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The study of policy instruments dates from the early seventies, though there has been written a lot before especially in economics about government intervention in relation to market imperfections. A policy instrument refers the means of government intervention in markets or, in broader perspective, society in order to accomplish goals or to solve problems. The behavioral assumption underlying a policy instrument is that it attempts to get people do things that they might not otherwise have done. In the last fifty years we featured a transformation not just in the scope and scale of the role of the government, but also in the proliferation of tools that it has to its disposal for public action. In retrospect a distinction can made between three partly overlapping stadiums in the study of policy instruments.

"New Policy Instruments" published on by Oxford University Press.

The Lisbon Agenda that was launched in 2000, and had a set time-period of ten years. The purpose of the Lisbon Agenda was to make the EU the most competitive, knowledge-based economy in the world, and at the same time preserving, or even improving social cohesion and maintain environmental sustainability. The Lisbon Agenda had a large number of goals, in both quantified and qualified measures, in different areas. The main instrument that was put forward was the open method of co-ordination (OMC) that includes indicators, benchmarking, peer pressure, and best practise demonstrations. The forthcoming Lisbon Agenda will certainly need new approaches, and new instruments. One of the areas of instruments that can be further explored is innovation policies where the use of R&D and human capital is enhanced. Human capital is a natural part of a knowledge-based economy, and has positive impacts on growth, and jobs in the economy. Innovation policy instruments are diversified and are integrated in many areas of an economy and on many levels, which make them ideal for the next Lisbon Agenda. The instruments can have a general or specific characteristics and some span over the two characteristics. ; Qc 20120208

INTERACT - Researching Third Country Nationals' Integration as a Three-way Process - Immigrants, Countries of Emigration and Countries of Immigration as Actors of Integration ; This research report gives an overview of the context and tools of integration policies in Estonia. As the overview suggests, the sphere of integration policy is in tension and is partially securitised, particularly due to conflicting goals with the Compatriot Policy of the Russian Federation. The field of integration is still dominantly focused on the Russophone population who immigrated to Estonia during the Soviet period. Estonian At the same time, integration policies are also beginning to deal with new immigrants, and the government institutions are starting to implement policies targeted to that particular group. There are also three distinct groups of nongovernmental organisations operating in the field of integration policy: the cultural associations funded by the government and in accordance with national integration policy goals, the political minority associations—among which several probably receive funding from Russia, and NGOs providing services, which have rather different profiles. However, there are also a number of for-profit firms, public schools etc. that get funding from the state integration budget and provide services. This results from the outsourcing of integration-related activities by government institutions. ; INTERACT is co-financed by the European University Institute and the European Union

The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the literature on the political economy of policy instrument choice and relate it to the experiences in agriculture. The paper is therefore organized as follows. The second section provides a ranking of policies as to their transfer efficiency and determines the standard of evaluation, given that no policy is perfect in achieving its goals. The third section explores why political competition does not ensure that an efficient policy instrument is chosen. The following two sections explain the two key theories: enforcement and commitment problems in section four, and information and agency problems in section five. Section six presents the important Grossman-Helpman model of inefficient policy choice that falls outside these two general theories. Section seven describes how policy instrument choice in agriculture is often a discrete outcome in response to a crisis and therefore becomes path dependent, resulting in a status quo bias. Section eight describes how trade agreements can affect policy instrument choice. The final section gives some guidance as to the outstanding issues.

"Policy Instruments and Administrative Capacities" published on by Oxford University Press.