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The aim of the article was to unveil the essence of the financial responsibility of the State within a comparative analysis of the approaches of European countries, in times of peace and war. The complexity of the subject led to the complex application of research methods, in particular: dialectical, systemic, comparative, synergistic, normative and logical analysis, synthesis. The practice of the implementation of State responsibility in some European and Asian countries was studied and it was concluded that it had been established particularly in times of peace. However, it is argued that such experience of public finance could also be useful in the Ukrainian realities of reconstruction and recovery. Ukrainian legal instruments concerning the financial responsibility of the state were also examined and the respective court decisions were researched. Among other things, it is concluded that, the financial liability of the subjects of public administration and their officials or employees is to be understood in terms of compensation of damages for wrongful acts in the form of decisions or actions that led to infringement or disregard of the rights and legitimate interests of the payers.

The relevance of the UN for peacekeeping depends on its activities on 'post-conflict' settings, as much as on its capacity of setting the paradigms of achieving international peace. The paper discusses the UN approaches towards international peace from the end of World War II until nowadays, while delineating the main configuration of such practices, evincing how they changed over time, and shedding light on the normative framework that underpins such processes. Adapted from the source document.

Fragile or failed states are often caused by long lasting and violent conflicts - Liberia is one of them. Since the war ceased in 2003, the United Nations and its coalition of states have tried to rebuild the nation and maintain its peace. Nation building can be seen from two different angles: as a Weberian legal and rational order or as a process that highlights social and contextual factors. Within social sciences this process can be studied either by looking into what factors contribute to a successful nation building or how this process works in practice. The article focuses on the former, by listing and analyzing the involved UN institutions with an emphasis on the Peacebuilding Commission and Peacebuilding Fund. L. Pitkaniemi

The Peace Workshops are programs for development cooperation undertaken by the European Union in Colombian conflict zones. Analyzed from the Foreign Relations perspective, the workshops are a tool of the nascent common European foreign policy. The cooperation initiatives in Colombia, a country in the American sphere of influence, are inscribed in a profile-defining process of the EU as an international actor. The article presents the Peace Workshops in Colombia to then explain what type of donor the EU tends to be, and the building process of its cooperation policy. The conclusion is reached that the Workshops are a European peacebuilding proposal that allows it to differentiate itself from the United States, as well as create for itself a place on the international stage as an actor for peace. However, the European proposal shines a light on the difficulties of establishing an international presence. Indeed, the Member States and the common institutions react in different ways to the changes that occur in the international context, transatlantic relations and the policies of the Colombian government. (Colombia Internacional/GIGA)

This work explores from a historical perspective the relationship between the US & the UN concerning peacekeeping operations. A relationship marked by the ambivalence that the US has evinced vis-a-vis the deployment of international military forces. The analysis reveals how a series of concerns related with decision-making on the use of force & the resulting financial & military commitments have prompted differing views on this issue. While the doctrine that ruled peacekeeping operations during the Cold War allowed the US to avoid these dilemmas, the increasing use of the veto since 1970 has brought to light the ambivalence. The analysis of the evolution of peacekeeping operations during the two last decades reveals a clear relationship between its rise & downfall, as well as Washington's enthusiasm or withdrawal. Adapted from the source document.

This work deals with mediation & certification experiences in Latin America, & the most recent involvement of troops from the region countries in peacekeeping operations. Though the end of the Cold War & transition to democracy favored a greater participation of countries like Argentina, Chili, Uruguay, & Brazil in these operations, the analysis points out at some of the quandaries & challenges entailed. It is stressed, in one hand, the trend that has made developing countries to become the main supplier of troops, & in the other hand, hindrances that come along with "stabilizing" operations that have been deployed in failed states, such as those that are headed by Latin American diplomats in Haiti. Tables, Appendixes. Adapted from the source document.

This text describes the origins of international administration of territories in the light of the turmoil associated with the end of the Cold War & the subsequent expansion of peacekeeping works & responsibilities. In contrast with the latter, international administration involves a clear political drift that varies according with the entrusted powers-territorial control, supervision, or direct governance. However, what distinguishes international administration from military occupation is that it is based on agreement, & is subordinated to an international agency. Despite increasing demands resulting from the state's weakness symptoms within the developed world, both neo-colonialist critics & the hindrances that this enterprise has faced have forced the UN to assume the "light presence" model & to question the future of the international administration. Tables. Adapted from the source document.

The author explores the relationship between the involvement in peacekeeping operations & the civil control of armed forces. The analysis of the experiences of Argentina & Uruguay reveals that this kind of involvement yields different outcomes: While the former strengthened civil control, that was not the case for the latter. The nature of transition & the weight of internal & external factors account for these differences. While involvement in peacekeeping operations in Argentina strengthened civil control, there was a disparate result in Uruguay, that is, the institutional autonomy of armed forces became thereby stronger. Adapted from the source document.

In contrast to the first stage of peacekeeping operations, their recent evolution has been marked by a legitimacy crisis. The main argument is that transition -- from impartial operations to complex & robust operations was the result of the Security Council redefinition of peace & security in the post-Cold War era. Indeed, second stage operations are characterized by the presence of more ambitious goals & a greater -- though not uniform -- deployment of military forces. However, the complexity of conflicts accounts for its erratic evolution, the absence of a regulatory framework, & ultimately, the current perception of failure accompanying these operations. Adapted from the source document.

The article analyzes the peacekeeping operations directed by the UN, describing its features & the international scenario in which such operations take place. The author classifies them & identifies two generations of these operations, each with their own peculiarities according to the context in which conflicts developed. The study refers to the way the application of these operations has changed, & the difference between these & the other operations directed by the same international organization. The paper assesses the results, costs, & effectiveness of some of these operations; identifies the actors who intervene in their materialization & the countries that most commonly participate in them by offering either funds or human resources; & stresses the role played by Latin America (specifically Argentina & Brazil). Finally, the author points out that in the case of developing countries, the effectiveness of peacekeeping operations is constantly questioned; therefore, preventive actions, rather than reactive ones, are most likely to be implemented in the face of emerging conflicts. 7 Tables, 2 Graphs. Adapted from the source document.