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The paper presents an overview of analytical philosophy in Lithuania. It is observed that analytical philosophy had not been studied or developed in Lithuania before the 1970s, when Evaldas Nekrasas and Rolandas Pavilionis began their work in philosophy of science and philosophy of language, rooted in analytical tradition. The article discusses the works of Nekrasas and Pavilionis, as well as those of others (e.g., Degutis and Plesnys). It notes that analytical philosophy was the first non-Marxist trend of philosophy to be developed in post-war Lithuania, and thus it was of considerable influence at the time when the Marxist methodology had to be overthrown. Although the influence of analytical philosophy in Lithuania has diminished during later years in favour of postmodern trends, it is still evident in some recent works on philosophy of mind, philosophy of causation, and methodology of the humanities and social sciences. It has also made a strong impact upon the development of political philosophy and research in the history of positivism.

The paper presents an overview of analytical philosophy in Lithuania. It is observed that analytical philosophy had not been studied or developed in Lithuania before the 1970s, when Evaldas Nekrasas and Rolandas Pavilionis began their work in philosophy of science and philosophy of language, rooted in analytical tradition. The article discusses the works of Nekrasas and Pavilionis, as well as those of others (e.g., Degutis and Plesnys). It notes that analytical philosophy was the first non-Marxist trend of philosophy to be developed in post-war Lithuania, and thus it was of considerable influence at the time when the Marxist methodology had to be overthrown. Although the influence of analytical philosophy in Lithuania has diminished during later years in favour of postmodern trends, it is still evident in some recent works on philosophy of mind, philosophy of causation, and methodology of the humanities and social sciences. It has also made a strong impact upon the development of political philosophy and research in the history of positivism.

The paper presents an overview of analytical philosophy in Lithuania. It is observed that analytical philosophy had not been studied or developed in Lithuania before the 1970s, when Evaldas Nekrasas and Rolandas Pavilionis began their work in philosophy of science and philosophy of language, rooted in analytical tradition. The article discusses the works of Nekrasas and Pavilionis, as well as those of others (e.g., Degutis and Plesnys). It notes that analytical philosophy was the first non-Marxist trend of philosophy to be developed in post-war Lithuania, and thus it was of considerable influence at the time when the Marxist methodology had to be overthrown. Although the influence of analytical philosophy in Lithuania has diminished during later years in favour of postmodern trends, it is still evident in some recent works on philosophy of mind, philosophy of causation, and methodology of the humanities and social sciences. It has also made a strong impact upon the development of political philosophy and research in the history of positivism.

The paper presents an overview of analytical philosophy in Lithuania. It is observed that analytical philosophy had not been studied or developed in Lithuania before the 1970s, when Evaldas Nekrasas and Rolandas Pavilionis began their work in philosophy of science and philosophy of language, rooted in analytical tradition. The article discusses the works of Nekrasas and Pavilionis, as well as those of others (e.g., Degutis and Plesnys). It notes that analytical philosophy was the first non-Marxist trend of philosophy to be developed in post-war Lithuania, and thus it was of considerable influence at the time when the Marxist methodology had to be overthrown. Although the influence of analytical philosophy in Lithuania has diminished during later years in favour of postmodern trends, it is still evident in some recent works on philosophy of mind, philosophy of causation, and methodology of the humanities and social sciences. It has also made a strong impact upon the development of political philosophy and research in the history of positivism.

Around the mid-1990s, political philosophy was pronounced dead due to the foray of logic positivism. The arguments for this were sufficiently strong to the extent that classical political philosophy could not anymore be considered a relevant framework for research. The goal of this paper is to analyze the changes which occurred in the field of studying of political philosophy around the mid-20th century (from the 1940s to the 1970s). The author here controverts the attitude that contemporary political philosophy although abandoning metaphysical frames, still preserved the normative dimension of studying the reality. The key agent through which contemporary political philosophy emerged originates from the works of philosophers of language, particularly from later works of Ludwig Wittgenstein. ; Sredinom pedesetih godina XX veka politička filozofija je usled naleta logičkog pozitivizma proglašena mrtvom. Argumenti za ovo su bili dovoljno jaki, toliko da se klasična politička filozofija više nije mogla smatrati relevantnim okvirom istraživanja. Ovaj rad ima za cilj da analizira promene koje su se dogodile na polju predmeta proučavanja političke filozofije sredinom XX veka (od četrdesetih do sedamdesetih godina). Autor u ovom polemiše sa stavom da savremena politička filozofija, iako je odustala od metafizičkih okvira, i dalje zadržala normativnu dimenziju proučavanja stvarnosti. Ključni agens kroz iz koga je proizišla savremena politička filozofija potekao je iz radova filozofa jezika, naročito iz kasnijih radova Ludviga Vitgenštajna.

This essay connects Antonio Gramsci's expanded concept of Marxian ideology to his training in linguistics and, broadly understood, philosophy of language in order to advance a hypothesis regarding Gramsci's views on literary criticism and aesthetic judgment. This hypothesis can be summed up in the following way: aesthetic judgment, including literary criticism, maintains a unity of form and content while rejecting facile attempts to reduce the global meaning of a "political" work of art to its ideological content, where ideology is understood in the sense of a series of theoretical propositions about the world, which reside in the realm of traditional Marxist superstructure. As a result, there is no recourse to either a scientific objectivity or a relativistic emphasis on subjectivity in the evaluation of works of art; instead, priority is given to an immanent, contextual interpretation of works of literature and culture. Such a methodology is intimately related to Gramsci's reworked concept of ideology and therefore deserves further consideration. Keywords: Gramsci; Ideology; Philosophy of Language, Aesthetic Judgment.

This paper addresses the problem of relativism in the social sciences and the related notion that the political life of modernising societies necessarily presents a choice between regressive/Gemeinschaftlich and progressive/Gesellshaftlich visions of community and society – between Mannheim's 'liberal/natural law' and 'conservative thought styles.' Starting from Gellner's account of Wittgenstein and Malinowski as instantiations of this 'Hapsburg Dilemma', it is argued that the Gellner/(early) Malinowski solution of epistemological co-habitation is unsatisfactory. Linking the development of human knowledge to long term dynamics of social development, Elias's processual concept of involvement and detachment, conceived as a (highly) variable balance, allows social scientists to move beyond the dualities of 'thought styles'. Involvement and Detachment provides the foundation for a historical sociology of language games and a reinvigorated social science, understood as contributing to the cumulative expansion of the social stock of knowledge.

This paper explored the conflict between Umuaro and Okperi (Fictitious Igbo towns) in Chinua Achebe's Arrow of God (A novel written by Chinua Achebe in 1965, which is a picture of struggle and dialectics between Igbo culture/religion and imported European culture/religion) in the light of Ludwig Wittgenstein's philosophy of language. The aim of the paper was to show how the use and understanding made of language can have implications for peace or war, between individuals or communities. The goal is to contribute to the promotion of peace through appropriate use and understanding of language. Philosophical method of analysis was applied in discussing Wittgenstein's views on language as well as extracts from Arrow of God. The extracts hinged on the utterances among the elders of Umuaro, as well as between Umuaro's emissaries led by Akukalia and the elders of Okperi, which eventually culminated in a war between Umuaro and Okperi. The findings of the study showed that use of words and languages can lead to peace or war, by their implications, understanding and context. The conclusion was that understanding and applying Wittgenstein's view of language as a social practice through meaning as use, language-games, rule-following, grammar and form of life can help people, especially those in positions of authority, power and influence, to make good choice of words and languages in their speeches or utterances – words and languages that promote peace instead of war or any kind of violence. Mahatma Gandhi was an example of such leaders, and it was recommended that today's leaders emulate him, for a peaceful coexistence, especially as the present society is apparently enveloped in political tensions and struggle for supremacy in various dimensions.

This bibliographical guide gives a comprehensive overview of the historiography of philosophy and thought in the Japanese language through an extensive and thematically organized collection of relevant literature. Comprising over one thousand entries, the bibliography shows not only how extensive and complex the Japanese tradition of philosophical and intellectual historiography is, but also how it might be structured and analyzed to make it accessible to a comparative and intercultural approach to the historiography of philosophy worldwide. The literature is categorized and organized according to thematic focus areas such as geographical regions and continents, nations or peoples, religious traditions and philosophical teachings such as Buddhism, Islam, Shintō, and Confucianism, as well as disciplines such as ethics, aesthetics, and political thought. The bibliography is accompanied by an introduction outlining the research method as well as quantitative and qualitative approaches to analyzing the material, followed by a chronological overview of the historiography of philosophy and thought in the Japanese language and of the Japanese tradition of writing "world histories of philosophy." As a first step towards a "history of the historiography of philosophy" in non-European languages, we hope that this guide will provide a useful tool for interculturally oriented scholarship aimed at a non-Eurocentric and diversified historiography of philosophy in a global perspective.

Small's philosophy draws its inspiration from the humanistic tradition of Western philosophical thinking. His appropriation of this tradition is especially evident in his reformulation of the western legacy of "philosophy-as-dialogue". From this perspective, Small proceeds by way of a linguistic turn, in which Kaaps (the language of "ordinary", "simple" so-called "coloured people") is presented as a worthy conduit of human reason in the pursuit of dialogue and justice in apartheid South Africa, in spite of numerous attempts over the years by racist-inspired scholarship to reduce the language to the level of ridicule and caricature. This article seeks to evaluate the philosophical merits of Small's linguistic turn, in which the "will-to-dialogue" is postulated as the normative context for exploring the question of the possibility of being-human in apartheid South Africa.

This paper focuses on the following question: how is philosophy of anything possible? Where lies the boundary of specialisation area beyond which the term "philosophy" loses not only its strength, but also its meaning? When we talk about specific genre, for example, graphic art or sculpture we use the term "philosophy" in a broader, metaphorical sense. Why then should philosophy of photography be any different? All of the above mentioned questions are discussed in the present article. Philosophy of photography is, indeed, a legitimate discipline, just as philosophy of language, philosophy of science and technology and philosophy of politics are.

If Castilian was the first ordinary language to be employed in philosophy since the 12th century; if Spain was the first modern state since the end of the 15th century; if –in line with its early modern state-building– Spain had the first modern grammar conceived of with the explicit purpose of imposing Castilian as the language of "victors" on "other pilgrim languages" of "subjugated" peoples; if Spain wrote the first page of the modern Era –and apparently of modern social and political thought– with the "conquest and destruction" of American indigenous peoples; why then the infertility of modern philosophical Castilian? The aim of this work is to analyze these different "topics" on the alleged infertility of modern philosophical Spanish thinking. ; Si el castellano fue la primera lengua vulgar volcada a la filosofía desde el siglo XII; si España fue el primer Estado moderno desde fines del XV; si España dispuso, en consonancia con su temprana estatalización moderna, de la primera gramática concebida con el explícito empeño de imponer el castellano como lengua de "vencedores" a "otras peregrinas lenguas" de pueblos "subyugados"; si España abrió la primera página de la Era moderna –y a lo que se ha visto, del pensamiento político-social moderno– con la "conquista y destrucción" de los pueblos americanos; ¿por qué la infertilidad del castellano filosófico moderno? El objetivo de este trabajo es analizar estos diferentes "tópicos" sobre la supuesta infertilidad del pensamiento filosófico español moderno.

Abu Hamid al-Ghazali is a major figure in Muslim thought and famous for his writings on theology and mysticism. Al-Ghazali's first career was that of a jurist and he had made major contributions to the jurisprudence of the Shafii school. As time goes on his juristic contributions are increasingly being relegated to a secondary level. This thesis attempts to place one of al-Ghazali's last writings on legal theory (Usul al-figh), al-Mustafa, in perspective and evaluate its significance in the genre of Usul al-figh literature. The focus of this thesis is the interface between law, language and theology as it manifests itself in a 'close reading' of al-Mustafa and his biography as a jurist. Al-Ghazali's legal theory was very much shaped by his personal biography, intellectual, political and social contexts, which in tum were constituted by the language of theology and law. The controversies centered around the use of philosophical theology and 'foreign knowledge" in the discourse of religion. Al-Ghazali attempted to negotiate the tension-ridden ideological chasms between traditionalist and rationalist tendencies by fusing and synthesising the disparate intellectual disciplines. The battlefield for these ideological conflicts was the discipline of legal theory and law. In his role as synthesiser of disciplines, a bricoleur, al-Ghazali often ended up vacillating between binary opposites, and was caught between stability and instability, order and disorder. Despite his attempts to stabilise language by means of a metaphysics, it was the semiotic nature of language that continuously destabilised his juridical and theological discourses.

Educational and language philosophy compact between education and language philosophy. Education philosophy seeks the truth in education section. While, language philosophy is combination between linguistics and philosophy. Hence, language is as a vital medium in philosophyzing. The research was aimed to acertain the educational and language philosophy principle. This research used content analysis inferential. The data resource was 'Basic English Handout' for the first semester students of Early Childhood Education Program of Hamzanwadi University. The data were collected by: data making, data reduction, inference, and analyzing the data. To ascertain valid and reliable data used semantic validation data and test-retest reliability. The researchers used analytical construct with qualitative conceptual domain in analyzing data. The results showed that educational and language philosophy principle on 'Basic English Handout' were: existentialism, reconstructionism, and humanism. Existentialism reffered to students' activities on: committing oneself in learning concrete experience, dynamic, reflection observation, active experimentation, and creating thinking conceptualization. While, reconstructionism created students on: problem solving, focusing on transformation (direct participation), democracy, learning by doing, cooperation in learning and doing the exercises. Last, humanisme instructed students to: think inductively, explore and develop self-concept, develop own experience and trials, actively participating, and dicipline in learning activities.

John Wilkins's Mercury or the Secret and Swift Messenger: Showing How a Man May with Privacy and Speed Communicate His Thoughts to a Friend at Any Distance was first published in 1641. As a book on cryptography presenting a variety of secret means of communication at a distance it seems to have appeared at just the right time, when the biblical curse of the confusion of tongues was doubled by the curse of political confusion on the brink of the English civil war. However, the book seems to be more than just a detailed account of methods of secret writing; its topic gives the author a chance to present his views on language which he would later develop in his life's work An Essay towards Real Character and a Philosophical Language published in 1668. The Essay had received much greater critical attention than the early pamphlet, which is usually referred to as merely a prelude to an account of his universal language project. Indeed, in the little book on cryptography, Wilkins already demonstrated his awareness of the conventional character of language and its role within the system of human interactions, as well as advertised a project of philosophical language that would enhance communication between all nations and remedy the curse of Babel. The aim of this paper is to demonstrate that the value of the pamphlet lies also in the insight that it gives into the seventeenth-century debates on the nature of language and into arguments which were often provided, in equal measure, by theology, Hermetic lore, mythology, literature and early modern science. Wilkins's meticulous recording of the contradictory views and propositions on language produces a sense of methodological inconsistency that leads to ambiguities and paradoxes. However, in the medley of concepts and the collection of linguistic "curiosities" that Mercury presents, a careful reader will discern the growing mistrust of language as a means of representing reality and as a foundation of knowledge, which was one of the symptoms of the general crisis of representation leading to an epistemological shift that started in the seventeenth century.