Imagination, di Hannah Reich e la sua teoria the Art of Seeing, e di Guglielmo Schininà con la sua proposta del Complex Circle. Il capitolo successivo (Capitolo 2) verte sull'approccio metodologico, basato sulla combinazione del contributo di Hannah Reich e del modello empirico di Guglielmo Schininà. Partendo dalla distinzione che Hannah Reich fa tra la struttura del 'Classic' Forum Theatre e del Forum Theatre for Conflict Transformation, e in particolare nelle diverse fasi – workshop phase, performance phase e follow-up phase - vengono utilizzati gli elementi che per la ricercatrice tedesca sono a fondamento del Forum Theatre for Conflict Transformation: prima e durante la workshop phase - la scelta consapevole e accurata dei partecipanti e dei luoghi in cui si svolgerà il training; - l'inserimento di moduli di gestione dei conflitti e spazi condivisi di tempo libero; - lo sviluppo di una attenta scrittura collettiva del copione - chiamata art of telling; per la performance phase - la scelta consapevole e accurata dei luoghi per le presentazioni pubbliche; - la competenza del joker nella trasformazione dei conflitti; per la follow-up phase - l'inserimento di altre attività che rendano sostenibili le relazioni tra i membri del gruppo. Sono questi elementi i principali fattori attraverso i quali è stata analizzata la struttura dei due casi di studio. Dal modello del Complex Circle di Schininà sono stati desunti i parametri per leggere criticamente l'implementazione dei progetti: interdisciplinarietà, gestione delle differenze nel rispetto delle stesse, prospettive multiple, sistema di comunicazione multilayer. Grazie al censimento dei progetti realizzati o in corso di teatro sociale con sessioni di gestione e trasformazione dei conflitti in contesti di post-guerra che coinvolgessero giovani/adulti su un periodo di medio/lungo termine (minimo di due anni), è stato costruito un database. Esso si trova in appendice alla tesi. Le fonti di reperimento dei casi sono state soprattutto i networks In place of war a cura della Manchester University (www.inplaceofwar.com) e Acting Together a cura della Brandeis University (www.actingtogether.org), oltre a vari journals di Applied Theatre e Peace & Conflict Studies, disponibili on line. Attraverso la consultazione puntuale dei siti web dei vari casi presenti in database, è stata verificata la possibilità di accedere a dati aggiornati e/o di contattare direttamente i referenti dei progetti. Attraverso questo lavoro, sono stati selezionati i due casi di studio della Peace Dialogue e Search for Common Ground utilizzando come framework critico il lavoro di Hannah Reich e quello di Guglielmo Schininà. Nel terzo capitolo, vengono presentati ed esaminati i due casi di studio. Essi sono: - il progetto Let's see… Let's choose… Let's change… della armena ONG Peace Dialogue, relativo alla situazione conflittuale del Nagorno-Karabakh, - il progetto di teatro partecipativo promosso dalla americana ONG Search for Common Ground, per affrontare la questione delle terre in Rwanda. Queste due esperienze, molto diverse tra loro, sono accomunate dal fatto che, in un ampio disegno di peacebuilding, il teatro sociale venga esplicitamente rafforzato da sessioni di formazione alla gestione e trasformazione dei conflitti, attraverso il coinvolgimento delle comunità locali. Per ogni caso viene presentato un excursus storico mediante il quale si evidenziano il contesto in cui le esperienze si inseriscono e le caratteristiche specifiche dei conflitti in questione. Il conflitto in Nagorno-Karabakh, incancrenito sin dagli inizi del Novecento, è scoppiato prepotentemente dopo la disgregazione dell'Unione delle Repubbliche Socialiste Sovietiche, in una guerra che ufficialmente si è conclusa il 5 maggio del 1994 con la firma dell'armistizio di pace tra Azerbaijan e Armenia. Ma le questioni etniche e territoriali che colpiscono la regione del Nagorno-Karabakh sono ancora oggi motivo di tensioni tra i due paesi. La regione è fortemente militarizzata, e questo incide soprattutto sulla società civile e la popolazione più giovane che da sempre vive in questa condizione, senza aver conosciuto alternative. Il conflitto in Ruanda, invece, è legato alla riforma agraria (1999), promossa per affrontare la questione dei diritti di eredità delle terre da parte di donne e bambini. Tale riforma infatti, a detta di Sydney Smith e Elise Webb, ha incontrato una crescente resistenza dovuta ad un atteggiamento culturale contrario all'eredità femminile. Inoltre le leggi promulgate in tale direzione sono ignorate da gran parte della popolazione, che per di più è composta – dati World Bank 2011 - per il 43% da giovani sotto i quattordici anni. Il progetto di Search for Common Ground ha l'obiettivo di creare un dibattito costruttivo sulla questione dell'eredità delle terre, implementando anche un confronto diretto tra comunità e autorità locali. Segue poi l'analisi puntuale dei due progetti, con riferimento al framework metodologico ideato, e una analisi comparata degli stessi. La proposta che viene elaborata nella discussione dei risultati è articolata sui vari criteri di analisi suggeriti da Hannah Reich. Per quanto riguarda la scelta dei partecipanti, essa riflette le diversità intrinseche che i due casi presentano nelle caratteristiche stesse di conflitto: nel progetto della Peace Dialogue vengono coinvolti giovani provenienti da diverse regioni caucasiche per il ruolo chiave che essi potranno assumere nella costruzione della pace circa la questione del Nagorno-Karabakh; in Ruanda la Search for Common Ground coinvolge attori professionisti che, attraverso le tecniche di teatro partecipativo, sono in grado di coinvolgere in modo neutro ed imparziale la comunità in scene che rispecchiano conflitti e questioni locali. Inoltre, gli obiettivi specifici dei due casi sono diversi. Nel caso del Ruanda, obiettivo specifico è ridurre l'incidenza di conflitti interpersonali intorno alla questione eredità terra, e aumentare il ricorso imparziale e super partes alle autorità locali, comprese le figure degli abunzi, mediatori tradizionali. Per Peace Dialogue obiettivo è incoraggiare il coinvolgimento dei giovani nella discussione di questioni civili e di formarli nella gestione nonviolenta dei conflitti. A partire dal confronto dei due casi e dalla letteratura disponibile sull'argomento, viene proposta una struttura di Forum Theatre for Conflict Transformation che coinvolga un team interdisciplinare di formatori, in grado di accompagnare il processo di apprendimento/insegnamento con una modalità interattiva e interdisciplinare. In questo modo si propone la costruzione di un framework misto che combini, allo stesso tempo e nella stessa sede formativa, gli strumenti di teatro sociale e di mediazione. Sulla stessa linea di pensiero si situa l'approccio dialogico suggerito da Guglielmo Schininà, e l'implementazione condivisa realizzata dalla Peace Dialogue in Armenia/Nagorno-Karabakh. I partecipanti infatti sono stati coinvolti in un processo partecipativo tra pari, che li ha portati a definire in itinere sia le tematiche da affrontare durante il progetto sia il processo di realizzazione, sotto la supervisione di un gruppo internazionale di facilitatori. Nelle conclusioni riassumo il lavoro svolto e avanzo alcune riflessioni, domande, dilemmi e prospettive per ulteriori ricerche in questo campo. Sinteticamente, i nodi più critici mi sembrano riguardare la valutazione e il ruolo degli esperti esterni. Quanto al primo aspetto occorre rilevare che il ruolo dei finanziatori del progetto ha il suo peso e la sua influenza. Come affrontare tale criticità quando il materiale a disposizione è affetto da uno stile propagandistico teso a sottolineare i punti di forza e i risultati positivi a scapito delle debolezze e delle difficoltà? Quanto al ruolo degli esterni, esso può incidere in maniera significativa sulle comunità locali. Che tipo di processi vengono attivati durante la pratica di apprendimento/insegnamento? Quali sono i punti di forza e di debolezza durante il trasferimento di competenze? Come misurare e valutare tale problematicità? Infine il ruolo degli abunzi (mediatori tradizionali locali del Ruanda) nella società ruandese dà lo spunto per riflettere sulle dinamiche di giustizia locale. Come conciliare, nel rispetto dei ruoli e delle culture, la mediazione "formale" con quella tradizionale senza cercare di imporre un approccio unidirezionale?

The market-oriented Private Military Companies (PMC) are said to be a new tool for post-Cold War-peacekeeping in war-torn environments: actually, private security is strongly embedded in the so called "new wars", and derives from the retrenchment of the state in response to the globalisation. The study compares two different kinds of peacekeeping strategies: private security and regional peacekeeping are analysed in the context of Sierra Leone, an African country shocked by a savage civil war in the 90's. The first case describes the intervention of Executive Outcomes (EO) - a former and controversial South African PMC - in Sierra Leone (1995): EO provided only a short-lived frame of security which was instrumental to business interest of major international mining corporations. The second case is multilateral peacekeeping on a regional basis: ECOWAS Cease-fire Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) intervention in Sierra Leone (1997-2000) was the first case of sub-regional peacekeeping in Africa: despite its difficulties due to political ambiguity, financial capacity and logistical obstacles, this intervention put in place a more legitimate peacekeeping strategy. A full understanding of modern privatised security shows its inadequacy for successful peaceful conflict transformations. Additionally, regional-based peacekeeping strategies, albeit more legitimate than private security, needs to be deeply refined in terms of training, funding and political will, in order to be successful.

Aujourd'hui, les guerres sont devenues de plus en plus intolérables pour une opinion publique mondiale qui a de plus en plus de poids. Pour cette raison, le monde politique est dominé par la politique de paix avec les opérations menées par les Etats membres ou même unilatérales (voir US en Irak) ou multilatérales, en particulier celles qui sont dirigées par les Nations Unies, le seul organisme politique qui a la capacité internationale (mais pas grande) pour gérer une politique de paix dans le monde. En fait, il y a aujourd'hui 17 opérations de paix de l'ONU dans le monde, de sorte qu'elles devraient maintenir la paix par la décision collective des Etats les plus puissants. Tandis que toute action unilatérale ou multilatérale soulève immédiatement des soupçons de partialité ou carrément de néo-colonialisme des superpuissances.

The essay concentrates on the progressive definition of the identity of the "besieged" in Mantua during the wars of the late fourteenth century. the northern Italian Po plane city, capital of the Gonzaghesca Dominion, was assaulted by the Visconti troops of Milan that threatened the small state in three stages between 1357 and 1397. Under the violence of those attacks, both the ruling dynasty and the city understood very clearly that for them the only chance to survive relied on the possibility to potentiate the natural position of the city as a neutral and intermediate member of the system of the Italian states. This growing conscience was the basis of the building of a long-lasting political identity focused on a permanent "under siege" condition, which conditioned the entire history of the city until the very last years of its life as an autonomous state and even further. In particular, the assault brought to Mantua by Bernabò Visconti in 1368 is scrutinised, through sources which greatly differ amongst themselves, to understand the real and perceived significance of the events of the assault. ; Il saggio si incentra sulla progressiva definizione della identità "assediata" di Mantova nel corso delle guerre del secondo Trecento. La città padana, capitale della signoria gonzaghesca, viene assalita dalle truppe viscontee a tre riprese tra il 1357 e il 1397: in seguito a questi attacchi di grande violenza, i Gonzaga e la città maturano la consapevolezza che la sopravvivenza del piccolo stato dipende da una sua condizione di vigilante neutralità tra i poteri italiani. Tale consapevolezza si traduce nella costruzione di una identità politica "sotto assedio" che costituisce un tratto distintivo di lunga durata nella storia plurisecolare della città. In particolare si analizza l'assalto portato a Mantova da Bernabò Visconti nel 1368, attraverso fonti assai diverse fra loro, per cogliere la portata reale e percepita dell'evento ossidionale.

This volume contains the results of some studies presented by Egyptian and Italian scholars at the International Conference "Peacebuilding between East and West XI-XVI c.", organized in Cairo on, October 27, 2016 by the Egyptian Unity of research, as part of the academic activities of the Bilateral Project "History of Peace-building: peaceful relations between East and West (11th - 15th century)" carried out jointly by the Institute of the Mediterranean EuropeHistory of the CNR (Italy), and the University of Damanhour. The project is totally funded by the Academy of Scientific Research and Technology (ASRT)(1) of the Arab Republic of Egypt and the Italian National Research Council (CNR)(2).The purpose of the Bilateral Project - and even of the aforementioned International Conference- is to carry out research in order to examine through the study of different types of documentary and narrative sources; the nature, quantity and quality of peaceful relations between Christians and Muslims in a geographical area extending from the Iberian Peninsula to the Levantin a chronological interval between the eleventh and the fifteenth centuries. Needless to say that since it is an Italian-Egyptian project, the researchers will devote particular attention in their studies to the relations between these two geographical areas.In this book, we can find the first contributions of some scholars of the two Research Units on the important theme of the complex relationships between the Christian world and the Islamic one, which characterized almost all the Middle Ages and much of the Modern Age in the area gravitating around the Mediterranean Sea.The researchers' aim is to focus their studies on episodes, geographical areas, persons and moments which represent incidents and cases of peaceful coexistence and connection, with fruitful exchanges of various kinds of knowledge, even in a general context characterized by military, religious and ideological-cultural conflict. ; Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Academy of Scientific Research & Technology ; editors in chief Prof. Ali Ahmed El-Sayed, Dr. Luciano Gallinari, Dr. Abdallah Abdel-Ati Al-Naggar ; Beiträge teilweise italienisch, teilweise arabisch in arabischer Schrift

Ova teza treba da istraži vezu između motiva, ciljeva i principa kanadske spoljno-političke agende, u odnosu na njen učinak na području očuvanja i izgradnje mira na Zapadnom Balkanu. Vremenski opseg obuhvata period od 1991. do 1999.godine. U vezi sa pojašnjenjem ovog pitanja, posebno se elaborira idejna osnova te spoljno-političke agende, zatim njeno formiranje kroz viziju međunarodne pozicije Kanade u međunarodnoj politici i na kraju kontekstualizacija te vizije u spoljno-političku misiju Kanade u regiji Zapadnog Balkana. Teza na teorijskom nivou uključuje istraživanje savremenih trendova u oblasti bezbjednosti, uticaja ideja na spoljnu politiku, proces kreiranja i realizacije spoljno-politikih strategija kao i istraživanje učinka spoljno-političkih akcija u kontekstu očuvanja i izgradnje mira. Naučni cilj ovog istraživanja je evaluacija učinka onog dijela kanadske agende ljudske bezbjednosti koji se odnosi na učešće u međunarodnim mirovnim misijama na Zapadnom Balkanu tokom devedesetih godina prošlog vijeka. Teza se zasniva na činjenici da kanadski pristup i doprinos regionalnoj bezbjednosti, posmatran iz ugla teorijskog pravca ljudske bezbjednosti, u regiji Zapadnog Balkana nije dovoljno istražen na naučnoj osnovi. To se posebno odnosi na učinak kanadskih snaga u okviru međunarodnih mirovnih misija u Hrvatskoj, BiH i na Kosovu, u odnosu na kanadsku agendu ljudske bezbjednosti. Naučni doprinos ovog rada bio bi u naučnoj sintezi međunarodno afirmisane agende ljudske bezbjednosti i njenoj kontekstualnoj primjeni kroz djelovanje kanadske mirovne misije u Regiji. Društveni doprinos ovog rada ogleda se u činjenici da se na temeljan način skreće pažnja stručnoj javnosti na kanadski doprinos izgradnji mira na Zapadnom Balkanu, na osnovama liberalnog internacionalizma. ; This thesis aims to explore the links among the motives, purposes and principles of the Canadian foreign policy agenda, with respect to its impact in the field of preserving and building peace in the Western Balkans. The timeframe covers the period from 1991 to1999. With regards to the clarification of this issue, particularly elaborated is the conceptual basis for this foreign policy agenda, then its shaping through the vision of the international position of Canada in the global politics and finally the contextualization of this vision into the Canadian foreign policy mission in the Western Balkans. On a theoretical level, the thesis includes the research into contemporary trends in the field of security, the impact of ideas on foreign policy, the development and implementation of foreign policy strategy, and it also explores the impact of foreign policy actions in the context of preserving and building peace. The scientific objective of this research is appraisal of the effect of that part of Canadian human security agenda relating to participation in international peacekeeping missions in the Western Balkans during the nineteen nineties. The thesis is based on the fact that the Canadian approach and contribution to regional security, observed from the perspective of the theoretical line of human security in the Western Balkans region has not been sufficiently explored from the scientific point of view. This is especially true of the effect of the Canadian troops in the international peacekeeping missions in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and in Kosovo, in relation to the Canadian human security agenda. Scientific contribution of this work would be in the scientific synthesis of the internationally-established human security agenda and its application through contextual actions of Canadian peacekeeping mission in the region. The social contribution of this work is reflected in the fact that the attention is drawn to the expert public in a fundamental way to the Canadian contribution towards peacebuilding in the Western Balkans, on the bases of liberal internationalism.

This PhD thesis aims at understanding the problems, both theoretical and practical, related to the applicability of international humanitarian law and human rights law to peacekeeping operations. The four chapters of the thesis discuss the nature and the variety of peacekeeping operations, the attribution of conducts, the interpretation of art. 103 of UN Charter and specific problems linked to the applicability of international humanitarian law and human rights law. The conclusion reached is in the sense that the role of troop-contributing States is fundamental in the compliance with the rule protecting human dignity during peacekeeping operations.

What implies the conversion to fundamentalist Islam? What are the repercussions and implications of 'political Islam' in specific contexts? The relation between Islam, democracy and violence is often represented in a reductive or simplistic way. In order to contribute to a reasoned debate on these pressing questions, this essay covers some key dynamics stemming from long-term ethnographic observation regarding the conversion to neo Salafism among Arab Bedouin citizens in southern Israel, placing them in the context of contemporary developments of Islamic political thought. The ethnographic sensitivity, combined with the voices of some eminent Islamic intellectuals, allows to go beyond both the rhetoric of cultural complexity and the common-sense view that Islamic terrorism would be a kind of 'anti imperialism of the losers', arguments employed often to contest emerging neo-orientalist discourses. In this sense, the essay states the need to shed light on coordinates and interpretative categories that are not placed in an essentially different but in often unexpected ways.

Northwestern Transcaucasia is one of the post-Soviet areas most affected by regional cleavages and ethno-political conflicts. Following the fall of the Russian Empire, Georgia tried to build its own statehood, while in Abkhazia and South Ossetia there was a confrontation between Kartvelian communities oriented towards Tbilisi and the Abkhazian and Ossetian ones facing Moscow and Ciscaucasia. With the Sovietization of Transcaucasia in 1921 and the creation of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (GSSR), South Ossetia was converted to an Autonomous Oblast within the GSSR, while Abkhazia became a proper SSR (albeit with an ambiguous Union Treaty with the GSSR) but, in 1931, it was downgraded to an Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic within the GSSR. For at least a decade after their Sovietization, Abkhazia and South Ossetia could benefit from a certain cultural and linguistic autonomy, but from the second half of the 1930s they were affected by a growing policy of Georgianization and, in the Abkhazian case, also by a massive Kartvelian immigration. After Stalin's death and Beria's execution in 1953, Abkhazians and South Ossetians experienced a new phase of broadening their cultural and linguistic rights. The following decades were characterized by the deepening of the contraposition and mutual stimulation dynamics between Abkhazian and Ossetian national identities and the Georgian one. In the second half of the 1980s, radical nationalism progressively imposed its hegemony over Georgian society and, in 1990, the GSSR parliament assumed the objective of the country's independence. Consequently, the Abkhazian and South Ossetian legislative assemblies proclaimed their own sovereign republics. Then, in January 1991 Georgia attacked South Ossetia, resulting in the outbreak of military conflict in the region, during which both Tbilisi and Tskhinval declared their independence. In 1992, following the coup against the nationalist Gamsakhurdia and Shevardnadze's return as Georgian leader, a ceasefire agreement between Tbilisi and Tskhinval was reached in June with Russian mediation, consolidating South Ossetian control over most of the region. Soon, the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) was involved in the ceasefire monitoring process, but failed to foster concrete steps towards a negotiated solution to the Ossetian-Georgian political conflict. Contextually, inter-ethnic tensions grew in Abkhazia and, in August 1992, Georgia militarily attacked the region, initially conquering a large part of it but subsequently suffering the progressive counter-offensive of the Abkhazians, who in September 1993 re-established their control over Sukhum and large part of the region. Meanwhile, in August 1993, the United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia (UNOMIG) had been established to monitor the conflict in Abkhazia. Following the Abkhazian military victory, a complex phase of Abkhazian-Georgian talks began, under the aegis of the United Nations and with the participation of the Russian Federation and the CSCE. Then, in May 1994, a ceasefire and separation of forces agreement was reached, with the establishment of a security zone on which a CIS peacekeeping contingent was deployed, and UNOMIG was expanded. Once the military dimension of the conflict was frozen, the parties were engaged in complex talks to reach a negotiated political solution, under the auspices of the UN and with an active role of Russia. However, the positions were no longer reconcilable: on the one hand, Tbilisi intended to establish its sovereignty over Abkhazia within the framework of a federalist compromise, on the other hand, Sukhum was willing to accept at most a confederal and symbolic solution. Therefore, in 1999, the parliament of the Republic of Abkhazia formally declared state independence, greatly reducing the prospects for a negotiated solution to the political conflict with Georgia.

As we celebrate the 300 th anniversary of William Penn's death as well as the 325 th anniversary of the publication of Penn's plan for a European parliament, it is also worth considering his contribution to American history, notably the foundation of Pennsylvania. The most remarkable feature of Penn's "holy experiment" in colonial British America was the harmonious relationship that was established, and maintained for some seventy years, between the Quaker colonists and the native Americans. Penn advanced racial equality as well as peaceful and harmonious relations between different cultures, sitting in council with the Indians many times and promoting the fair purchase of land from them. Penn's 1682 Frame of Government for the colony limited the power of government and guaranteed many fundamental liberties. It was subsequently adopted by the Pennsylvania Assembly as the New Charter and formed the model for most state governments in the United States. Penn's last revision of the Frame, the 1701 Charter of Privileges, remained in force until 1776. Finally, just as Penn really was the first to propose, in some detail, a European parliament, so he was the first to propose, only a few years later, a union of the British colonies in America."

William Penn's place in the history of political philosophy is both unique and peculiar. His works raised the interest of contemporary thinkers such as Voltaire and Montesquieu, who also praised his practical contribution as legislator for the British colony of Pennsylvania as well as peacemaker with the Native people of North America. After falling into relative oblivion over the course of the Nineteenth Century, Penn's figure attracted renewed scholarly interest in the 1920s and '30s, at the height of totalitarianism, when he was newly appreciated as an early prophet of pacifism, Europeanism, and cosmopolitanism. In 1979, almost three centuries after the publication of his project for European peace, Penn's ideas were at least in part realized with the first direct election of the European Parliament. Today, his works are still worth considering, particularly for his thoughtful reflections on the aristocracy of merit or virtue, a subject at the very core of his thinking.