학위논문 (석사) -- 서울대학교 대학원 : 사범대학 협동과정 글로벌교육협력전공, 2020. 8. 김선영. ; Honduras has the second-highest rate of adolescent pregnancy (28%) in Latin America (WHO, UNFPA, UN, 2019) which has a lasting impact on not only physical and mental health risks on adolescent, but also on individual and family issues such as school dropouts, poverty, and stigma beyond community problems such as economic recession and gender discrimination (Hodgkinson, Colantuoni, Roberts, Berg-Cross, & Belcher, 2010; Morris & Rushwan, 2015; WHO, 2014). The aims of this thesis are three-fold. This first aim is to explore the social determinants of health for adolescent pregnancy by analyzing the qualitative data. Based on that, the second is to identify plausible educational efforts to decreases adolescent pregnancy as well as promote adolescent sexual and reproductive health. Specifically, the third is to identify what improvements and complements or new aspects to existing education programs should be introduced for developing an effective health education program for the prevention of adolescent pregnancy. It also highlights the necessity of the development of social services and intervention policy for the prevention of adolescent pregnancy. Based on the Analytical Dualism in Archer's Morphogenetic Approach, the theoretical framework was formed. In other words, the theoretical background is that social change is driven by social action caused by the reflexivity between social conditions and the agency given on the issue of adolescent pregnancy. This thesis adopts a qualitative methodology. The data utilized in this study is collected from the interviews, Focus Group interviews (FGI), and field documents (Textbooks). The thesis collected from 14 participants: two principals, four teachers, three parents, three students, and two community women who have experienced adolescent pregnancy. The main results are as follows: The social determinants of health of adolescent pregnancy which pre-exist in Honduras; 1) unstable economic situation, 2) social norm; reluctance toward sex, Machismo 3) broken family, 4) Insufficient support from government and 5) the lack of SRHR education. Unfortunately, the rate of adolescent pregnancy continues to increase. However, despite the poor social conditions, social changes to prevent adolescent pregnancy have been discovered in an agency who has their own learning experience and personal concerns; 1) critical opinions toward Honduras to improve social change 2) care for others (service) 3) continuous efforts for social action, 4) constructive attitude toward their life and Honduras and 5) clear sexual values (sex ethics). Furthermore, the educational contents that need be included in sexual and reproductive and health rights education based on the context of Honduras are 1) The consequence of adolescent pregnancy 2) the meaning of relationships, love, and family-based on the value of sex (sex ethics), and 3) counseling approach. In addition, policy support is essential to expand the reform of sexual and reproductive health rights education based on the concerns of these agencies to include non-formal and informal education. In addition, the community participation and policy support are essential to expanding the reformed SRHR education based on the personal concern of agency who has positive impacts on and the contents required in the context of Honduras to informal education and non-formal education. This study focuses on the role of sexual and reproductive and health rights education, which can be demonstrated as an indicator of education, health, and gender equality among sustainable development goals. It also contributes to suggest the implementation of improved health education considering local, social culture and political context in Honduras to solve the adolescent pregnancy. ; 온두라스는 라틴아메리카에서 두번째로 높은 청소년 임신률 (28%)을 기록하고 있다 (WHO, UNFPA, UN, 2019). 청소년 임신은 청소년의 신체적 정신적 건강상 위험요인으로 작용할 뿐만 아니라, 학교 중퇴, 빈곤의 악순환 및 사회적 스티그마와 같은 개인과 가족의 문제에서부터 경기침체, 양성차별과 같은 지역사회의 문제로까지 확대되어 지속적인 영향을 끼친다. (WHO, 2014; Hodgkinson SC et al., 2010; Morris, 2015). 본 연구는 온두라스의 높은 청소년 임신률에 영향을 미치는 요인들을 질적자료 분석을 통해 폭넓게 탐색하고, 이를 바탕으로 청소년 임신 예방과 청소년들의 성생식건강 증진을 위해 어떠한 교육적 노력이 필요한지를 파악하는 것을 목적으로 한다. 구체적으로, 효과적인 청소년 임신 예방 교육 프로그램을 개발 하기 위해서는 기존 교육 프로그램이 어떤 개선, 보완을 거쳐야 하는지 또는 어떤 새로운 측면이 도입되어야 하는지를 파악한다. 또한 청소년 임신 예방을 위한 사회적 서비스 개발 및 정책적 개입의 필요성을 강조하고자 한다. 본 연구에서는 Archer의 형태발생론 접근법(Morphogenetic Approach)의 분석적 이원론(Analytical dualism)을 바탕으로 이론적 틀을 구성하였다. 즉, 청소년 임신문제 관련해 주어진 사회적 조건들과 이에 대한 주체적 개인(Agency)의 성찰(reflexivity)로 야기된 사회적 행동(Social action)을 통해 사회변화가 이끌어 진다는 점을 이론적 근거로 삼았다. 본 연구는 질적연구 방법론을 채택하였으며, 연구에서 활용된 데이터는 인터뷰, 초점그룹 인터뷰(FGI) 및 현장문서(textbook)를 통해 수집하였다. 총 14명의 참여자들(교장 2명, 교사 4명, 학부모 3명, 학생 3명, 여성 2명)을 대상으로 수행되었다. 본 연구의 주요 결과는 다음과 같다. 온두라스에 이미 존재하고 있는 청소년 임신의 결정요인으로 1) 불안정한 경제 상황, 2) 사회규범_성에 대한 거부감, 남성우월주의 문화 3) 붕괴된 가정 4) 정부의 불충분한 지원, 5) 성과 생식 건강 권 교육의 부족이 꼽혔다. 이로 인해, 온두라스에서는 청소년 임신율이 계속해서 증가하고 있다. 하지만 열악한 사회적 조건에도 불구하고, 자신의 학습경험을 비롯하여 1) 온두라스의 사회변화를 위한 비판적 시각, 2) 봉사정신, 3) 사회적행동 실천력, 4) 온두라스와 자신의 삶에 대한 건설적인 태도 5) 분명한 성가치관(성윤리)를 가진 주체적 개체 로서의 인식에 기반하여 청소년 임신 예방을 위한 사회변화가 진행되고 있음도 발견할 수 있었다. 또한, 온두라스의 상황에 맞게 개편된 성교육에 포함되어야 할 요소로 1) 청소년임신의 신체적, 정신적, 사회적 어려움, 2) 성가치관(성윤리)에 바탕을 둔 관계, 사랑, 가족의 의미 3) 교육상담에 대한 요구가 있었다. 앞에서 다룬 내용들을 근거로 하는 개편된 성교육에는 비형식, 무형식 교육으로 까지 확대 시행하기 위해서, 지역사회 참여 및 정책적 지원 역시 수반 되어야 할 것이다. 본 연구는 지속가능한 개발목표 중 교육, 건강, 양성평등의 지표로 볼 수 있는 성교육의 역할에 주목했으며, 청소년 임신 문제를 개선된 성교육을 통해 해결하기 위해, 현지의 사회문화, 정치적 상황 및 기타 요인들을 포괄적으로 고려한 성생식보건 교육 프로그램의 이행을 제시하고 있다는데 중요한 의의를 갖는다. ; CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Study Background 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem 5 1.2.1 The risk of Adolescent Pregnancy 5 1.2.2 The need for SRHR education that adopted the context of Honduras 8 1.3 Significance of the Study 9 1.4 Purpose of the Study and Research Questions 11 CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW 13 2.1 Education for Social change 14 2.1.1 Three approaches of educational sociology: functionalism, Marxist theory, and ermeneutic approach 14 2.1.2 The necessity of a hermeneutic approach in Global Education Development Cooperation 20 2.1.3 Morphogenetic Approach 23 2.2 Social Determinants of Global Health 29 2.3 Program Theory 34 2.4 Health Education 38 2.4.1 The definition of Health Education 38 2.4.2 Health literacy 40 2.5 Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights Education 44 2.5.1 The attention of SRHR education for adolescents in the field of global health education. 44 2.5.2 SRHR education 47 2.5.3 SRHR education in Latin America 56 CHAPTER Ⅲ. RESEARCH METHOD 59 3.1 Research Methods 59 3.1.1 Methodological consideration: Qualitative Research 59 3.1.2 Study setting 60 3.1.3 Research Process; Field Research 61 3.2 Data collection & Participants 64 3.3 Data Analysis & Analytical Framework 70 3.4 Ethical Consideration 74 CHAPTER Ⅳ. FINDINGS 76 4.1 Structural Conditioning 76 4.1.1 Ongoing high level of Adolescents' Pregnancy in Honduras 76 4.1.2 Social determinants of health for Adolescent Pregnancy in Honduras 81 4.1.3 Analysis of structural conditioning of Adolescent Pregnancy in Honduras 104 4.2 Social Interaction 106 4.2.1 Personal concern; What we care about Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights 106 4.2.2 Structural intervention; Quality Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights Educational strategies 109 4.2.3 Analysis of Social Interaction of Adolescent Pregnancy in Honduras 117 4.3 Structural Elaboration 120 4.3.1 Changing Society through education 121 4.3.2 Analysis of Social Elaboration of Adolescent Pregnancy in Honduras 130 4.4 Analysis of Adolescent Pregnancy in Honduras using the Framework. 132 CHAPTER Ⅴ. DISCUSSION 136 5.1 The preexistence of great gulf fixed in structural conditioning 136 5.2 The importance of the agency to change society 138 5.3 The effective SRHR education as a positive intervention 143 5.4 The change of the agency through education for social change. 148 5.5 Limitation 152 CHAPTER Ⅵ. CONCLUSION 154 REFERENCES 157 APPENDIXS 167 Appendix 1. Textbooks in Honduras 167 Appendix 2. List of Example Questions used in the Interview 177 Appendix 3. IRB Documents 179 Appendix 4. Field Research Photos 184 Appendix 5. Spanish Abstract 186 국문 초록 190 ; Master
Introduction: Meta-analysis can be conceptualized as a multilevel analysis: effect sizes are nested within studies. Effect sizes vary due to sampling variance at Level 1, and possibly also due to systematic differences across studies at Level 2. Therefore, multilevel models and software can be used to perform meta-analysis. An advantage of using the multilevel framework for doing meta-analyses is the flexibility of multilevel models. For instance, additional levels can be added to deal with dependent effect sizes within and between studies. In primary studies, it is common to report multiple effect sizes extracted from the same sample. Also, studies might belong to different higher-level clusters, as countries or research groups. These two scenarios generate dependency among effect sizes, and for appropriately accounting for this dependency (and therefore avoid inflated Type I errors), additional levels can be added that explicitly account for the variation among effect sizes within and/or between studies. Besides hierarchical models, other non-purely hierarchical models have been also proposed for meta-analysis, such as Cross-Classified Random Effects models (CCREMs, Fernández-Castilla et al., 2018). Although multilevel models are very flexible, we suspect that applied researchers do not take advantage of all possibilities that these models offer. In fact, most published meta-analyses are restricted to three-level models despite some meta-analytic data require other model specifications, such as four- or five- level models or CCREMs. Therefore, the goal of this study is to describe how multilevel models are typically applied in meta-analysis and to illustrate how, in some meta-analyses, more sophisticated models could have been applied that accounts better for the (non) hierarchical data structure. Method: Meta-analyses that applied multilevel models with more than one random component were searched in June, 2018. We looked at the meta-analyses that cited the studies of Cheung (2014), Hox and De Leeuw (2003), Konstantopoulos (2011), Raudenbush and Bryk (1985), and Van den Noortgate, López-López, Marín-Martínez, & Sánchez-Meca (2013, 2014). We also searched in six electronic databases, using the strings "three-level meta-analysis" OR "multilevel meta-analysis" OR "multilevel meta-analytic review". No date restriction was imposed. Meta-analysis were included if: a) effect sizes were combined using a multilevel model with more than one random component; b) The meta-analysis was included in a journal article, conference presentation or a dissertation; c) The meta-analysis was written in English, Spanish or Dutch. Results: The initial search resulted in 1,286 studies. After applying the inclusion criteria, we finally retrieved 178 meta-analyses. From these, 162 meta-analysis fitted a three-level model, 9 fitted a four-level model, 5 applied CCREMs, and 2 reported a five-level model. We could distinguish five situations in which other models different from the three-level model would have been more appropriate given the (non) hierarchical data structure: 1. A fourth level could have been added to model dependency within studies. For instance, Fischer and Boer (2011) specified a three-level model, were effect sizes (Level 1) were nested within studies (Level 2), nested within countries (Level 3). There were several effect sizes within studies, but this within-study variance was ignored. Therefore, it would have been appropriate to add an additional level to model between-outcomes (within-study) variance. 2. A fourth level could have been specified to deal with more sources of within-study dependencies. For instance, in O'Mara (2006), there were several interventions within studies, and that is why a three-level model was specified: Sampling variance (Level 1), between-interventions variance (Level 2), and between-studies variance (Level 3). However, there were 200 interventions and 460 effect sizes in total, meaning that each intervention led to multiple effect sizes, and that the dependency between these outcomes (within interventions) was not taken into account. A more appropriate model would have been a four-level model: Sampling variance (Level 1), between-outcomes variance (Level 2), between-comparisons variance (Level 3) and between-studies variance (Level 4). 3. A fourth level could have been added to take into account dependency across studies. In the study of Klomp and Valckx (2014), a three-level model was fitted because there were multiple outcomes within studies. In this case, some studies made use of the same big dataset, so a fourth level could have been added to model between-datasets variance. 4. A five-level model could have been applied to model additional within-study and between-study dependencies. In Rabl, Jayasinghe, Gerhart, and Kühlmann (2014), a three-level model was fitted, where effect sizes were nested within studies, nested within countries. There were several effect sizes within studies, so an additional level could have been added to model within-study variance. Furthermore, some studies used the same dataset, so another level could have been specified to estimate the between-datasets variance. The inclusion of these two additional levels would have led to a five-level model. 5. CCREM's could have been applied instead of three-level models. In the study of Fisher, Hanke and Sibley (2012), effect sizes were nested within studies, nested within countries. However, studies were not completely nested within countries, but rather studies and countries were two cross-classified factors: in one study, effect sizes could come from different countries, and effect sizes from the same country could belong to different studies. Therefore, a CCREM model would have accounted better for this cross-classified data structure. Discussion: This systematic review shows how researchers using multilevel model typically apply three-level models to account for dependent effect sizes, although alternative model specifications, such as four- or five- level models or CCREMs, might be more correct given the nature of the data. We have given some examples of how alternative models could have been used for meta-analysis, and we encourage researchers to carefully consider the underlying data structure before selecting a specific multilevel model. Omitting levels in a multilevel analysis might increase the possibility of committing a Type I error. Therefore, the proper specification of the model is the only way to guarantee appropriate estimates of the combined effect size, standard errors, and variance components. References: Cheung, M. W. L. (2014). Modeling dependent effect sizes with three-level meta-analyses: A structural equation modeling approach. Psychological Methods, 19, 211-229. Fernández-Castilla, B., Maes, M., Declercq, L., Jamshidi, L., Beretvas, S. N., Onghena, P., & Van den Noortgate, W. (2018). A demonstration and evaluation of the use of cross-classified random-effects models for meta-analysis. Behavior Research Methods, 1-19. Fischer, R., & Boer, D. (2011). What is more important for national well-being: money or autonomy? A meta-analysis of well-being, burnout, and anxiety across 63 societies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 164-184. Fischer, R., Hanke, K., & Sibley, C. G. (2012). Cultural and institutional determinants of social dominance orientation: A cross‐cultural meta‐analysis of 27 societies. Political Psychology, 33, 437-467. Hox, J. J., & de Leeuw, E. D. (2003). Multilevel models for meta-analysis. In S. P. Reise & N. Duan (Eds.), Multilevel modeling: Methodological advances, issues, and applications (pp. 90–111). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Klomp, J., & Valckx, K. (2014). Natural disasters and economic growth: A meta-analysis. Global Environmental Change, 26, 183-195. Konstantopoulos, S. (2011). Fixed effects and variance components estimation in three-level meta-analysis. Research Synthesis Methods, 2, 61-76. O'Mara, A. J., Marsh, H. W., & Craven, R. G. (July, 2006). A Comprehensive Multilevel Model Meta-Analysis of Self-Concept Interventions. In Fourth International Biennial SELF Research Conference, Ann Arbor. Rabl, T., Jayasinghe, M., Gerhart, B., & Kühlmann, T. M. (2014). A meta-analysis of country differences in the high-performance work system–business performance relationship: The roles of national culture and managerial discretion. Journal of Applied Psychology, 99, 1011-1041. Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (1985). Empirical Bayes meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Statistics, 10, 75-98. Van den Noortgate, W., López-López, J. A., Marín-Martínez, F., & Sánchez-Meca, J. (2013). Three-level meta-analysis of dependent effect sizes. Behavior Research Methods, 45, 576-594. Van den Noortgate, W., López-López, J. A., Marín-Martínez, F., & Sánchez-Meca, J. (2014). Meta-analysis of multiple outcomes: A multilevel approach. Behavior Research Methods, 47, 1274-1294.
In: Wadsholt , T K 2014 , ' Exploring interepistemological encounters in international HE at the intersection of ideologies of neoliberalism and ethical globalization ' , SRHE 2014 , Newport in South Wales, United Kingdom , United Kingdom , 10/12/2014 - 12/12/2014 .
Within recent years, plurality and difference have been embraced in higher education both by internationalization strategies originating in a neoliberal marked-driven process as well as by counter-ideologies of ethical globalization. The neoliberal transformation has resulted in new ontologies of the university, e.g. "the entrepreneurial university" (Barnett 2012) or "the global university" (Biesta 2011) in its external relation to society defined by its preoccupation with the economic and technical development of society and with matching the needs of the labor marked (e.g.Rhoads and Szelenyi 2011, Arambewela 2010) and internally on the education marked by universities becoming similar because they are playing the same game (Biesta 2011). Furthermore, it has enforced the power structures of the international field of HE defined by flows of people and capital towards the global North and flows of knowledge produced in the North towards the South (Marginson 2008, Calhoun 2006, Altbach 2004). The ontological and structural changes is accompanied by a new epistemological hegemony of "useful" (Peters and Olssen 2005) or "specific, problem-solving knowledge" (Barnett 2012) and by new knowledge authorities such as consultants, professionals and free-lance experts (Barnett 2012). However, critics of the neo-liberal university argue that the university as educator and knowledge producer should engage in a more ethical knowledge production. It is a call for an academic knowledge production that recognizes the challenges of globalization and of the interconnectedness of lives (Rhoads and Szelenyi 2011); that recognizes the world's epistemological diversity (Santos, Nunes, and Meneses 2007); that recognizes and challenges Eurocentric paradigms (Paraskeva 2010) and makes ethical choices "in the shape of academic inquiry" (Barnett 2012, 224). At Aarhus University, the general internationalization strategy is inscribed in a neoliberal ideology and describes the development of intercultural(IC) competence in students as both a means for success in the labor marked and to success for business. The faculty-level internationalization strategies, however, both draw upon neoliberal and more ethically oriented globalization discourses and describes the aim of internationalization in terms such as developing the "flexible knowledge" needed to operate in a globalized world or "global citizenship". However, the relationship between the ideological approaches to internationalization, implied understandings of IC competence and the impact upon inter-epistemological encounters, understood as encounters between people and institutions socialized in or enacting different epistemological frameworks, is not reflected upon. Seeing international higher education as a field structured by neoliberalism at one pole and counter-ideologies of ethical globalization on the other, the paper maps the interaction of these ideologies in the epistemologies at play at three international master programs at Aarhus University and in their visions of IC competence. Drawing upon educational sociology and ethical theory, it is compared to how the "different" knowledge of the other students' is encountered, negotiated, rejected or acknowledged and made use of. Methodology and data The paper draws upon data from three international master programs at Aarhus University. The programs were selected so that they all have diverse student bodies and so that they represent different approaches to internationalization and recruit different kinds of students. The first program is an international business program. It attracts students pursuing a career in an international company. The program started with a vision of creating an international study environment to give the students cultural insights but today, the international aspect relates to the academic content about international business. In the program, about 50 % of the students are international. However, a large number of the international students have a bachelor degree from Aarhus University or other Danish universities. The second program is an interdisciplinary program in Human Security. It attracts students who want to work in aid-oriented organizations or NGOs. It is a collaboration between ethnography, biology, social science and external consultants. About 65 % of the students are international and both international and interdisciplinary cooperation is stressed. The third program is an Erasmus Mundus program in Journalism and Globalization, which offers joint degrees in cooperation with other European universities. Approximately 95 % of the students are international and the international composition of the student body is stressed as an asset. It is emphasized that the teachers speak from a liberal and European perspective but the students are encouraged to challenge it. Data about was produced with several methods: • Classroom observations focusing on epistemologies drawn upon by the lecturers and on how students acknowledge and negotiate knowledge relating to theoretical, methodological, political, cultural and paradigmatic aspects of the program. • In-depth interviews with 20 students reflecting on how knowledge is negotiated between students' different epistemological systems and epistemologies drawn upon in the program. • Policy documents relating to internationalization strategies retrieved from the university's web-page. Theoretical framework The understanding of the field as structured around a neoliberal ideology of competition and marketization on the one hand and a counter-ideology of ethical globalization involving recognition of epistemological diversity on the other calls for a theoretical framework which both encompasses existing power-structures, processes assisting their reproduction and the ethical agency that insists on recognition of difference. In the paper, Bourdieu's educational sociology (e.g. Bourdieu and Passeron 1990, Bourdieu 1989, 1986, 1994, 1977, 1988), his concepts field, habitus, capital and symbolic violence, are therefor drawn upon together with Levinas' understanding of the ethical encounter as an encounter with the other as an other who is not reduced to the same and the experience of that encounter as a trace of the other (e.g. Levinas 1996, Levinas 1986). Findings and discussion Three main types of inter-epistemological encounters are identified: 1: Remaining other: the encounter as traces of the other's knowledge 2: Becoming the same: the encounter as reduction and merger of epistemological positions 3: Rejecting the other: the encounter as reproduction of hegemonic epistemologies Finally, the paper will discuss the relationship between the typologies and the ideological approaches and the embedding of IC competence in neoliberal frameworks as potential barrier to fruitful inter-epistemological encounters. Altbach, P.G. 2004. "Globalization and the University: Myths and realities in an unequal world." Tertiary Education and Management 2 (1):83-110. Arambewela, R. 2010. "Student experience in the globalized Higher Education market: Challenges and Research Imperatives." In Globalization and internationalization in Higher Education: Theoretical, strategic and management perspectives, edited by F. Maringe and N. Foskett, 155-173. London: Continuum Publishing. Barnett, Ronald. 2012. "Liquid Knowledge, Liquid Universities." In Universities in the Knowledge Economy: Higher Education Organization and Global Change, edited by P. Temple. London and NY: Routledge. Biesta, G. 2011. "How useful should the university be? On the rise of the global university and the crisis in Higher Education." Qui Parle 20 (1):35-47. Bourdieu, Pierre. 1977. Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge: Polity Press. Bourdieu, Pierre. 1986. "The Forms of Capital." In Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education, edited by J. Richardson. New York: Greenwood. Bourdieu, Pierre. 1988. Homo Academicus. Cambridge: Polity Press. Bourdieu, Pierre. 1989. "Social Space and Symbolic Power." Sociological Theory 7 (1):14-25. Bourdieu, Pierre. 1994. "Rethinking the State: Genesis and Structure of the Bureaucratic Field." Sociological Theory 12 (1):18. Bourdieu, Pierre, and J.-C. Passeron. 1990. Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture. 2 ed. London etc: Sage. Calhoun, C. 2006. "The University and the public good." Thesis Eleven 84 (1). Levinas, E. 1996. "Is Ontology Fundamental?" In Emmanuel Levinas: Basic Philosophical Writings, edited by Bernasconi, Critchley and Peperzak, 1-10. Bloomington: Indiana U.P. Levinas, Emmanuel. 1986. "The Trace of the Other." In Deconstruction in Context, edited by Mark Taylor, 345-359. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Marginson, Simon. 2008. "Global field and global imagining: Bourdieu and worldwide higher education." British Journal of Sociology of Education 29 (3):303-15. Paraskeva, J.M. 2010. Unaccomplished utopia: Neoconservative dismantling of public education in the European Union. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Peters, Michael A., and Mark Olssen. 2005. "'Useful Knowledge': Redefining Research and Teaching in the Learning Economy." In Reshaping the University: New Relationships between Research, Scholarhip and Teaching, edited by Ronald Barnett. Open University Press. Rhoads, R.A., and K. Szelenyi. 2011. Global citizenship and the university: Advancing social life and relations in an interdependent world. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Santos, B.d.S., J.A. Nunes, and J.P. Meneses. 2007. "Opening up the Canon of Knowledge and Recognition of Difference." In Another Knowledge is Possible: Beyond Northers Epistemologies, edited by B.d.S. Santos. London: Verso.
Bad governance causes economic, social, developmental and environmental problems in many developing countries. Developing countries have adopted a number of reforms that have assisted in achieving good governance. The success of governance reform depends on the starting point of each country – what institutional arrangements exist at the out-set and who the people implementing reforms within the existing institutional framework are. This dissertation focuses on how formal institutions (laws and regulations) and informal institutions (culture, habit and conception) impact on good governance. Three characteristics central to good governance - transparency, participation and accountability are studied in the research. A number of key findings were: Good governance in Hanoi and Berlin represent the two extremes of the scale, while governance in Berlin is almost at the top of the scale, governance in Hanoi is at the bottom. Good governance in Hanoi is still far from achieved. In Berlin, information about public policies, administrative services and public finance is available, reliable and understandable. People do not encounter any problems accessing public information. In Hanoi, however, public information is not easy to access. There are big differences between Hanoi and Berlin in the three forms of participation. While voting in Hanoi to elect local deputies is formal and forced, elections in Berlin are fair and free. The candidates in local elections in Berlin come from different parties, whereas the candidacy of local deputies in Hanoi is thoroughly controlled by the Fatherland Front. Even though the turnout of voters in local deputy elections is close to 90 percent in Hanoi, the legitimacy of both the elections and the process of representation is non-existent because the local deputy candidates are decided by the Communist Party. The involvement of people in solving local problems is encouraged by the government in Berlin. The different initiatives include citizenry budget, citizen activity, citizen initiatives, etc. Individual citizens are free to participate either individually or through an association. Lacking transparency and participation, the quality of public service in Hanoi is poor. Citizens seldom get their services on time as required by the regulations. Citizens who want to receive public services can bribe officials directly, use the power of relationships, or pay a third person – the mediator ("Cò" - in Vietnamese). In contrast, public service delivery in Berlin follows the customer-orientated principle. The quality of service is high in relation to time and cost. Paying speed money, bribery and using relationships to gain preferential public service do not exist in Berlin. Using the examples of Berlin and Hanoi, it is clear to see how transparency, participation and accountability are interconnected and influence each other. Without a free and fair election as well as participation of non-governmental organisations, civil organisations, and the media in political decision-making and public actions, it is hard to hold the Hanoi local government accountable. The key differences in formal institutions (regulative and cognitive) between Berlin and Hanoi reflect the three main principles: rule of law vs. rule by law, pluralism vs. monopoly Party in politics and social market economy vs. market economy with socialist orientation. In Berlin the logic of appropriateness and codes of conduct are respect for laws, respect of individual freedom and ideas and awareness of community development. People in Berlin take for granted that public services are delivered to them fairly. Ideas such as using money or relationships to shorten public administrative procedures do not exist in the mind of either public officials or citizens. In Hanoi, under a weak formal framework of good governance, new values and norms (prosperity, achievement) generated in the economic transition interact with the habits of the centrally-planned economy (lying, dependence, passivity) and traditional values (hierarchy, harmony, family, collectivism) influence behaviours of those involved. In Hanoi "doing the right thing" such as compliance with law doesn't become "the way it is". The unintended consequence of the deliberate reform actions of the Party is the prevalence of corruption. The socialist orientation seems not to have been achieved as the gap between the rich and the poor has widened. Good governance is not achievable if citizens and officials are concerned only with their self-interest. State and society depend on each other. Theoretically to achieve good governance in Hanoi, institutions (formal and informal) able to create good citizens, officials and deputies should be generated. Good citizens are good by habit rather than by nature. The rule of law principle is necessary for the professional performance of local administrations and People's Councils. When the rule of law is applied consistently, the room for informal institutions to function will be reduced. Promoting good governance in Hanoi is dependent on the need and desire to change the government and people themselves. Good governance in Berlin can be seen to be the result of the efforts of the local government and citizens after a long period of development and continuous adjustment. Institutional transformation is always a long and complicated process because the change in formal regulations as well as in the way they are implemented may meet strong resistance from the established practice. This study has attempted to point out the weaknesses of the institutions of Hanoi and has identified factors affecting future development towards good governance. But it is not easy to determine how long it will take to change the institutional setting of Hanoi in order to achieve good governance. ; Bad governance (schlechte Regierungsführung) verursacht neben wirtschaftlichen und sozialen Schäden auch Umwelt- und Entwicklungsprobleme in vielen Entwicklungsländern. Entwicklungsländer haben zahlreiche Reformen in Angriff genommen, welche sie in der Entwicklung von good governance (gute Regierungsführung) unterstützen sollen. Der Erfolg solcher Reformen staatlicher Steuerungs- und Regelsysteme hängt jedoch maßgeblich von der Ausgangssituation in den einzelnen Ländern ab. Einfluss auf den Erfolg haben Faktoren wie z. B. die existierende institutionelle Ordnung, auf die zu Beginn solcher Reformen zurückgegriffen werden kann. Auch der verantwortliche Personenkreis, der mit der Umsetzung der Reformen beauftragt wird, ist für deren Erfolg maßgeblich. Diese Dissertation befasst sich damit, wie sich formelle Institutionen (Gesetze und Regeln) sowie informelle Institutionen (Kultur, Gewohnheit und Wahrnehmung) auf good governance auswirken können. Im Rahmen dieser Forschungsarbeit werden drei Merkmale mit besonderem Bezug zu good governance untersucht: Transparenz, Partizipation und Rechenschaftspflicht. Folgende Untersuchungsergebnisse sind hervorzuheben: In Bezug auf good governance stellen Berlin und Hanoi zwei Extreme dar. Während Berlin auf einer "good-governance-Skala" im positiven oberen Bereich anzusiedeln wäre, müsste sich Hanoi eher im unteren Bereich wiederfinden. Good governance im Sinne von verantwortungsvoller Regierungsführung ist in Hanoi bei weitem noch nicht erreicht. So sind in Berlin Informationen sowohl über die Ziele und die Entscheidungen der am Politikprozess beteiligten Akteure und über Dienstleistungen der Verwaltung als auch über die öffentlichen Finanzen allgemein abrufbar, verlässlich und verständlich. Dies ist nicht der Fall in Hanoi. Während in Berlin die BürgerInnen keine Schwierigkeiten im Zugang zu öffentlichen Informationen haben, so sind diese Informationen in Hanoi nicht oder nur schwer erhältlich. Weiterhin gibt es zwischen Hanoi und Berlin erhebliche Unterschiede in den drei Arten der Partizipation. Während die Wahlen kommunaler Vertreter in Hanoi rein formell und erzwungen sind, so sind Wahlen in Berlin gleich, geheim und frei. Bei den Berliner Kommunalwahlen entstammen die VertreterInnen den unterschiedlichen Parteien und Wählervereinigungen, während die Kandidatur der KommunalvertreterInnen in Hanoi weitgehend durch die Volksfront bestimmt wird. Obwohl die Wahlbeteiligung bei den lokalen Wahlen in Hanoi bei fast 90% liegt, so ist die Legitimität sowohl der Wahlen selbst als auch des Vertretungsprozesses so gut wie nicht vorhanden. Die zu wählenden VolksvertreterInnen werden ausschließlich durch die Kommunistische Partei bestimmt. In Berlin wird die Teilhabe der BürgerInnen bei der Lösung kommunaler Probleme durch die Regierung gefördert. Hierzu werden unterschiedliche Methoden genutzt, u. a. der Bürgerhaushalt, Bürgerportale, Bürgerinitiativen etc. Einzelne BürgerInnen können entscheiden, ob sie sich individuell oder auch kollektiv einbringen. Durch das Fehlen von Transparenz und bürgerlicher Teilhabe ist die Qualität öffentlicher Dienstleistungen in Hanoi gering. So werden Dienstleistungen selten innerhalb der Fristerbracht, die gesetzlich vorgegeben ist. BürgerInnen, die dennoch öffentliche Dienstleistungen in Anspruch nehmen und zeitnah erhalten wollen, können die verantwortlichen Beamten direkt bestechen, ihre persönlichen Beziehungen nutzen oder eine dritte Person gegen Bezahlung beauftragen – einen "Mediator" (Vietnamesisch: "Cò"). Im Gegensatz hierzu werden Dienstleistungen in Berlin kundenorientiert erbracht. Die Qualität der Dienstleistungen ist in Bezug auf Zeit und Kosten hochwertig. Schmiergeldzahlungen, Bestechung sowie das Nutzen persönlicher Beziehungen im Austausch für "bessere" öffentliche Dienstleistungen sind in Berlin unüblich. Die Analyse der Fallstudien in Berlin und Hanoi verdeutlichen, wie Transparenz, bürgerliche Teilhabe sowie Rechenschaftspflicht miteinander verflochten sind und sich gegenseitig beeinflussen. Es ist schwierig die Kommunalverwaltung in Hanoi zur Rechenschaft zu ziehen. Hierzu fehlt es an geeigneten Instrumenten, wie z.B. freie und gleiche Wahlen. Es fehlt ebenfalls die Beteiligung von Akteuren wie freien Medien, Nichtregierungsorganisationen und zivilgesellschaftlichen Organisationen. Der wesentliche Unterschied formeller regulativer und kognitiver Institutionen zwischen Berlin und Hanoi wird anhand von drei Prinzipien dargestellt: Rechtsstaatlichkeit (Rule of Law) vs. Herrschaft durch Recht (rule by law), Pluralismus vs. Einheitspartei innerhalb der Politik sowie Marktwirtschaft vs. Marktwirtschaft sozialistischer Prägung. In Berlin gelten Verhaltensnormen, welche das Gesetz und die individuelle Freiheit respektieren. Ebenso herrscht das Bewusstsein vor, die Gemeinschaft zu fördern. EinwohnerInnen Berlins erachten es als selbstverständlich, dass sie öffentliche Dienstleistungen gerecht in Anspruch nehmen können. Die Vorstellung, Geld oder Beziehungen auf unrechtmäßige Art zu nutzen, um Verwaltungsvorgänge abzukürzen, herrschen weder bei Verwaltung noch bei den BürgerInnen vor. Innerhalb eines schwachen formellen Rahmens von good governance in Hanoi interagieren neue Werte und Normen einer Volkswirtschaft im Umbruch (Wohlstand, Erfolg) mit denen einer Planwirtschaft (Lügen, Abhängigkeit, Passivität) sowie mit denen traditioneller Gesellschaften (Hierarchie, Harmonie, Familie, Kollektivismus) und beeinflussen die Handlungen der Akteure. In Hanoi wird es nicht als selbstverständlich angesehen, das zu tun, was in Berlin als "das Richtige" angesehen würde, z. B. Gesetze einzuhalten. Unbeabsichtigte Konsequenzen willkürlicher Reformaktivitäten der Partei zeigen sich im Fortbestehen von Korruption. Die sozialistische Orientierung der Marktwirtschaft scheint nicht erreicht worden zu sein, da sich die Schere zwischen Reich und Arm geweitet hat. Good governance ist unerreichbar, wenn BürgerInnen, Verwaltung und PolitikerInnen hauptsächlich von Eigeninteressen gelenkt werden. Der Staat und die Gesellschaft hängen voneinander ab. Um theoretisch good governance in Hanoi zu erreichen, müssten (formelle und informelle) Institutionen geschaffen werden, die positiven Einfluss auf BürgerInnen, Verwaltung und VolksvertreterInnen haben. BürgerInnen sind "gut" aufgrund von Lernprozessen und Gewöhnung und nicht aufgrund ihrer Natur. Das Rechtstaatlichkeitsprinzip ist notwendig, um die Leistungsbereitschaft lokaler Verwaltungen sowie der Volksvertretungen zu stärken. Sobald Rechtstaatlichkeit konsequente Anwendung findet, verringert sich auch der Raum, in dem informelle Institutionen angewendet werden können. Die Förderung von good governance in Hanoi hängt im Wesentlichen vom Verlangen ab, die Regierung und die Menschen zu verändern. Good governance in Berlin sollte als Ergebnis eines andauernden Prozesses von Entwicklung und Änderung von Lokalregierung und BürgerInnen angesehen werden. Institutionelle Transformation ist ein langwieriger und komplizierter Prozess. Veränderungen formeller Regelungen sowie die Art der Implementierung solch neuer Regelungen trifft möglicherweise auf starken Widerstand seitens etablierter Akteure mit ihren Gewohnheiten. In dieser Studie wurde gezeigt, welches die Schwachpunkte der Institutionen in Hanoi sind. Ebenso wurden jene Faktoren identifiziert, welche die zukünftige Entwicklung in Richtung von good governance beeinflussen können. Es ist jedoch schwierig einzuschätzen, wie lange es dauern wird, das institutionelle Gefüge in Hanoi hin zu verantwortungsvoller Regierungsführung zu ändern.
The Structure and Dynamics eJournal offers a conduit for refereed electronic publication, debate, and editorial communication in the domain of anthropology and human sciences. We invite you—as an open access reader at no cost, an author at no cost, or a volunteer, to submit book reviews or commentary—to contribute and to participate in raising the aspirations of the human sciences today. To submit an article, follow the link to "Submission guidelines." To submit a review simply click Submit a "Reader's Comment" at the article site. We comment here on the contents and success of the first two issues. Full-text downloads of the eJournal articles numbered 5,313 in the 11 months since September 23, 2005, now averaging 16-17 a day. This reflects positively on quality of the articles, made possible in turn by the high quality and incisiveness of reviews, the number and diversity of reviewers who have responded, and selection for quality in article acceptance and reviewers (and we thank our reviewers for their efforts at timely review). In just two issues, the eJournal has come a long way in attaining the goals set out for it as a publication in which scholarship and debate can be engaged in contemporary fields of research, one that provides a venue for the study of the complex interplay between dynamics and structure, and gives an outlet for methods and results which speak to the issues of simplicity in complexity and the study of structure and dynamics. It has also facilitated presentations of new forms of analysis and visualization, new forums for debate and new vehicles for the dissemination and absorption of work at the cutting edges of the human sciences. Authors of issue 1#1 have had feedback and good reception. Peter Turchin's findings on historical dynamics have been replicated, for example, using data covering a 700-year period from archaeological research in the Southwest. The replication study is in press in the journal Complexity. Wikipedia, at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_cycle_theory, cites Turchin's article in issue 1#1. Several of the issue 1#1 articles are now reviewed in blogs and on-line commentaries, digests, or reference lists, many with timely google citations. Links to them are starting to appear on educational sites at which students have direct access to download and on-line readership. Issue 1#1 marked our first use of high-quality color imagery and live url links. Krempel and Schnegg's paper explained our journal's dynamic-gif logo in their "About the Image: Diffusion Dynamics in an Historical Network," which also allows the reader to link to the authors' longer 1998 study and its on-line imagery. That article, "Exposure, Networks and Mobilization: The Petition Movement during the 1848/49 Revolution in a German Town," published at http://www.mpi-fg-koeln.mpg.de/~lk/netvis/exposure, provides further background and examples for the innovative use of dynamic graphics. Summing up our current issue, 1#2, and to give readers an idea of the unusual and unique features of electronic publication, we review the advantages and evolution of our permanent, paper-quality, refereed eJournal publications. Along with our use of live url links and imagery on-line, these advantages are facilitated by our UC eScholarship publisher. In 1#2, Sean Downey provides a fascinating study that interrogates ethnographic and historical texts with the aid of simulation. He uses his approach to analyze the ethnographic/historical theory put forward by noted author Paul Willis in Learning to Labor, secondarily to show strengths and weaknesses of contemporary social theories such as those of Tony Giddens (1984) and, finally, also to identify the descriptive lacunae that limit this genre of simulation. As an invaluable gift to students and instructors (he is himself a graduate student), he supplies on-line the code for the simulation and, as a free resource, access to the simulation software package itself. Christiansen and Altaweel's "Understanding Ancient Societies," subtitled "A New Approach Using Agent-Based Holistic Modeling," describes their Argonne National Labs holistic agent-based simulation framework that couples with incredible depth to the real-world information that can be brought into simulation and modeling from the earth sciences, satellite imagery, climate modeling, the agricultural sciences, ethnography, network analysis, and a host of other areas. Focusing on the development of their model for addressing research questions about Mesopotamia, they explain and illustrate the general-purpose simulation framework. Their work offers a productive complementarity to Algaze's lead article in our first issue, where he poses a series of questions, hypotheses, and possible lines of evidence with which to explore the processes that lead to the first cities' takeoff. Wouter de Nooy's study of the networks and the structural dynamics of folktale plots, tested as well against literary interactions through time among Dutch literary critics, uses network analysis software described in his coauthored book with the software authors (de Nooy, Batagelj, and Mrvar 2005). He gives us the first-ever published SVG image produced by Pajek network software with interactivity within the SVG image itself (now available from the Pajek freeware authors at http://vlado.fmf.uni-lj.si/pub/networks/pajek/). The SVG image is not simply static but directly accessible, thanks to live links inside our eScholarship pdfs, as an interactive graphic that the reader can explore for different views of the data. Wilkinson and Tsirel evaluate limit cycles in Indic regional political polarities—how many polities in each ten year interval, coded from a comprehensive database—over two millennia. They begin with the simplest of models of temporal dynamics and historical limit cycles and proceed to evaluate at each step those of increasing complexity. The visual scanability of their multicolor graphical results helps to give the reader an ability to judge visually the contribution of different kinds of statistical analyses to understanding the complexity of the data and, in turn, the plausibility of different historical processes and explanations. Seary, Richards, McKeown-Eyssen, and Baines, in their "Networks of Symptoms and Exposures," provide an innovation that makes possible a better comprehension of statistical interactions in complex phenomena by enabling the reader to recognize linkages within complex data such as those in the field of medicine. The visual imagery of their 3-dimensional interactive "panigram" images, named from the Greek panis ("sail"), provides a generalization of simpler histograms that, by analogy, would be composed by an ordering of the one-dimensional heights of the ship's masts. The 3-D panigrams form an analog of planar sails rotatable about masts that represent the spines of the data structure. Co-authoring with professionals in the medical field, they use these images to look at the interrelations of people, their exposures to disease, and how symptoms are jointly distributed across both. Berkowitz, with his collaborators Woodward and Woodward, draws on his scholarship about the role of family and informal institutions in historical world economies to write of venerable and legal networks of exchange that have operated for millennia and yet that make it impossible to trace financial transactions through the modern computerized credit banking systems. His scholarship, interrupted by untimely death in 2003, is honored in this issue. Palmer, Steadman, and Coe, in "More Kin: An Effect of the Tradition of Marriage," utilize genealogical graphics, a mathematical model of networks and demography, and analysis of the relation between biology and culture to reopen important questions about the role of human kinship systems in human evolution, considered both in terms of networks and cognition. Their results for numbers of kin at various distances in bilateral kinship networks, depending both on demography and issues of social recognition, are cited in the article by Moody. James Moody's "Fighting a Hydra: A Note on the Network Embeddedness of the War on Terror," shares in common with Berkowitz et al.'s article a concern for misunderstandings that prompted and have emerged out of the War on Terror. Moody writes of the effects of misguided policies, such as described in the recent best seller by Thomas Ricks (2006), that fail to take into account the "blowback" consequences of the killing, wounding, and arresting of civilians and the torture of suspected insurgents. He considers as well the effects of the wounding and deaths of soldiers, recruited into such wars, on those in their home communities, families and social networks. His on-line innovation is to provide students and the reader with a calculator for the network scale-up model of Killworth et al. (1998) to estimate the number of people who know somebody in an "event," such as those killed in the war. "Since the values needed to make these estimates are rapidly changing and somewhat subjective, users can test the effect of different assumptions with this calculator," as noted within the calculator itself. In our review, we highlight the general properties of the scale-up model, of which we shall see more in future articles.
Currently, the world is experiencing great challenges in public health, but it is also experiencing these challenges in finding new formulas for an economic development. The political systems of diverse nations are challenged to find sustainable solutions that meet the expectations of the nations (Zamorano Farías, 2010.)In this issue of the magazine "Politics, Globality and Citizenship", the reader will have access to eleven articles that delve into topics that are essential to find the institutional mechanisms that allow to have a better social coexistence among individuals who are part of a plural society, and also among the nations. They correspond to studies that have been carried out rigorously and with an examination of cases that contribute to a necessary debate in the current Academy.Thereon, it is important to reflect on the concept of a "quality" democracy in which O'Donnell, Vargas and Iazzetta (2004) established that there are some essential elements that allow us to speak of a democracy with content. This concept is made up, among other things, by the conduct of free elections, by a true independence of the media, by having acceptable indices in matters of equity, by the fact that the population has access to extensive social security and because the majorities and minorities are represented.For that very reason, it is important that institutions can become an effective mechanism that can enable those ideals for a quality democracy to become an everyday reality. According to a study made by Tusell (2015), some of the factors that are inherently related to the quality of democracy are accountability and the rule of law.In general terms, this is one of the main concepts that concern us in this issue: the correct functioning of public powers is key in the consolidation of any democratic regime and, in particular, in preserving fundamental freedoms (Barreda, 2010.)Regarding mediation, there is a qualitative study by Roberto Guerrero Vega, from the Polytechnic University of Nicaragua, who proposes a model for evaluating the quality of the mediation service in Mexico. It is necessary to highlight that these investigations like the ones made by Guerrero Vega are the ones that contribute to establish the bases for an improvement in the resolution of controversies, the same ones that contribute to generate a better social coexistence. Precisely on the topic of well-being, is that Francisco Gorjón Gómez, from the Autonomous University of Nuevo León (Mexico), presents us a study that corroborates the presence of mediation as an instrument to achieve collective well-being. Regarding the legal analysis, the inquiries of Yahaira Berenice Martínez-Pérez, Brenda Judith Sauceda-Villeda and María Salomé Moreno-Rodríguez from the Autonomous University of Nuevo León (Mexico) are presented, who argue in favor of a legal reform that could protect the most vulnerable sectors. In addition, there is the participation of Jose Luis Leal Espinosa, from the Autonomous University of Coahuila (Mexico), who also argues strongly about the need to specify institutional mechanisms that guarantee the entitlement to information.In educational matters, we have the outstanding participations of Fabio Orlando Cruz Paez and Oswaldo Vanegas Florez from the University of Cundinamarca (Colombia) and the case of Fernando Cárdenas Cabello from the CIFE University Center (Mexico), who explain to us about the technological surveillance process and its impact on the organizational culture of a prestigious Colombian university in the first case, while in the second case, it is examined the adequacy of industrial policy 4.0 in the transition from one government to another, based on the analysis of the National Development Plan. Also, the researchers from the Universidad de la Costa, Grays Nuñez Ríos, Kadry García Mendoza, Judith Castillo Martelo and Nevis Niño-Jiménez carry out a study on a community intervention on how citizens can be motivated to participate in activities that contribute to the peace. In geopolitical matters, this issue has two notable products: The analysis of the relationship of the Pacific Alliance, which is made up by Mexico, Peru, Chile and Colombia, with the People's Republic of China, carried out by Flavio Rafael González-Ayala, a researcher from the Autonomous University of San Luis Potosí (Mexico.) The reader can also consult the inter-institutional research made by José María Ramos García (El Colegio de la Frontera Norte, Mexico), Carlos Barrachina Lisón (Anáhuac University, México) and Jimmy Emmanuel Ramos (Autonomous University of Baja California), who ponder the challenges from the southern border of Mexico, regarding its importance in its relationship with the United States.Finally, this issue has notable international contributions on current issues and also an introspection of the evolution of a political party that has been fundamental to Spanish democracy: The commitment to disseminate research projects on current issues of the magazine Politics, Globality and Citizenship is reflected in them, as well as those that contain a timely historical review.In relation to the subject, and with validity, we can find the work of Juan Sebastián Sánchez Gómez (University if Los Andes, Colombia), who has exposed the case of the state of exception decreed in Colombia from the coronavirus pandemic. In the case of Borja García-Vázquez (Autonomous University of Nuevo León), an extensive tour of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) is made, from a year before the death of Francisco Franco, up to the year of his first electoral defeat at ta national level, after holding power for 14 consecutive years. In summary, Fascicle 6 (12) has articles written by prestigious researchers, from also outstanding educational centers, which reflect on fundamental topics that reinforce the current lines of research in the field of geopolitics, mediation, the rule of law and educational policy. Therefore, our intention is to contribute to the permanent exchange in quality research, which is why we hope that the scholars who have consulted this edition can find information that is useful to them in their own investigations. ; En la actualidad, el mundo vive grandes desafíos en materia de salud pública, pero también de encontrar nuevas fórmulas de desarrollo económico. Los sistemas políticos de naciones diversas tienen el reto de encontrar soluciones sostenibles que cumplan con las expectativas de las naciones (Zamorano Farías, 2010).En el presente número de la revista "Política, Globalidad y Ciudadanía", el lector tendrá acceso a once artículos que profundizan sobre temas que son indispensables para encontrar los mecanismos institucionales que permitan una mejor convivencia social entre los individuos que forman parte de una sociedad plural y también entre las naciones. Corresponden a estudios que se han realizado de manera rigurosa y con una examinación de casos que contribuyen a un necesario debate en la academia actual.Al respecto, resulta importante reflexionar sobre el concepto de una democracia de "calidad" en la que O'Donnell, Vargas y Iazzetta (2004) establecieron que existen algunos elementos esenciales que nos permiten hablar de una democracia con contenido. Este concepto, se compone entre otras cosas, por la celebración de elecciones libres, por una verdadera independencia de los medios de comunicación, por contar con índices aceptables en materia de equidad, por el hecho de que la población tenga acceso a una amplia seguridad social y porque las mayorías y minorías se encuentren representadas.Por esa misma razón, es importante que las instituciones puedan convertirse en un mecanismo eficaz que pueda hacer posible que esos ideales de una democracia de calidad se conviertan en una realidad cotidiana. De acuerdo con un estudio de Tusell (2015), algunos de los factores que se encuentran inherentemente relacionados con la calidad de la democracia son la rendición de cuentas y el estado de derecho.En términos generales, este es uno de los principales conceptos que nos concierne en la presente edición: el funcionamiento correcto de los poderes públicos resulta clave en la consolidación de cualquier régimen democrático y en particular, en el de preservar las libertades fundamentales (Barreda, 2010).En materia de mediación, se cuenta con un estudio cualitativo por parte de Roberto Guerrero Vega, de la Universidad Politécnica de Nicaragua, quien propone un modelo de evaluación de la calidad al servicio de mediación en México. Es necesario resaltar que son investigaciones como las de Guerrero Vega, las que contribuyen a fijar las bases de una mejoría en la resolución de controversias, las mismas que contribuyen a generar una mejor convivencia social. Precisamente sobre el tema del bienestar, es que Francisco Gorjón Gómez, de la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León (México), nos presenta un trabajo que permite corroborar la presencia de la mediación como un instrumento para lograr el bienestar colectivo.En cuanto al análisis jurídico, se presentan las indagaciones de Yahaira Berenice Martínez-Pérez, Brenda Judith Sauceda-Villeda y María Salomé Moreno-Rodríguez de la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León (México), quienes argumentan a favor de una reforma jurídica que protega a los sectores más vulnerables. Además se cuenta con la participación de Jose Luis Leal Espinosa, de la Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila (México), quien también argumenta de manera sólida en torno a la necesidad de concretar mecanismos institucionales que garanticen el derecho a la información.En materia educativa, contamos con las destacadas participaciones de Fabio Orlando Cruz Paez y Oswaldo Vanegas Florez de la Universidad de Cundinamarca (Colombia) y el caso de Fernando Cárdenas Cabello del Centro Universitario CIFE (México), quienes nos exponen sobre el proceso de vigilancia tecnológica y su incidencia en la cultura organizacional de una prestigiada universidad colombiana en el primer caso, mientras que en el segundo se examina la adecuación de la política industrial 4.0 en la transición de un gobierno a otro, basado en el análisis del Plan Nacional de Desarrollo. También los investigadores de la Universidad de la Costa, Greys Nuñez Ríos, Kadry García Mendoza, Judith Castillo Martelo y Nevis Niño-Jiménez quienes realizan un estudio sobre una intervención comunitaria de cómo se puede motivar a los ciudadanos a participar en actividades que contribuyan a la paz. En materia geopolítica, esta edición cuenta con dos productos notables: El análisis de la relación de la Alianza del Pacífico, que conforma México, Perú, Chile y Colombia, con la República Popular China, que realiza el investigador de la Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí (México), Flavio Rafael González-Ayala. El lector también puede consultar la investigación interinstitucional de José María Ramos García (El Colegio de la Frontera Norte, México), Carlos Barrachina Lisón (Universidad Anáhuac, México) y Jimmy Emmanuel Ramos (Universidad Autónoma de Baja California), quienes ponderan sobre los retos de la frontera sur de México, en cuanto a su importancia en su relación con Estados Unidos.Por último, la edición cuenta con contribuciones internacionales notables sobre temas actuales y también, de una introspección de la evolución de un partido político que ha sido fundamental para la democracia española: En ellos se encuentra reflejado el compromiso de la revista Política, Globalidad y Ciudadanía de difundir proyectos de investigación de temas vigentes, así como aquellos que contienen una oportuna revisión histórica.En lo relacionado al tema se encuentra con una vigencia oportuna, el trabajo de Juan Sebastián Sánchez Gómez (Universidad de los Andes, Colombia) quien expone el caso del estado de excepción decretado en Colombia a partir de la pandemia de coronavirus. En el caso de Borja García-Vázquez (Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León), se realiza un amplio recorrido del Partido Socialista Obrero Español (PSOE), desde un año antes de la muerte de Francisco Franco, al año de su primera derrota electoral a nivel nacional, después de detentar el poder por 14 años consecutivos.En síntesis, el fascículo 6(12) cuenta con artículos de investigadores de prestigio, de centros educativos también destacados, que reflexionan de temas fundamentales que refuezan las líneas de investigación vigentes en materia de geopolítica, mediación, estado de derecho y política educativa. Por lo tanto nuestra intención es contribuir al intercambio permanente en materia de investigación de calidad, es por esto que esperamos que los académicos que consulten esta edición puedan encontrar información que les sea de utilidad en sus propias indagaciones.
Peripheralisation is a process to which a person, a group or an area might be subjected to. Stigmatisation, selective migration, disconnection, dependence and social exclusion are dimensions of peripheralisation that are interconnected and that accelerate each other's effects. Structurally disadvantaged rural areas, especially remote small villages in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) are particularly affected by the processes of peripheralisation. While economic decline and ethnic exclusion produced contagious "ghettoes" (Virág 2010) or "internal colonies" (Kóczé 2011) in the last two decades in structurally disadvantaged small villages of Hungary, in the German context the phenomenon of a "rural ghetto" seems to be non-existent. In Germany, mainly East German old industrial towns and rural areas are affected by peripheralisation, selective out-migration, demographic shrinking and demographisation are emphasised here. Ethnographic research in the case study villages of Eastern Germany and Hungary confirmed that peripheralisation is relational and amongst others national and regional social policies influence how it manifests on the local level. While areas undergoing moderate peripheralisation were able to attract counter-cultural migrants ("back-to-the-landers", Calvário and Otero 2015), who further counteracted peripheralisation processes, socially excluded people (Roma and long-term unemployed) accumulated in areas undergoing advanced peripheralisation. While counter-cultural migrants (case study G1 and H3), who follow a critique of materialist mainstream culture, modern farming practices, and the globalization of the agri-food systems, were free to decide where to live, the inhabitants of areas undergoing advanced peripheralisation (H2) got locked into spaces which are abandoned by the state, investors and the majority society (non-Roma people). As class, gender, ethnicity and place of residence influences autonomy, the individual and collective autonomy of the counter-cultural migrants is on a higher level than the autonomy of the inhabitants of areas undergoing advanced peripheralisation. As local initiatives (social and solidarity economy initiatives or rural social enterprises) are created to counteract processes of peripheralisation, the central question of this research is: In the context of peripheralisation how can social and solidarity economy initiatives contribute to local development? To explore in what ways rural social enterprises may (or may not) counteract processes of peripheralisation this study relies on a critical realist ethnography (with participant observation, in-depth interviews and documentary analysis) and on a normative approach of local development, integrating economic, social, and environmental aspects too. ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS In line with the relational approach to individual autonomy (Mackenzie 2014), a normative assumption of social enterprise scholars is that even if social enterprises receive state funding or money from private foundations or churches, they should be able to preserve their organisational autonomy. However, it should be pointed out that existing institutional contexts influence the political and organisational independence of social and solidarity economy (SSE) initiatives. Even if the reunification of Germany resulted in the assimilation of many East German institutions into West German ones, compared to Hungary, East Germany got integrated into a country with a thick institutional system for welfare provision and in which state-civil society relationships are rather characterised by partnership than state control. The current Hungarian government shows authoritarian tendencies, when it limits funding sources for civilian-based initiatives. Such a context, leads to municipality-based and faith-based social enterprises to blossom over civilian-based ones. These organisations are embedded in centralised structures and they often envision development through patronising means and thus reproduce the marginality of the socially excluded (particularly Roma) within the local society. Beyond monetary resources, non-monetary resources, such as volunteers or strong communities with reciprocal behaviour are considered to be potential resources for social enterprises. However, this research showed that with intensifying peripheralisation (eg. the selective out-migration of better-off social strata) SSE initiatives can decreasingly rely on non-monetary resources locally. Even if capitalist integration of CEE influenced negatively village communities, the reciprocal structures still existed in a village undergoing a higher (but not advanced) level of peripheralisation (H3) when the Ministers moved there and started their faith-based social enterprise together with the locals. In contrast, when the colleagues of the Equality Foundation started their civilian-based social enterprise in a village undergoing advanced peripheralisation, structures of reciprocal relations no longer existed there (H2). People in this village had time, but had been experiencing socio-spatial marginalisation (educational and territorial segregation, lack of jobs locally, limited access to public transport and car) for such a long time that they did not have the actual capacity to initiate local development without assistance coming from outside the village. SOCIAL CONSIDERATIONS The potential of participative decision-making is recognised by social enterprise researchers as a vehicle to empower marginalised people. From the four case studies only two initiatives (H2, G1) aim explicitly to achieve participative decision-making. Within the two other projects decisions are made through representatives of the community. In the case of the municipality-based social enterprise (H1), dominantly one representative, the Mayor has the power to make decisions, while in the case of the faith-based social enterprise (H3) the community representative, the 8 Presbyters and the Minister (who are all male) have the institutionalised right to make decisions for the community. The two civilian-based social enterprises (G1 and H2) are embedded in differently peripheralised contexts. In the case of advanced peripheralisation (H2) help comes outside of the village, from a development organisation. Building up the capacities of the local stakeholders for participative decision-making is a long-term strategy for the Foundation, which explicitly focuses on the empowerment of Roma and women. In case of moderate peripheralisation (G1) local agents, amongst whom counter-cultural migrants are overrepresented, have a capacity to start their SSE initiatives without help coming from a development organisation. Even if inhabitants of areas undergoing advanced peripheralisation have an agency, they need professional assistance from outside. It is, however, of particular importance that the development organisation follows the philosophy of democratic solidarity and has a capability-based approach. Without such assistance it would be naïve to expect agents of severely peripheralised areas to set up and run SSE initiatives themselves. At the same time it would be also wrong to think that without local knowledge (for example the knowledge of surviving in conditions of deep poverty and lived experiences of institutional racism) "developers" could reach long lasting results. Among the four case studies, the empowerment capacity was the highest in the civilian-based social enterprise (belonging to the Equality Foundation). This was the only initiative that acknowledged the ethnicised (and gendered) structural oppression of Roma (women). In addition to aiming to increase the individual autonomy of their stakeholders (through supporting adult education or providing advices on how to deal with domestic abuse), the organisation also aims to develop the collective autonomy of the inhabitants of the village through their community development project. Without identifying themselves as a Roma feminist organisation, the Equality Foundation has consciously focused on women as partners of local development. The reasoning behind their decision is connected to the role women play in the social reproduction of their households. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS There are life situations, when social needs get prioritised over environmental considerations. Deep poverty is one of those life situations. For example, the daily survival under conditions of housing poverty and extreme cold weather overwrites long-term strategies, such as environmentalism. Due to a lower purchasing power, poorer households have lower levels of consumption too. This, however, does not mean that underprivileged people would not aim to consume more. On the contrary, as our society is dominated by the ideology of capitalist consumerism, to counteract social exclusion consumerism is seen as a strategy towards social integration for people living in deep poverty. The comparison between a Hungarian village undergoing advanced peripheralisation (H2) and a German village undergoing moderate peripheralisation (G1) shows that only people with a higher level of individual autonomy are capable of "decolonizing their imaginary" (Latouche 2011), namely of questioning capitalist consumerism and develop ethical consumption practices.:Contents List of Abbreviations 11 Figures / Maps / Images 13 Tables 15 1 Introduction 17 1.1 AIMS AND MOTIVATION 17 1.2 THE RELEVANCE OF THE RESEARCH 20 1.3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 21 2 Theorising peripheralisation and local development 23 2.1 PERIPHERALISATION, A MULTI-DIMENSIONAL, SELF-REINFORCING PROCESS 23 2.1.1 Dimensions of peripheralisation 23 2.1.2 Advanced peripheralisation 28 2.2 SOCIAL AND SOLIDARITY ECONOMY AND LOCAL DEVELOPMENT 29 2.2.1 Economic dimension 30 2.2.2 Social dimension: autonomy and empowerment 31 2.2.3 Environmental dimension 36 2.3 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS 38 3 Contexts: social and solidarity economy in the context of peripheralisation 41 3.1 PERIPHERALISATION 41 3.1.1 Post-socialist transformation, a historical overview of periheralisation 41 3.1.2 Multi-dimensional peripheralisation in East Germany and Hungary 44 3.1.3 The relational aspect of peripheralisation 48 3.1.4 Advanced peripheralisation, a Hungarian (semi-peripheral) reality 50 3.2 SOCIAL AND SOLIDARITY ECONOMY IN CEE 51 3.2.1 Informal social and solidarity economy 52 3.2.2 Institutionalised social and solidarity economy 54 4 Methodology 59 4.1 TOWARDS A CRITICAL REALIST ETHNOGRAPHY 59 4.1.1 The scope of postmodern reflexive ethnography 60 4.1.2 Critical realism 61 4.1.3 Critical realist ethnography 62 4.2 CASE SELECTION AND COMPARATIVE PROCEEDING 63 Stage 1: Selecting areas undergoing peripheralisation 63 Stage 2: Identifying rural social enterprises 66 4.3 DATA COLLECTION 68 4.3.1 Interviews 69 4.3.2 Participant observation 72 4.3.3 Documents 76 4.4 POTENTIAL AND LIMITATIONS OF THE METHODOLOGY 77 4.4.1 Positivist critiques of the ethnographic approach 77 4.4.2 Anti-realist and postmodern critiques of ethnography 78 4.4.3 Critical realism and political engagement 79 4.4.4 Data analysis and reflections on the field experiences 81 5 Peripheralisation and the local scale 83 5.1 PERIPHERALISATION: THE LOCALITY AND THE CASE STUDY PROFILES 83 5.2 PERCEPTIONS AND RESPONSES TO PERIPHERIALITY IN DIFFERENT CONTEXTS 91 5.2.1 Surviving advanced peripheralisation 91 5.2.2 Uneven access to education 92 5.2.3 Counter-cultural migration 93 5.3 THE MAIN CHALLENGES AND MISSION OF THE CASE STUDY SOCIAL ENTERPRISES 95 6 The interplay between autonomy and local resource-mix strategies 99 6.1 ORGANISATIONAL AUTONOMY AND ACCESS TO FUNDING 99 6.2 MARKET-BASED RESOURCES: EARNED INCOME 102 6.3 NON-MARKET RESOURCES: GRANTS AND SUBSIDIES 106 6.3.1 International governmental funding 106 6.3.2 National governmental funding 114 6.3.3 Non-governmental funding 119 6.4 NON-MONETARY RESOURCES: THE CAPACITIES OF THE LOCAL COMMUNITY 120 7 Empowerment capacity of the case study initiatives 123 7.1 DECISION-MAKING STRUCTURES 123 7.1.1 Representative decision-making structures 124 7.1.2 Participative decision-making structures 127 7.2 EMPOWERMENT OF ROMA (WOMEN) 131 7.2.1 The empowerment capacity of rural social enterprises: a perspective of the Roma 132 7.2.2 A gendered aspect: the empowerment of Roma women 137 8 Environmental considerations 143 8.1 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSCIOUSNESS ON THE LOCAL LEVEL 143 8.2 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSCIOUSNESS ON THE ORGANISATIONAL LEVEL 145 9 Summary and conclusions 149 9.1 LIMITATIONS AND POTENTIALS OF THE METHODOLOGY 149 9.2 THEORETICAL IMPLICATIONS: THE CAPACITY OF SOCIAL AND SOLIDARITY ECONOMY IN COUNTERACTING PERIPHERALISATION 150 9.2.1 Economic considerations: autonomy and local resource-mix strategies 150 9.2.2 Social considerations: Autonomy and Empowerment 153 9.2.3 Environmental considerations: environmental consciousness and environmental impact 156 9.3 POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR LOCAL DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL ECONOMY POLICIES 156 10 References 159 10.1 GENERAL WORKS 159 10.2 DATABASES, RELATED MATERIALS 172 10.3 MEDIA SOURCES 172 10.4 WEBPAGES 173 10.5 LEGAL REFERENCES 174 Annex 1 Expert sampling sheet (hu) 175 Annex 2 Information sheet (hu) 177 Annex 3 Information sheet (de) 179 Annex 4 Consent form (hu) 181 Annex 5 Consent form (de) 183 Annex 6 Expert interviews 185 Annex 7 Case study interviews 187 Annex 8 Participant observation 189 Annex 9 Anonymised data sources 193
Authors' introductionAlthough Latinas/os have a long history in the United States and represent a growing percentage of the population, they remain largely invisible or stereotyped in popular images and discourses. Ahistoric, fragmented, and individual‐level perspectives often frame Latina/o migration, education, and activism and thus negatively influence public perceptions and policy. Fortunately, over the past 30 years, scholars in disciplines such as sociology, history, Chicana/o–Latina/o Studies, and Latin American Studies have done much to remedy these gaps and misperceptions. However, for a broad and inclusive approach to understanding the structures influencing Latina/o lives and communities, we believe that more work is needed to connect these scholarly developments which are often separated by academic divisions. Thus, we recommend the following materials that together offer a multidisciplinary and multifaceted framework that highlights the significance of global capitalism and white supremacy on Latina/o immigration, education, and activism. Key to this framework is a movement away from individual‐level arguments and assimilationist perspectives to an emphasis on US imperialism, economic exploitation, and schooling within capitalism. By broadening the frameworks for analysis and linking together the factors shaping Latina/o migration, education, and activism, we emphasize the systems of power and inequality that influence the lives of marginalized communities, without losing sight of the legacy of resistance in Latin America and the United States.Suggested textsTomas Almaguer, Racial Fault Lines: The Historical Origins of White Supremacy (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1994).Using primary and secondary sources, this book traces the distinct racialized experiences of Native Americans, Mexican Americans, African Americans, Asian Americans, and European Americans in late‐19th century California. Almaguer focuses on the material and ideological basis of group placement and delivers one of the few theoretical works on the factors shaping the multiracial hierarchy that characterizes the history of California.Antonia Darder, Reinventing Paulo Freire: A Pedagogy of Love (Boulder, CO: Westview, 2002).This engaging book roots contemporary schooling to global capitalism and racism. In it, Darder draws on the legacy of renowned Brazilian educator Paulo Freire to offer powerful reflections and examples from today's teachers who are practicing liberatory education in the struggle for social and economic justice.Gilbert G. Gonzalez, Chicano Education in the Era of Segregation (Philadelphia, PA: Balch Institute Press, 1990).This foundational book is devoted to the history of Chicana/o education and traces the roots of inequality in education from the early 1900s to Mendez v. Westminster, the landmark desegregation case in 1947. Gonzalez uses historical documents and dissertations to detail the historical relationships between capitalism, sociological theories, and school practices in reproducing a classed, raced, and gendered labor market. He placed particular attention on Americanization Programs, segregated schooling, vocational education, and the political economy. The book ends with an analysis of the role of parents, community, and various organizations in the eventual elimination of de jure segregation for Mexican American students in schools.Juan Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire: A History of Latinos in America (New York, NY: Penguin Books, 2001).Employing a hemispheric approach, journalist Juan Gonzalez analyzes the close connection between US imperial expansion and Latino/a migration. As part of the harvest of empire, Gonzalez examines migration from various countries, including Mexico, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, and Cuba, focusing on the macro‐structural factors that have led to migration.'History and Critical Pedagogies: Transforming Consciousness, Classrooms, and Communities', Radical History Review, 102 (Fall 2008).This special journal issue explores how scholars and activists have used critical pedagogies to challenge unequal power relations in classrooms and communities. A number of articles provide concrete reflections and strategies such as drama‐based pedagogies, service‐learning, and community‐based projects. Interviews with scholars and activists demonstrate how praxis has the power to transform society and popular education employs an asset‐based approach to education.Pierrette Hondagneu‐Sotelo, Doméstica: Central Americans Cleaning and Caring in the Shadow of Affluence (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2001).This qualitative study focuses on the lives and experiences of domestic workers and the people who employ them. After beginning with an important overview of the historical, economic, and political context shaping Central American migration and the service industry, Hondagneu‐Sotelo provides an in‐depth and nuanced analysis of domestic work and employee‐employer relationships. She ends the book with crucial strategies for improving the occupation and examples of labor organizing among Los Angeles‐area domestic workers.Enrique C. Ochoa and Gilda L. Ochoa, eds., Latino Los Angeles: Transformations, Communities, and Activism (Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press, 2005).This collection of articles examines diverse Latina/o communities in the greater Los Angeles regions and their formations and activism in the context of global capitalism. The first section examines how migration is connected to macro factors including US foreign policy and capitalist restructuring. The second section explores community and identity (re)formation. The final section examines multiple forms of activism, with articles on the struggle for Chicana/o Studies at UCLA, Justice for Janitors, and labor and community alliances with day laborers.Suggested videos El Norte (1983)This now‐classic feature length film by Gregory Nava traces the harrowing experiences of a young brother and sister as they migrate from Guatemala to the United States. Along with capturing their trying experiences crossing multiple borders, the film also details the struggles they encounter as they try to adjust to the hardships of life in the United States, including their distinct gendered experiences. We recommend combining this film with a discussion of the increased border deaths accompanying the growing criminalization of immigrants and the militarization of the Guatemala–Mexico and the Mexico–United States borders. Fear and Learning at Hoover Elementary (1997)In this documentary, Director Laura Angelica Simon details the contemporary impact of anti‐immigration policies and debates on students and teachers at a Los Angeles elementary school. The documentary was made during the 1990s when California was in the midst of an economic recession and citizens were voting on Proposition 187, an initiative that sought to deny social services to undocumented immigrants. It is a powerful teaching tool that includes students' voices and experiences; however, we suggest combining the video with some historical background on US military, economic, and political involvement in Latin America. Viewers might also be encouraged to deconstruct some of the director's images, interview questions, and racially loaded language. Made in L.A. (Hecho in Los Angeles) (2007)This documentary follows the lives of three inspiring Latina garment workers originally from Mexico and El Salvador and their participation in the 3‐year struggle for labor rights. In the process of organizing through the Garment Worker Center for basic labor protections from the trendy clothing retailer Forever 21, the women become increasingly empowered – resulting in one who separates from her husband and another who becomes an organizer. Woven throughout their narratives are the historical struggle of garment workers, the role of nation‐states in dividing families, and the power of coalition building. Salt of the Earth (1954)This feature‐length move is based on an actual labor struggle of the era. It examines the intersections of class, race/ethnicity, and gender as a primarily Mexicana/o community goes on strike and struggles with historic patriarchy to unify against the large mining company that dominates their lives. The movie deals with the legacy of US conquest of the Southwest and capitalist expansion in the region, while showing how communities have struggled to challenge inequalities. Salt of the Earth was made by artists shunned during the McCarthy era and the movie was not played widely in the United States. Much of the cast were not professional actors but were workers and union activists involved in the strike. Taking Back the Schools (1996)This documentary focuses on the 1968 Chicana/o School Blowouts where over 10,000 East Los Angeles students walked out of their high schools demanding bilingual‐bicultural education, more Mexican American teachers, relevant curriculum, accurate textbooks, and the end of curriculum tracking and prejudiced teachers who steered Mexican Americans into vocational classes. It uses original footage from the walkouts and contemporary interviews with the student organizers. It also highlights the precursors to the walkouts such as a history of Spanish language repression and de jure and de facto segregation in schools. Voces inocentes/Innocent Voices (2005)Set in 1980s El Salvador, the movie follows the life of a young boy during the Civil War. It deals with the impacts of war and US intervention on youth.Suggested websites David Bacon, 'Uprooted and Criminalized: The Impact of Free Market on Migrants,'Backgrounder The Oakland Institute (Autumn 2008) http://www.oaklandinstitute.org/pdfs/backgrounder_uprooted.pdf Renowned journalist and activist David Bacon provides a lively analysis of the link between free trade policies and migration. Drawing on his years of activism and journalism, Bacon underscores the human toll of free trade and migration while laying bare the system that undergirds it. Several powerful photographs complement the report. In Motion Magazine‐Education Rights Section http://www.inmotionmagazine.com/er.html In Motion Magazine is a multicultural progressive on‐line magazine dealing with democracy. Harvard education professor Pedro Noguera co‐edits the Education Rights section to provide 'a forum for activists, educators, parents and students who are searching for alternative ideas to the challenges confronting education today.' Mexican Labor News and Analysis (MLNA) http://www.ueinternational.org/Mexico_info/mlna.php MLNA publishes the latest news on labor and social justice issues in Mexico. It emphasizes labor and working class struggles and does an excellent job of tracking strikes, demonstrations, and demands for social justice. MLNA is published in conjunction with the Authentic Labor Front in Mexico and the United Electrical Workers in the United States. ICED (I Can End Deportation) http://www.icedgame.com This an educational game deals with combating deportation. It focuses on several New York City youth and their struggles. Players must answer a series of questions on immigration and avoid ICE agents. Background lesson material is provided and is aligned with the New York State Standards. Rethinking Schools http://www.rethinkingschools.org/ Rethinking Schools is a monthly publication committed to educational equality and the vision of the public school as foundational in a democratic society. Articles are published by teachers, activists, parents, and students on a wide range of issues affecting schools. In addition to the monthly magazine, it publishes a broad range of progressive educational materials dealing with educating working class students of color.Sample syllabusMost general courses should include materials on Latinas/os especially given the historical presence and the contemporary growth of the population. For example, the following sections, topics, and reading could be incorporated into any of the following courses: Introduction to Sociology, Sociology of (Im)Migration, Sociology of Education, Race and Ethnicity, Social Movements, and Chicanas/os‐Latinas/os in the United States.Section 1: Chicana/o‐Latina/o Identities in the U.S.Topics: Latina/o Heterogeneity; Pan‐ethnicity; Identity Formation; Multiple Identities; Racial FormationReadings:Aurora Levins Morales, 'Child of the Americas,' in Race, Class, and Gender in the United States, ed. Paula Rothenberg (New York, NY: St. Martin's Press 2001), 660–661.Pat Mora, 'Legal Alien' in Making Face, Making Soul, Haciendo Caras: Creative and Critical Perspectives by Feminists of Color, ed. Gloria Anzaldúa (San Francisco, CA: Aunt Lute Foundation, 1990), p. 376.Martha E. Gimenez, 'Latino/Hispanic – Who Needs a Name?' in Latinos and Education: A Critical Reader, eds. Antonia Darder, Rodolofo D. Torres, and Henry Gutiérrez (New York, NY: Routledge, 1997), 225–238.Gilda L. Ochoa, ' "This is Who I Am": Negotiating Racial/Ethnic Constructions' in Becoming Neighbors in a Mexican American Community: Power, Conflict, and Solidarity (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2004), 70–97.Anulkah Thomas, 'Black Face, Latin Looks: Racial‐Ethnic Identity among Afro‐Latinos in the Los Angeles Region' in Latino Los Angeles: Transformations, Communities, and Activism (Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press, 2005), 197–221.Bernadete Beserra, 'Negotiating Latinidade in Los Angeles: The Case of Brazilian Immigrants' in Latino Los Angeles: Transformations, Communities, and Activism (Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press, 2005), 178–196.Cherrie Moraga, 'La Güera' in Loving in the War Years (Boston, MA: South End Press, 1983), 50–59.Nicholas De Genova and Ana Y. Ramos‐Zayas, Latino Crossings: Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, and the Politics of Race and Citizenship (New York, NY: Routledge, 2003).Section 2: Theorizing and (De)Constructing Popular Conceptions of Latinas/os and Latin AmericaTopics: White Supremacy; Manifest Destiny; The Social Construction of Race; Dominant Conceptions of Immigration; Linking Migration, Education, and ActivismReadings:Tomás Almaguer, Racial Fault Lines: The Historical Origins of White Supremacy (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1994).Clara E. Rodríguez, Changing Race: Latinos, the Census, and the History of Ethnicity in the United States (New York, NY: New York University Press, 2000).Leo R. Chavez, Covering Immigration: Popular Images and the Politics of the Nation (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2001).Gilda L. Ochoa and Enrique C. Ochoa, 'Framing Latina/o Immigration, Education, and Activism', Sociology Compass. 1/2 (2007), 701–719.Section 3: US Imperialism and Capitalist Expansion in Latin AmericaReadings:Gilbert G. Gonzalez, Culture of Empire: American Writers, Mexico, Mexican Immigrants (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2003).Laura Briggs, Reproducing Empire: Race, Sex, and Science and U.S. Imperialism in Puerto Rico (Berkeley, CA: UC Press, 2002).Robert G. Williams, Export Agriculture and the Crisis in Central America (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1988).Juan Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire: A History of Latinos in America (New York, NY: Penguin Books, 2001).Greg Grandin, Empire's Workshop: Latin America, The United States, and the Rise of the New Imperialism (New York, NY: Metropolitan Books, 2006).Walter LaFeber, Inevitable Revolutions: The U.S. in Central America (New York, NY: W.W. Norton, 1993).Héctor Tober, Tattooed Soldier (New York, NY: Penguin Books, 2000).Judith Adler Hellman, Mexican Lives (New York, NY: The New Press, 1995).David Bacon, Illegal People: How Globalization Creates Migration and Criminalizes Immigrants (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 2007).Video: Voces inocentes/Innocent Voices (2005)Section 4: Politics, Economics, and Latin American Migration to the U.S.Topics: The 'Revolving Door Strategy;' Economic Restructuring; Transnational Ties; Gender and Migration; Undocumented MigrationReadings:Saskia Sassen, Globalization and Its Discontents: Essays on the New Mobility of People and Money (New York, NY: New York University Press, 1998).Maria Cristina García, Seeking Refuge: Central American Migration to Mexico, the United States, and Canada (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2006).Jonathan Fox and Gaspar Rivera‐Salgado. Indigenous Mexican Migrants in the United States (San Diego, CA: Center for Comparative Immigration Studies, 2004).Joseph Nevins, Dying to Live: A Story of U.S. Immigration in an Age of Global Apartheid (San Francisco, CA: City Lights Publishers, 2008).Robert Courtney Smith, Mexican New York: Transnational Lives of New Immigrants (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2006).Cecilia Menjívar, Fragmented Ties: Salvadoran Immigrant Networks in America (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2000).Pierrette Hondagneu‐Sotelo, Doméstica: Central Americans Cleaning and Caring in the Shadow of Affluence (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2001).Leon Fink, The Maya of Morgantown: Work and Community in the New South (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2003).Gloria González‐Lopez, Erotic Journeys: Mexican Immigrants and their Sex Lives (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2005).Video: El Norte (1983)Section 5: Latinas/os and Education: Schools as Reproducers of InequalityTopics: Americanization Programs; De Jure and De Facto Segregation; Curriculum Tracking; Education and Globalization; Raced and Gendered Experiences; Undocumented YouthReadings:Gilbert G. Gonzalez, Chicano Education in the Era of Segregation (Philadelphia, PA: Balch Institute Press, 1990).Antonia Darder, Reinventing Paulo Freire: A Pedagogy of Love (Boulder, CO: Westview, 2002).Michael W. Apple, Educating the 'Right' Way: Markets, Standards, God, and Inequality (New York, NY: Routledge Falmer, 2001).Gilda G. Ochoa, Learning from Latino Teachers (San Francisco, CA: Jossey‐Bass Publishers, 2007).Angela Valenzuela, Subtractive Schooling: U.S.‐Mexican Youth and the Politics of Caring (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1999).Nancy Lopez, Hopeful Girls, Troubled Boys: Race and Gender Disparity in Urban Education (New York, NY: Routledge, 2003).Gabriela Madera, Angelo A. Mathay, Armin M. Najafi, et al. Underground Undergrads: UCLA Undocumented Immigrant Students Speak Out (Los Angeles, CA: UCLA Center for Labor Research and Education, 2008).Videos:The Lemon Grove Incident (1986)Mendez v. Westminster (2004)Taking Back the Schools (1996)Fear and Learning at Hoover Elementary (1997)Section 6: Latina/o Resistance and ActivismTopics: Responses to U.S. Imperialism; union and grassroots activism; school integration; cross‐border organizingWillia V. Flores and Rina Benmayor, Latino Cultural Citizenship: Claiming Identity, Space, and Rights (Boston, MA: Beacon, 1997).Mary Pardo, Mexican American Women Activists: Identity and Resistance in Two Los Angeles Communities (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1998).Ruth Milkman, L.A. Story: Immigrant Workers and the Future of the Labor Movement (New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 2006).Milagros Peña, Latina Activists Across Borders: Women's Grassroots Organizing in Mexico and Texas (Duke University Press, 2007).Guadalupe San Miguel Jr., Brown, Not White: School Integration and the Chicano Movement in Houston (College Station, TX: Texas A.M. Press, 2001).Kara Zugman, 'Autonomy in a Poetic Voice: Zapatistas and Politics Organizing in Los Angeles', Latino Studies. 3 (2005): 325–46.Videos:Salt of the Earth (1954)Bread and Roses (2000)Made in L.A. (2007)Focus questionsWhat are the dominant images of Latina/o migration, education, and activism? From where do these images emerge? Why do they exist? Who benefits from them? How have they changed over time? What are their impacts? How are these images being challenged?What connections can be made between Latina/o migration, education, and activism? What theoretical frameworks can be used to understand each one individually and the three of them collectively? What are the relationships between Latina/o migration, education, and activism?Discuss the value of adopting a historical, economic, and political framework of Latina/o migration, education, and activism. Assess the value of applying a similar framework to other contemporary topics.Compare and contrast the similarities and differences that exist among Latinas/os in the United States.How does centering the history and experiences of Latinas/os enhance your understanding of race/ethnicity, class, and gender?Looking toward the future, what do you think will be the state of Latina/o migration, education, and activism in the next ten years? What led you to these hypotheses? What do you need to know to address this question? What do you hope will be the state of Latina/o migration, education, and activism in the next 10 years? Why? How does your desire compare with the desires conveyed in the videos or readings? What might account for these shared or different hopes?Note * Correspondence address: Pomona College. Email: glo04747@pomona.edu
RAPE AND SHAME IN J.M. COETZEE'S DISGRACE Salman Muhiddin English Literature, Faculty of Languages and Arts, Surabaya State University salmanlatieff@gmail.com Drs. Much. Khoiri, M.Si English Department, Faculty of Languages and Arts, Surabaya State University much_choiri@yahoo.com Abstrak Pemerkosaan adalah setiap tindakan yang tidak diinginkan , manipulasi atau pemaksaan dalam bentuk aktivitas seksual. Tindakan pemerkosaan berdampak bagi pemerkosa dan korbannya. Dampaknya terhubung ke masalah psikologis , seperti kecemasan , depresi , dan gangguan mental lainnya serta perilaku moral yang bermasalah. Skripsi ini difokuskan pada tindak perkosaan yang dialami oleh karakter dan bagaimana hal itu menyebabkan rasa malu dalam novel Disgrace karya JM Coetzee. Secara khusus, tujuan skripsi ini adalah untuk mendeskripsikan bagaimana gambaran perkosaan yang dialami oleh karakter dan untuk mengungkapkan bagaimana perkosaan itu menyebabkan rasa malu dalam novel Disgrace karya J.M. Coetzee. Dalam analisisnya, skripsi ini menggunakan beberapa proses analisis , yaitu: (1) mengklasifikasikan kutipan-kutipan yang sejalan dengan masalah laporan, (2) menggambarkan tindakan perkosaan yang telah dialami oleh karakter, (3) mengungkapkan bagaimana pemerkosaan menyebabkan malu. Hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa ada tiga macam pemerkosaan yang digambarkan dalam cerita. Pemerkosaan pertama terjadi antara David dan pekerja seks bernama Soraya. Pemerkosaan kedua terjadi antara David dan muridnya, Melanie. Yang ketiga dialami oleh putri David, Lucy. Setelah pemerkosaan itu, pelaku dan korban perkosaan merasa malu. David sebagai pemerkosa mendapatkan aib dan tekanan publik dari komite universitas dan mahasiswanya. Dia kemudian meminta maaf kepada keluarga Melanie. Sedangkan korban akan merasa malu untuk tampil di publik karena mereka takut aibnya terbongkar. Kata Kunci: Pemerkosaan, Malu, Aib Abstract Rape is any unwanted, manipulated or coerced forms of sexual activity. The act of rape has an impact to both the rapists and the rape survivors. The impact is connected to psychological problems, such as anxiety, depression, and other mental disorders as well as problematic moral behaviour. This study focuses on the characters' experience in raping and being raped, and how it leads to shame in J.M. Coetzee's Disgrace. In particular, the purpose of this study is to describe how rape is depicted by the characters and to reveal how the characters' rape leads to shame in J.M. Coetzee's Disgrace. In the analysis, this study does some processes of analysis, they are: (1) classifying the quotations which are in line with the problem of statements, (2) describing the rape that has been experienced by the characters, (3) revealing how rape leads to shame. The result of the analysis shows that there are three kinds of rape which is depicted in the story. The first rape is happened between David and the prostitute named Soraya. The second rape is between David and his student, Melanie. The third one is experienced by David's daughter, Lucy. After the rape, the rapist and the rape survivors get shame. David is getting disgrace and gets public pressure from the university committees and the students. He then ask for apologize to Melanie's family. While the rape survivors are getting shame after being raped. They are shame to make a public appearance because they are afraid of being discovered or found out by another person. Keywords: Rape, Shame, Disgrace INTRODUCTION The definition of rape varies state-to-state and can include anything from touching to actual penetration, but, generally, rape is any "unwanted, non-consensual, manipulated or coerced forms of sexual activity" (http://www.umich.edu). The act may be carried out by physical force,coercion, abuse of authority or against a person who is incapable of valid consent, such as one who is unconscious, incapacitated, or below the legalage of consent.The termrapeis sometimes used interchangeably with the termsexual assault, and the term of violent change into rape survivor. The rape effects can include both physical trauma and psychological trauma. Rape will also lead to shame. The feeling is connected to psychological problems such as eating disorders, substance abuse, anxiety, depression, and other mental disorders as well as problematic moral behavior. The shame is also reformed from some culture that sees the rape victims are dirt. For example, a rape victim especially one who was previously a virgin, may be viewed by society as being damaged. According to Alliance, victims in these cultures may suffer isolation, be disowned by friends and family, be prohibited from marrying, and be divorced if already married, or even killed. This phenomenon is known as secondary victimization. Secondary victimization is the re-traumatization of the sexual assault, abuse, or rape victim through the responses of individuals and institutions. Rape also affects the rapist. If someone known as a rapist he will be the public enemy. The rapist may lose their dignity, job, and friends. Punishment for rape in most countries today is imprisonment. Thus he will get ashamed but the right term for rapist is disgrace. On the previous study Feminine Shame Masculine Disgrace, Nurka put little bit different from shame, "people with disgrace will automatically being shame. Disgrace is brought from without ('put to shame'), or is directed outward from its source ('a person who or thing which is the cause or source of disgrace')." (Nurka, 2012: 311). J.M. Coetzee is a South African writer born under the apartheid government. Coetzee is unveiling many fragile topics in South Africa from many of his books. He elegantly put the theme rape over the race to depict the social condition of 'New South Africa'. Rape of women by men has occurred throughout recorded history and across cultures. As the novel background, South Africa is often labeled the rape capital of the world. The prevalence of rape, and particularly multiple perpetrator rape, is unusually high. Coetzee puts the concept of rape and shame in novel 'Disgrace'. The narrative follows a white South African professor's, David Lurie, escape to his daughter's farm, after he raped his student, Melanie. The farm is soon attacked and robbed by three black men, and the daughter raped. As father and daughter piece together their strained relationship and individual lives, they must reconcile their positions in the "New South Africa," to Lucy, is gang-raped by three men on her smallholding in the Eastern Cape, but she chose to say nothing about what happened to her. She decided to take the shame on her own. While on David, he rents a room in Grahmstown to help his daughter at the market once a week and to dedicate himself to the disposal of the dogs' bodies at the shelter. He cannot back to Cape Town because he has nothing left there for his disgrace. The university had replaced him with another professor. Once he went to Melanie house bring up all his disgrace to ask for forgiving to her parents for what he did through Melanie and family. In accordance of background study above, it can be simplify to discuss among two problems that emerge as significant concern toward this novel. How rape is depicted by the characters in J.M. Coetzee's Disgrace? How the characters' rape leads to shame in J.M. Coetzee's Disgrace? To answer the first problem, this study uses the concept of rape. Rape is a multidetermined behaviour that will ultimately be explained only by models incorporating a multitude of dimensions." (Prenkty and Knight, 1991: 657). The dimensions that are possibly to explain rape are through feminist theory, evolutionary theory, self-controlled theory, narcissistic theory, and crime theory. (Lowell, 2010: 159-161). Those theories can be used to help explain how rape occurs. Feminist theorists explain that the culture of male dominance is responsible for rape occurring. On his book Rethinking Rape, Cahill simply delivered that feminist theorists assert that rape is only one symptom of the larger problem of a male dominated society. Feminist theorists see rape as more of a violent act than a sexual act, and claim that rape is inspired by political motivations to dominate and degrade. Feminist theorists also deny that rape has an individualistic nature, but claim that rape is "nothing more or less than a conscious process of intimidation by which all men keep all women in a state of fear" (Cahill, 2001:16). Self control theory can lead to a man committing rape against a female. It is based on the premise that the male sex drive is uncontrollable. Men with this belief say that their sexual urges cannot be controlled and they are not responsible for their actions. Proponents of this theory "[propose] both that men's sexual energy is difficult to control and that women have a key role in its loss of control," since women deny sex to men who have to relieve their sexual drive (Polaschek & Ward, 2002, p. 13). This theory can be tied to Gottfredson and Hirschi's low self-control theory. Low self-control theorists posit that, since criminal acts provide immediate gratification, criminals will engage in them because they are not able to defer gratification. A biological explanation of rape includes Thornhill and Palmer's evolutionary theory of rape .Proponents of this theory claim that those men who were able to force their sexual desires on women were able to reproduce more efficiently, and thus have more offspring with their traits. Thornhill and Palmer are "dismissive of rape theories that emphasize the role of culture and learning in the acquisition of rape-prone traits, arguing that culture is only possible because individuals have evolved capacities that enable them to learn" (Siegert & Ward, 2002:6). Another theory that can explain rape is the narcissistic reactance theory, which is also tied to Gottfredson and Hirschi's (1990) low self-control theory. In this theory, narcissists are defined as having a "lower proneness to shame and guilt," having "unrealistically positive self-evaluations," and being "especially likely to respond to bad evaluations by blaming other sources, including the evaluator and the technique of evaluation" (Baumeister et al., 2002: 3). These theorists claim that the, "tendency to respond to esteem threats by getting angry and blaming others may contribute to the elevated level of interpersonal difficulties that narcissists report" (Baumeister et al., 2002: 4). The second problem is using the concept of shame. Some victims of rape are feeling dirty, devalued, and humiliated as a result of a sexual assault. Feelings of shame are often related to the powerlessness and helplessness victims experience during a sexual assault. Shame may also be a reaction to being forced by the assailant to participate in the crime. Shame is the painful feeling of having done or experienced something dishonourable, improper and foolish. Shame is what prevents many survivors from speaking about what happened to them. Shame is an attack on the survivor as a person. It is the feeling you get when you are sure that someone will think poorly of you because you were assaulted. Shame is longer lasting, and ultimately more dangerous than guilt. The feeling of shame is so intense for rape victims that many of them never tell anyone what happened to them. Even in psychotherapeutic settings, victims of rape often avoid talking about what happened to them. (http://www.healthyplace.com/abuse/articles/guilt-and-shame-of-being-raped/, retrieve on: 15 April 2014). Shame is already bears the germ of guilt. Shame becomes guilt when the social norms are internalized as one's own feelings of value and when self-condemnation anticipates public exposure. This presupposes the development of a personal centre, with the beginning capacity to regard oneself as the originator of one's actions, to evaluate and feel responsible for them. In contrast to shame, guilt is no more bound to the immediate presence of the other; its impact is more lasting. The event one is to be blamed for sin in the past. Thus the present rejection of shame becomes the already executed expulsion of elementary guilt. Instead of being exposed to, and paralyzed by, the others' gazes, the culprit feels, as it were, already abandoned. (Thomas Fuchs, 2003: 8). RESEARCH METHOD Research method that used in this analysis here must be qualified as an applying in literary appreciation. The thesis is regarded as a descriptive-qualitative study and uses a library research. This study uses novel of J.M. Coetzee, entitled Disgrace that published by Vintage, Random House, 20 Vauxhall Bridge Road, London, Great Britain, 1999 as the main data of the study. The data are in the form of direct and indirect speech of the characters, dialogues, epilogues and quotations which indicate and represent aspect of rape by the characters that lead to shame. This thesis is using the library method in collecting the data. It does not use the statistic method. That is why it is not served in numbering or tables. Library research used an approach in analyzing this study. The kind of library research which is used here is intensive or closely reading to search quotations or phrases. It also used to analyze the literary elements both intrinsic and extrinsic. The references are taken from library and contributing ideas about this study from internet that support the idea of analyzing. The analysis is done by the following steps: (1) Classification based on the statement of the problems. This classification is used to avoid the broad discussion. There are two classifications in this study. They are the depiction of rape and how it leads to shame. (2) Describing David Lurie's and Lucy's rape which is stated from the quotations or statements. (3) Describing how the shame and disgrace they got which is stated from the quotations or statements. (4) Revealing the relations between rape and shame. The quotations that showed how the characters' rape leads to shame are taken as data. (5) Drawing the conclusion based on the analysis which is in line with the problems. ANALYSIS The first analysis is the depiction of rape. In Disgrace the rape parted in three different background and motif. The first rape is from David to Soraya the prostitute woman. David uses his financial advantages to buy woman for sex. After the relationship with Soraya ended David engage to a scandal with his Student Melanie. David admits that he misused his authority as a lecturer to have sex with his student. This depicts the condition of male domination particularly in South Africa. The last rape happened to David's' daughter, Lucy. She raped by three black African intruders. The rape of Lucy remains mystery for her silence to not tell the policemen about the incident. In his age of fifty two, and divorced, David proclaim that he has solved problem of sex rather well even without a wife. However, the reason of his 'solved problem of sex' for over one year is Soraya, a high-class prostitute girl from an escort service. She is a coloured woman that David has a historical interest. She has a honey brown body. She is tall and slim, with long black hair and dark, liquid eyes. Simply said this beautiful girl becomes his sources of happiness. "It surprises him that ninety minutes a week of a woman's company are enough to make him happy, who used to think he needed a wife, a home, a marriage" (Coetzee, 1999:5). David's ideal marriage is with a wife that is a prostitute, but for him only and only at certain times. He met Soraya only on Thursday. On the other day he is back to his normal life. With Soraya he already find the happiness he belief. It makes him thought; there is no need to search for another life destination such as home and real wife. It made David rely on prostitution in his sexual life. Prostitution as the solution allows him to fantasize that a woman mirrors his wishes. He bought sex he wanted and she got extra money from him. For David money is no problem concerning that he lived alone with his salary as a professor and lecturer. As a consequence, he paid double for her. At least his money is worthy for finds her entirely satisfactory. As a customer, David is on dilemma seeing this prostitution. He knows that every woman in the prostitution is perforce. Women in prostitution would leave if they could. The term is an indicator of their hopelessness. "They tell stories, they laugh, but they shudder too, as one shudders at a cockroach in a washbasin in the middle of the night" (Coetzee, 1999:8). In their mind, they see that women in prostitutes are disgusted with their customer, so does the customers. Soraya just pretended to keep their customer satisfied. Prostitutes sometimes talk of the feeling of power they experience when they are with their customer. They are talking about a feeling of control when engaged in sexual acts. They soon feel the disadvantages of that particular way of life. It also exposes the fragility of the illusion of control over what another subject wants. If a man wants a woman to want what he wants, he can only force her to pretend to want his desire and then he has also to deny that pretence. David then met Melanie, his student. He treats her under the wine and romantic music, the Mozart clarinet quintet. He made his move to seduce Melanie in some conversation. He talked about poetry, music, food, and his past life. Then, after he offered some liqueur, the higher alcoholic drink, he said directly to Melanie, asking her to do something reckless. He touch her and said "You're very lovely . Stay. Spend the night with me." (Coetzee, 1999: 16). Melanie refused his liquor but accept a shot of whisky in her coffee. She should say no at that time instead wonder and ask why. She trapped to this conversation: 'Why?' 'Because you ought to.' 'Why ought I to?' 'Why? Because a woman's beauty does not belong to her alone. It is part of the bounty she brings into the world. She has a duty to share it.' (Coetzee, 1999: 16) As a professor of language and communication, David, could easily manipulate the words, he says. The way he talked to Melanie reflects his experience through many women. "Smooth words, as old as seduction itself." (Coetzee, 1999: 16). He says it indirectly to make Melanie believes what he belief. He makes the statement so convincing and become hard to decline. Melanie herself was mistaken to ask more to David, because she did not know how to deal with him. Instead saying 'why', she should say 'no' to David when he asked her to stay. So she would not get in this complicated situation. Maybe she should already say 'no' when David asked her to come to his house. David was in a grip of something and he would not let it go. However, what is done is done. The next day David asked Melanie to go lunch. Again, Melanie cannot reject David offer. There is still time for her to tell a lie but she is too confused, and the moment passes. In the restaurant, they got an awkward situation because Melanie lost her appetite and there was a long silent. Then David asked to Melanie about what is on her mind: `Is something the matter? Do you want to tell me?' She shakes her head. `Are you worried about the two of us?' `Maybe,' she says. `No need. I'll take care. I won't let it go too far.' Too far. What is far, what is too far, in a matter like this? Is her too far the same as his too far? (Coetzee, 1999: 19) After the harassment from David a day before, Melanie must wonder about his plan. The women should worry about her safety. Because feminist, Cahill, agree that one of the rape purpose is to take women into state of fear, and it is he responsibility of masculinity and the construction of patriarchy. Men are possible to keep women as a fragile creature and need protection. Knowing that Melanie may feel bad about this situation, David guarantees that the thing would not go too far, he put Melanie to feel safe at least. This is another tactical seduction that is done by David. He manipulates the situation and manages it like there is nothing happen like everything is fine. It is not hard for him to do it concerning that Melanie was an easy target for him. The rapist always seeks the powerless people to be his target. Finally, they have sex for the first time. Even though, it is not the first time for both of them. David took Melanie to his house after getting lunch in the restaurant. They did it on the living room with rain sound pattering. Melanie is passive on the first time they have sex. While David finds the act of her passivity is so enjoyable. Melanie is passive like Soraya. She does not crawling, bite, and aggressive. She is his typical woman he was searching for. He was having sex with another whore after Soraya left him. But he did not like it because she is aggressive. So he never does it again with her. His desire was only on Melanie this time. It is stated in the novel that "She struck up a fire in me" (Coetzee, 1999: 166). Fire is a symbolization of energy that can stimulate one's desire. This fire heat up his libido that pushes him doing something undesired to the core. In the rape theory, David can be considered as narcissistic because he tend to be willing to do whatever it takes to achieve the goal that they want from a relationship, including rape. In this theory, narcissists are defined as having a lower proneness to shame and guilt, having unrealistically positive self-evaluations, and being especially likely to respond to bad evaluations by blaming other sources, including the evaluator and the technique of evaluation. Narcissistic suits David as a rapist. He has lower sense of shame, as teacher and student he took Melanie to go out lunch just the two of them. Considering that he is the famous person in the city, people will wonder what is he up to. In the restaurant he seduced her and ask her to do something wild. He is implying that she has to have sex with him. But the relationship become a scandal that makes him lost his job. After realizing that there's nothing left for him in Cape Town, David wanted to change the atmosphere. He moved to the east across the country to the rural town of Salem in the Eastern Cape, where his daughter Lucy lives alone on a smallholding, growing vegetables to sell at the Saturday market and running a kennel for dogs. David begins a new life there, helping Lucy at the market, assisting Lucy's neighbour Petrus with odd jobs as "I am the gardener and the dog-man" (Coetzee, 1999: 64), and volunteering at the Animal Welfare Clinic with Bev Shaw. Lucy is leftish which make her the reversal of her father. She even did not want call herself a boss by Petrus. She is not individualist but socialist. She helps people no matter who they are. But this time she made big mistake by risk herself to strangers. Lucy tells David to stay outside while she takes the tall man indoors to use the phone. The second man runs in to the house behind them and locks David out. In a total panic, David let go of the bulldog's strap and commanded the dog to go after the boy. Then he kicks down the kitchen door. David tried to save Lucy but he felt someone whack him over the head. He falls down, barely conscious, and feels himself being dragged across the floor. When he realize, he's locked in the bathroom and wondering what's going on with Lucy. The second man comes in to get the car keys from David and then locks him back in. Meanwhile, he looks out and sees the tall man with a rifle. The tall man starts shooting the dogs one by one, splattering brains and guts all over the place. And if that isn't bad enough, the second man and the boy come back in the bathroom, douse David with alcohol, and set him on fire, luckily just his hair catches burning and he extinguishes himself in the toilet. They leave, stealing David's car. David and Lucy are left to deal with everything that just happened. During this whole nightmare, Petrus is nowhere to be found. After being raped, Lucy decided to not report the rape to the police. The silent of Lucy depict the subjugation or conquest. "No I am not blaming you, that is not the point. But it is something new you are talking about. Slavery. They want you for their slave." (Coetzee, 1999: 159). Lucy response him and disagree with "Not slavery. Subjection. Subjugation." (Coetzee, 1999: 159). This makes Lucy as the rape survivor depend on men to get protection. The second analysis is about how rape leads to shame. In Disgrace the rape that experienced by the rapist and the rape survivor transform and effect their life worst then before. From the previous study Nurka classified the effect of rape by gender: (1) Female as the object will get shame, (2) men as the subject will take disgrace. (Nurka, 2012: 310). The male character, David Lurie, got disgrace after doing sexual harassment to his student, Melanie. As the rapist, David will be haunted by his sin and losing his reputation and his job. While Lucy, the rape survivor got shame after being raped. The act of rape means to take away by force which the dignity is to be taken. Loosing dignity makes woman feel shameful. It turns out that the act of rape is not only giving shame feeling to the victims but also to the rapist. Soraya knows about the attachment of shame for being prostitute. Then when she met David in the midtown, she was afraid if the public know who she is. This is because David is the famous person in Cape town. "He has always been a man of the city, at home amid a flux of bodies where Eros stalks and glances flash like arrows" (Coetzee, 1999: 6). Concerning that shame is social affect associated with being discovered or found out by another person, she knew that he is the famous person in the city. It is too risky to stay in public with him. There is a high possibility that her secret will spread. Then to keep her pride for her children Soraya decided to quit the job. She did not want her children knows their real mother is. So she decided to resign from the escort and disappeared from that business. David ought to end but he pays a detective to tracking Soraya instead. When he got the number he makes a call. Soraya surprise and wondering abot how he gets the numbers. She did not talk for a moment. She wondered because the agency has a rule about keeping the former prostitutes identity. After the silent she said "I don't know who you are,' she says. 'You are harassing me in my own house. I demand you will never phone me here again, never." (Coetzee, 1999: 10). After this moment he did not contact Soraya anymore. For Melanie, after she gets the coercive sexual by David, she becomes a different person in class. She even absent when it was on midterm test. Then she told her boyfriend that her professor have sex with her. The boyfriend then angry to him and vandalize his car, deflated the tires and injected a glue on both door. "After this coup de main Melanie keeps her distance. He is not surprised: if he has been shamed, she is shamed too." (Coetzee, 1999: 31). The gossip may be starting to spread so she tries to not meet him. But on Monday she reappears in class and beside her, leaning back in his seat, hands in pockets, with an air of cocky ease, is the boy in black, the boyfriend. The student in the class knew about what is going on from the gossip. They are clearly waiting to see what the professor will do about the intruder. Professor let the boyfriend intrude to the class but then he asked Melanie to come to the office and tell her to not let the boyfriend do that again. After that moment Melanie never come to the class anymore. Furthermore, after being ashamed she decided to give up her study in the university. Thus her father asked David to tell Melanie to not give up. At this moment, Melanie's father , Mr. Isaacs did not know that David is the causes of his daughter wanted to quit the university. As David thought "I am the worm in the apple… how can I help you when I am the very source of your woe?" (Coetzee, 1999: 37). After knowing that David rape his Doughter Mr. Isaacs tell him that what e sad done is not right. He imply that he does not sending her daughter to the nest of viper that poisoned her daughter with the act of rape. He feels ashamed about what was happen. He disappointed that an educated person like Professor David do an embarrassing and stupid thing. After the university fired David, Melanie continued her study. From the university scandal Melanie is regarded as victims and the professor is the one who responsible. Thus the disgrace runs to David. Even though Mr. Isaacs' family got ashamed too from his rape they not reported this to the policemen. David is lucky this time. It is obvious that the rape survivor will blessed with so much shame. It is also happened on Lucy. The first thing she did is staying at home. She does not want to go outside. The trauma and the fear will grow upon her. In earlier days after the rape he stated that he was nothing, heist e dead person. She did not want to meet people too. She would rather hide her face, and he knows why. Because of the disgrace. Because of the shame…. Like a stain the story is spreading across the district. Not her story to spread but theirs: they are its owners. How they put her in her place, how they showed her what a woman was for. (Coetzee, 1999: 115) It is a related to shame that person who gets shame will hide itself from public. Lucy was avoiding he people talk and question. It takes a time to recover from this trauma. But she could not let it go to long because if she do not going outside she will lose her job and stall in the market. To replace her, David and Petrus doing her job in the market. The damage that is given to Lucy, the rape survivor, may attached forever. She felt everything will never be the same. "One is never oneself again?" (Coetzee, 1999: 124). Is "Lucy" still "Lucy"? Lucy also emphasizes the existence of herself "I am not the person you know. I am a dead person and I do not know yet what will bring me back to life." (Coetzee, 1999: 161). With nothing to left she got nothing to lose. Then she decided to take consequences of human body in pain. Lucy takes the consequences of human body in pain. "I must learn to accept. To start at ground level. With nothing. Not with nothing but. With nothing. No cards, no weapons, no property, no rights, no dignity." (Coetzee, 1999: 205). From the sentence above it is shown that Lucy is starting to understand her condition after being raped. She decided to start her business in farm and her vendor. Although she realises that she has nothing left. The rapist also takes her dignity that is the biggest loose after the rape. A woman without a dignity will judge herself as a shameful person. She also feels that she has no right to her own land and properties. It is because Petrus take over it. As the rapist, David Lurie got public pressure from university committee and the students. At first he does not confess that he is guilty. But after her daughter being raped by three African intruders he contemplate and change his attitude. Then he ask for apologize to Melanie's family. After the scandal of lecture and his student were reported in university newspaper, the university made a committee. When answering the question, David giving no clue to the judges. David was making confusing issues to them. The committee not wanted to force David to make apologize. They wanted to help David to keep doing his career by making a statement to make it clear. But he resisted by saying "I am being asked to issue an apology about which I may not be sincere?" (Coetzee, 1999: 58) David's refusal to be "disgraced" can be read as a warlike strategy in the realm of sexual politics. For by renouncing the assault, David transfers the shame he feels upon Melanie in an attempt to strengthen his wavering masculinity and suppress her intimidating femininity. He plead guilty when he was in the committee. He remains silent and giving no story from his side. When David asked someone in the neutral position that is his former wife, Rosalind. She told him that he should have known that he is too old to be meddling with other people's children. He should have expected the worst from the scandal. She also blame the two for all that happened. `Don't blame her! Whose side are you on? Of course I blame her! I blame you and I blame her. The whole thing is disgraceful from beginning to end. Disgraceful and vulgar too. And I'm not sorry for saying so.' (Cortzee, 1999: 45) David feels disgrace on himself but he still cannot accept it. He said nothing to the committee and plead guilty. But from her former wife explanation he cannot resist it. Even though he must be so angry when he heard what she said. But he controlled his emotion and accept the disgrace given by the rape. For earlier, David is described as "mildly smitten with Melanie" and that "it was no great matter: barely a term passed when he did not fall for one or other of his charges" (Coetzee, 1999: 11-12,). Masquerading as the tragic subject of the ungovernable impulse of Eros, David publically justifies and renounces the stigmatization of Melanie's rape.David's lack of a sincere apology and his refusal to publically acknowledge the assault, along with his fanciful illustration of himself as a "servant of Eros" (Coetzee, 1999: 52) demonstrates the way in which disgrace (though masked as desire) is felt by men as a response to threatening femininity. Spurned and embarrassed by the loss of his womanizing charms, David's shame is directed into lust, later to be passed off as "Eros" when he encounters Melanie Isaacs, whom he refers to as "Melanie: the dark one" (Coetzee, 1999: 8). As with Soraya, David's seduction of Melanie is an attempt not only to reclaim sexual privilege, but to emphasize the traditional patriarchal procedures of the European culture, in which such privilege, like Lurie himself, is embedded. The worst thing from David's disgrace is how he, an intellectual person which had title a professor, becomes a person who can do nothing except working in bad place. To be a dog-man, that he already underestimate it on Petrus. By the time, David realized that he can't do nothing but accept what the destiny does. The situation that makes him to take any job turned David into a rational man. What David has and does in the university, which let him to become an intellectual people, disappear when he moved out. He then realized that what he writes about Byron and natural poets all this time is all about the death person. He never writes something in contemporary. CONCLUSION There will be two conclusions which are in line with the statement of problems. The first conclusion is about the depiction of rape in the novel Disgrace. The second conclusion is about how rape lead to shame through the rapist and the rape survivor. From the analysis that has been done about the depiction of rape. It can be concluded that that the author, J.M. Coetzee use the rape to describe the condition of race in post apartheid. All the rape in this novel is interracial rape. There are three kinds of rape experienced by three female characters. The first and the second rape was done by David, white male character that desiring ethnic women. He lived in promiscuity or womanizer that used to have sex with a lot of women. Then in the end he involved in scandal with his student, Melanie. Then the third rape was done to David's daughter, Lucy. She was being raped by three African intruders. The first rape is happened between David and the prostitute, Soraya. On his age of 50 he has no plan to married again. Thus, it made David rely on prostitution in his sexual life. His ideal marriage is with a wife that is a prostitute, but for him only and only at certain times. He met Soraya only on Thursday. On the other day he is back to his normal life. With Soraya he already find the happiness he belief. It makes him thought; there is no need to search for another life destination such as home and real wife. Prostitution gives the solution that allows him to fantasize a woman to mirrors his wishes. This can be classified as rape concerning that every women in prostitutes would leave if they can and she has to do it because there are no other choices. But in the end Soraya decided to quit the job as prostitutes so he has no other place to suit his lust. Then, accidently David met Melanie on the way home. She is his student from romantic class. Melanie is a colored girl, this make David interest to her concerning that he is desiring ethnic women. He forced her to have sex. He did not force her physically but seduced her with suggestive words. The relationship between them then became a scandal in the campus and also became the talk of the city. He left the town and visits his daughter in other town to run away from the situation. During his visits to his daughter, three black men attack Lurie and Lucy at home. The men lock Lurie in a bathroom and rape Lucy in the bedroom. The second half of the novel deals with the aftermath of that moment. Lucy did not want to tell the police and keep silent about what happened to her. She also rejected her father offer to move to Holland. She claimed that it is a private matter and not to be shared. With nothing to left she got nothing to lose. Then she decided to take consequences of human body in pain. Accepting the subordinates , she is willing to sacrifice herself, brings peace between the different racial groups in South Africa. The second conclusion is about how rape lead to shame. In Disgrace the rape that experienced by the rapist and the rape survivor transform their life worst then before. The act of rape means to take away by force which the dignity is to be taken. Loosing dignity makes woman feel shameful on herself. While the rapist that considered as a thief will judge as disgraceful person after the rape. The male character, David Lurie, got disgrace after doing sexual harassment to his student, Melanie. As the rapist, David will be haunted by his sin and losing his reputation and his job. While Lucy, the rape survivor got shame after being raped The first shame is from the prostitute, Soraya. She felt the shame for being prostitute because every prostitutes is attached to shame. Then to keep her pride for her children, Soraya decided to quit the job. She did not want her children knows their real mother is. So she decided to resign from the escort and disappeared from that business. The second shame is from Melanie that involved in scandal with her lecture, David. She was shame for being reported even as victims. She often not attended the class even it was a midterm test. But she still survives to continue his study to university. This is maybe because David was kicked out from the university and not to be someone near her. The third shame is from Lucy, she raped by three African intruders. She is a lesbian that live alone in the small town. She thought that the rape that she got is the payment for living in South Africa. She felt that the rapist wants her to back home to Europe because the westerner's does not belong to South Africa. Then she decided to stay and stay silent about the rape, and keeping her shame as a private matter. The last disgrace is from David, as rapist, David Lurie got public pressure from university committee and the students. At first he does not confess that he is guilty. He loses his job as a professor and turn to be an animal's clinic assistance for killing unwanted dog. After her daughter raped by three African intruders he then contemplates and changes his attitude. He ask for apologize to Melanie's family for his feeling guilty that he never confess before. The ending of the novel shows us that Lucy as the rape survivor could start her life again from the start. She continued to seeding a new plan even she is on pregnancy. He father, David, started to understand that he live in South Africa. Then, he stop complaining about the condition. Disgrace ends with Lurie staying on in Graham's town, continuing to help out at the animal clinic. The open ending of the novel shows Lurie playing excerpts from his opera in the making on a makeshift toy banjo to the three legged dog, Driepoot, who is awaiting his turn for mercy killing. REFERENCE Abegunde, Babalola. 2013. Re-Examination of Rape and Its Groing Jurisprudance under International La. Journal of Politics and Law. Vol. 6, No. 4. Abbey, A., Parkhill, M., Clinton-Sherrod, A. & Zawacki T. 2007. A comparison of men who committed different types of sexual assault in a community sample. Journal of interpersonal violence. Baumeister, R., Catanese, K. & Wallace, H. 2002. Conquest by force: a nacissistic reactance theory of rape and sexual coercion. Review of general psychology Bushman, B., Bonacci, A., Dijk, M. & Baumeister, R. (2003). Narcissism, sexual refusal, and aggression: testing a narcissistic reactance model of sexual coercion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Cahill, A. (2001). Rethinking rape. Ithaca: Cornell University Press Coetzee. J.M. 1999. Disgrace. London: Vintage, 2000 Fuchs, Thomas. 2003. The Phenomenology of Shame, Guilt and the Body in Body Dysmorphic Disorder and Depression. Journal of Phenomenological Psychology. vol. 33, no. 2. Gottfredson, M. & Hirschi, T. 1990. A general theory of crime. Stanford: Stanford University Press Lowell, Gary. 2010. A Review of Rape Statistics Theories and Policy. Undergraduate Review. Massachusetts: Bridgewater State University. Nurka, Camille. 2012. Feminine Shame/Masculine Disgrace. Journal of Cultural Study. University of Melbourne Prentky, R. & Knight, R.1991. Identifying Critical Dimensions for Discriminating Among Rapists. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology Siegert, R. & Ward, T. 2002. Rape and evolutionary psychology: a critique of Thornhill and Palmer's theory. Journal of Aggression and violent behavior
This dissertation, entitled "How to Embed Sustainability in the Core of Higher Education Institutions: Drivers of, Barriers to, & Patterns behind the Implementation Processes of Sustainability Curricula – Insights from a Quantitative Meta-Study with Data from around the Globe," addresses the question of how sustainability curricula1 can be implemented and established in higher education institutions2. This research question is based on the assumption that sustainable development requires new ways of thinking and acting in the world. Accordingly, universities – as hubs for knowledge generation, innovation, and education – provide a central leverage point for sustainably developing society at large. Therefore, the institutionalization of sustainability curricula is not only socially demanded, but also stipulated in numerous political statements from the international community (e.g., those of the UN and UNESCO) and operationalized via Sustainable Development Goal No. 4: "Quality Education". Previous findings on how such implementation can be successful and what factors support or inhibit the process have come primarily through case studies of individual higher education institutions. These studies provide important insights but have been largely descriptive rather than analytical and leave open questions about the generalizability of their findings – for example, the extent to which other universities can be guided by the experiences of the respective higher education institutions. The present dissertation addresses this research gap. Through a meta-study (i.e., an analytical comparison of existing case studies), generalizable findings on the implementation processes of sustainability curricula are explored. In the first step, a case universe was collected in order to provide a database for deeper analyses. In two further analysis steps that built on the case universe from Step 1, certain factors that promote or inhibit the implementation of sustainability curricula (Step 2) and specific implementation patterns (Step 3) were examined. The following paragraphs provide greater details and an overview of the respective findings. In the first step, a database of peer-reviewed English-language case studies from around the globe that report on such processes was created. A total of 230 case studies were identified, 133 of which focus on the implementation processes of sustainability curricula.3 A bibliometric analysis of the 230 case studies revealed that this field of research is growing, although the discourse is primarily dominated by authors from North America, Europe, Oceania, and Asia, with South America and Africa being underrepresented. In addition, a citation analysis demonstrated that some universities incorporate findings from other countries whereas other universities act in isolation. This observation leaves open the question of the extent to which universities learn from one another in order to advance the implementation of sustainability curricula. In the second step of the analysis, the qualitative data of the collected case studies (sample of 133 case studies) were compared using the case survey method, which is a specific type of a meta-1 Sustainability curricula include courses, programs, and certificates from all fields of study that deal in some form with sustainability topics. For a more-detailed discussion of what education for sustainable development (ESD) entails, see Section Error! Reference source not found. 2 Higher education institutions (HEIs) include universities, universities of applied sciences, and other institutions that offer at least a bachelor's degree. 3 A detailed explanation of the case sample and subsamples can be found in Section Error! Reference source not found. analysis. The focus of the comparison lay on the drivers of and barriers to the processes of sustainability curriculum implementation at higher education institutions. Driving- and inhibiting factors have been thoroughly examined theoretically in the discourse on education for sustainable development (ESD), especially those pertaining to higher education institutions. However, no large body of data has yet been created to empirically test these hypotheses. The present meta-study found that the following factors lead to the deep-rooted and comprehensive establishment of sustainability curricula: strong leadership support; the establishment of sustainability curricula in the areas of education, research, campus operations, and outreach activities; formal participation of internal (including students) and external stakeholders; and engagement by sustainability champions (change agents), who are often the first to implement sustainability curricula and can face strong resistance. Other enabling factors include strategic planning, coordination, communication, having a vision, external political influence, the presence of a window of opportunity (e.g., an environmental disaster, a change in presidency), and the availability of interdisciplinary meeting spaces. On the other hand, the strongest cited barriers to the implantation of sustainability curricula were found to be the lack of interdisciplinary meeting spaces, the lack of a vision, the lack of incentives, the lack of resources, an overly full curriculum, and an unsupportive / overly bureaucratic organizational structure. The third step of the analysis also built on data from the 133 case studies and explored whether certain types or patterns of implementation processes occur. Through the analysis, six implementation patterns were identified that share similar driving- and inhibiting factors. The respective interplay between factors leads to various degrees of sustainability curriculum implementation in terms of how deeply rooted and comprehensive this implementation is. As discussed in greater detail below, in descending order of the level of achieved deep-rooted change, these patterns are (1) a collaborative paradigm shift, (2) bottom-up institutional change, (3) top-down institutional change, (4) the presence of many barriers that hinder institutional change, (5) externally driven initiatives, and (6) initiatives that are scattered due to a lack of coordination. Across all patterns, two phases could be identified: First, the impetus to implement ESD may be initiated not only by internal actors, but also by external ones. This initiation can take hold from the "bottom-up" (i.e., by students or faculty), from the "top-down" (i.e., at the presidential level), or in both directions simultaneously. The following key factors appear to be important in driving the initial implementation forward: a culture of open communication between all stakeholders in which feedback and reflection are welcome and even actively solicited, the development of a shared understanding and vision that further create a sense of ownership and long-term success, a high level of collaboration among all stakeholders, and existing initiatives that lead to knowledge sharing and other resources. In this regard, informal collaboration and cooperation can partially compensate for a lack of presidential-level support and/or a formal communication structure. Furthermore, developing a strategy with individual steps and shared responsibility leads to more-successful implementation of ESD at higher education institutions. The presented findings add a complementary empirical perspective to the discourse on the establishment of ESD at higher education institutions. First, the case studies that specifically address the implementation processes of sustainability curricula are reviewed and analyzed here for the first time as part of a research landscape. This research landscape reveals where research on such implementation processes has been or is being conducted. On this basis, both researchers and funders can reflect on the status quo and plan further research- or funding endeavors. Second, this dissertation offers the opportunity to compare a multitude of individual case studies and thus to develop new and generalizable insights into the implementation of sustainability curricula. The empirical analysis uses 133 case studies to identify key factors that promote or inhibit the implementation of sustainability curricula and to add a complementary perspective to the discourse, which has thus far been dominated by theoretical considerations and individual case studies. The analysis thereby offers a new perspective on generalizable influencing factors that appear to be important across different contexts. Thus far, specific patterns of implementation processes have been infrequently studied, and with few datasets. This dissertation analyzes the complex interplay between over 100 variables and provides one of the first research attempts at better understanding the processes that lead to the deep-rooted and comprehensive implementation of sustainability curricula. Internal and external practitioners of higher education institutions can find examples and evidence that can be useful in planning the next steps of their sustainability curriculum implementation. In the future, higher education institutions will play an even greater role in the journey toward sustainable development. This dissertation offers generalizable empirical findings on how universities can succeed in recognizing their own responsibility to that end and in realizing this transformation through the implementation of ESD. ; Diese Dissertation "How to Embed Sustainability in the Core of Higher Education Institutions: Drivers of, Barriers to, & Patterns behind the Implementation Processes of Sustainability Curricula – Insights from a Quantitative Meta-Study with Data from around the Globe" geht der Frage nach, wie nachhaltigkeitsbezogene Curricula1 an Hochschulen2 implementiert und etabliert werden können. Der Fragestellung liegt die Annahme zu Grunde, dass eine nachhaltige Entwicklung mit veränderten Denk- und Handlungsmustern dringend erforderlich ist und Hochschulen – als Hubs für Forschung, Innovationen & Bildung – einen zentralen Hebelpunkt für eine nachhaltige Entwicklung der Gesellschaft leisten. Daher ist die Institutionalisierung von Nachhaltigkeitscurricula nicht nur gesellschaftlich gefordert, sondern auch in zahlreichen politischen Statements der Weltgemeinschaft, z.B. der UN und der UNESCO, festgeschrieben und durch das Sustainable Development Goal Nr. 4 "Quality Education" operationalisiert. Bisherige Erkenntnisse wie eine solche Implementierung gelingen kann und welche Faktoren den Prozess befördern oder hemmen, liegen vor allem durch Fallstudien einzelner Hochschulen vor. Diese bilden wichtige Erkenntnisse, sind zum Großteil aber eher deskriptiv als analytisch und lassen Fragen nach der Generalisierbarkeit der Erkenntnisse offen – also inwiefern weitere Hochschulen sich an den jeweiligen Erfahrungen orientieren können. An dieser Forschungslücke setzt die vorliegende Dissertation an. Durch eine Meta-Studie, den analytischen Vergleich existierender individueller Fallstudien, werden generalisierbare Erkenntnisse zum Implementierungsprozess von Nachhaltigkeitscurricula erforscht. In einem ersten Schritt wurde eine Grundgesamtheit von Fallstudien erhoben, um die Datengrundlage für tiefergehende Analysen zu generieren. In zwei weiteren Analyseschritten wurden, aufbauend auf der erhobenen Grundgesamtheit der Fallstudien aus Schritt 1, bestimmte Faktoren, die die Implementierung von Nachhaltigkeitscurricula fördern oder hemmen (Schritt 2), sowie spezifische Implementierungsmuster (Schritt 3) untersucht. Die folgenden Abschnitte erläutern Details und präsentieren einen Überblick über die jeweiligen Ergebnisse. In einem ersten Schritt wurde eine Datenbank aus Englisch-sprachigen Fallstudien angelegt, die weltweit über Implementierungsprozesse von Nachhaltigkeitscurricula an Hochschulen berichten. Insgesamt wurden 230 Fallstudien identifiziert, wovon sich 133 Fallstudien im Kern mit der Implementierung von Nachhaltigkeitscurricula beschäftigen3. Eine bibliometrische Analyse der 230 Fallstudien zeigt, dass dieses Forschungsfeld wächst. Der Diskurs ist vor allem durch Forschende und Fallstudien aus Nordamerika, Europa, Ozeanien und Asien geprägt, wobei Forschende und Fallstudien aus Südamerika und Afrika unterrepräsentiert sind. Zudem zeigt eine Zitationsanalyse, dass einige 1 Nachhaltigkeitsbezogene Curricula werden hier verstanden als Kurse, Programme und Zertifikate alle Fachrichtungen, die sich in irgendeiner Form mit nachhaltigen Themen beschäftigen. Eine detaillierte Diskussion welche Typen von Bildung für Nachhaltige Entwicklung im Diskurs vertreten sind, findet sich in Abschnitt Error! Reference source not found. 2 Hochschule wird hier als Sammelbegriff genutzt für Universitäten, Fachhochschulen sowie weitere Institutionen, die mindestens einen Bachelor Abschluss anbieten. 3 Eine detaillierte Beschreibung der Fallstudien Stichprobe und die Unterteilung in Untergruppen ist in Abschnitt Error! Reference source not found. erklärt. Fallstudien von Hochschulen die Erkenntnisse aus anderen Ländern miteinfließen lassen, während andere eher isoliert agieren. Dies lässt die Frage offen, inwiefern Hochschulen global miteinander im Austausch stehen und voneinander lernen, um die Implementierung von Nachhaltigkeitscurricula voran zu treiben. In einem zweiten Analyseschritt wurden die qualitativen Daten der gesammelten Fallstudien (Stichprobe von 133 Fallstudien) anhand der Case-Survey-Methode (Art der Meta-Analyse) verglichen. Im Fokus standen dabei die Treiber und Barrieren der Prozesse,um Nachhaltigkeitscurricula an Hochschulen zu implementieren. Treibende und hemmende Einflussfaktoren auf den Implementierungsprozess von Nachhaltigkeitscurricula sind im Diskurs zur Bildung für Nachhaltige Entwicklung (BNE), speziell bezogen auf Hochschulen, ein theoretisch eingehend betrachtetes Feld. Hingegen fehlte bislang eine große Datenlage, um diese Hypothesen empirisch zu prüfen. Diese Forschungslücke füllt die vorliegende Arbeit, wobei die empirische Analyse ergeben hat, dass folgende Faktoren zu einer tiefen und breiten Etablierung von Nachhaltigkeitscurricula führen: Eine starke Unterstützung durch die Führungsebene (z.B. Präsidium, Dekanat); die Etablierung von Nachhaltigkeit sowohl in Lehre, Forschung, Campus, als auch der Austausch mit lokalen Akteurinnen und Akteuren; die formelle Partizipation interner (auch Studierende) und externer Akteurinnen und Akteure; und das Engagement von "Nachhaltigkeits-Champions" (change agents), die oft zuerst Nachhaltigkeitscurricula implementieren und gegen Widerstände ankämpfen. Weitere befördernde Faktoren sind: Strategische Planung, Koordination, Kommunikation, Vision, politischer Einfluss, eine günstige Gelegenheit (window of opportunity) (z.B. Umweltkatastrophe, Wechsel im Präsidium) sowie interdisziplinäre Begegnungsräume. Als stärkste Barrieren wurden folgende genannt: Fehlen von interdisziplinären Begegnungsräumen, fehlende Vision, fehlende Anreize, fehlende Ressourcen, überfülltes Curriculum, wenig unterstützende / zu bürokratische Organisationsstruktur. Der dritte Analyseschritt baut ebenfalls auf der Datenlage der 133 Fallstudien auf und erforscht, ob bestimmte Typen bzw. Muster von Implementierungsprozessen auftreten. Durch die Analyse wurden sechs typische Implementierungsmuster identifiziert. Dabei führt das jeweilige Zusammenspiel der Faktoren zu einer Implementierung von Nachhaltigkeitscurricula in unterschiedlicher Tiefe und Breite, welche nachfolgend durch die absteigende Reihenfolge der Muster indiziert ist: (1) "a collaborative paradigm shift", (2) "bottom-up institutional change", (3) "top-down institutional change", (4) "the presence of many barriers that hinder institutional change", (5) "externally driven initiatives", and (6) "initiatives that are scattered due to a lack of coordination". Über alle Muster hinweg wurden zudem zwei Phasen identifiziert. Zum einen kann der Anstoß zur Implementierung von BNE nicht nur von internen, sondern auch von externen Akteurinnen und Akteuren initiiert werden. Zum anderen kann sich diese Initiierung dann sowohl "bottom-up", also durch Studierende, Lehrende, etc., als auch "top-down", also z.B. durch das Präsidium, oder auch von beiden Ebenen gleichzeitig durchsetzen. Um den ersten Anstoß gewinnbringend zu nutzen, sind folgende Schlüsselfaktoren wichtig: Eine offene Kommunikationskultur zwischen allen Akteurinnen und Akteuren, in der Feedback und Reflektion willkommen sind und auch aktiv eingeholt werden. Die Entwicklung einer Vision, die von allen Beteiligten geteilt wird, kreiert Ownership und einen langfristigen Erfolg. Eine hohe Kollaboration aller Akteurinnen und Akteure, aber auch bestehender Initiativen führt zur Teilung von Wissen und weiteren Ressourcen. Dabei kann eine informelle Kollaboration und Kooperation teilweise die fehlende Unterstützung der präsidialen Ebene und/oder eine formelle Kommunikationsstruktur ausgleichen. Weiterhin führt die Entwicklung einer Strategie mit einzelnen Schritten und geteilter Verantwortung zu einer erfolgreicheren Implementierung von BNE an Hochschulen. Die vorgestellten Erkenntnisse stellen eine ergänzende empirische Perspektive im Diskurs um die Etablierung von BNE an Hochschulen dar. Erstens sind die Fallstudien, die sich konkret mit den Implementierungsprozessen von Nachhaltigkeitscurricula befassen, das erste Mal als Forschungslandschaft analysiert worden. Auf dieser Grundlage können sowohl Forschende sowie Fördergebende über den Status Quo reflektieren und weitere Schritte planen, aber auch Praktikerinnen und Praktiker Beispiele auffinden. Zweitens bietet die vorliegende Dissertation die Möglichkeit die Vielzahl an Einzelfallstudien zu vergleichen und somit neue und generalisierbare Erkenntnisse zu entwickeln. Die empirische Analyse anhand von 133 Fallstudien zur Identifizierung von Schlüsselfaktoren, die eine Implementierung von Nachhaltigkeitscurricula fördern oder hemmen, stellt eine ergänzende Perspektive im Diskurs dar, der von theoretischen Überlegungen und individuellen Fallstudien geprägt ist. Damit eröffnet sich eine neue Perspektive auf Einflussfaktoren, die in jedem Kontext wichtig zu sein scheinen. Vor allem spezielle Muster an Implementierungsprozessen wurden bisher kaum und mit weniger Datensätzen untersucht. Diese Dissertation analysiert das komplexe Zusammenspiel aus über 100 Variablen und bietet damit eine der ersten Arbeiten, die Prozesse, die zu einer tiefen und breiten Implementierung von Nachhaltigkeitscurricula führen, besser zu verstehen. In Zukunft werden Hochschulen eine noch größere Rolle auf dem Weg einer nachhaltigen Entwicklung spielen. Diese Dissertation bietet generalisierbare empirische Erkenntnisse wie es Hochschulen gelingen kann ihre Verantwortung wahrzunehmen und durch die Implementierung von BNE zu realisieren.
Public interest litigation is a mechanism of intervention in a matter that concerns the public. It could be about human rights, government policy, or some other issue that could present a challenge to public life. Public interest litigation is important because it presents hope to the powerless and offers justice where there might not previously have been the opportunity. The aim of public interest litigation is to recognise injustice and give a voice to the concerns of members of society who might not have the means to articulate them. In Nigeria there is a high tendency for people of low socioeconomic status to experience police brutality, or even become victims of extra-judicial killing. In this article, it was argued that although public interest litigation is a good strategy to engage the injustice of extra-judicial killings, the recurrence shows that the solution lies more in addressing a systemic problem. ; Dorcas A. Odunaike: odunaiked@babcock.edu.ng ; Dorcas Odunaike is a PhD and Head of the Department of Private and Commercial Law at the Babcock University School of Law & Security Studies, Nigeria. ; Olalekan Moyosore Lalude is a PhD Candidate at the Babcock University School of Law & Security Studies, Nigeria. ; Temitope Omotola Odusanya is a PhD and member of Gender Parity Initiative, Nigeria. ; Dorcas A. 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Die nachhaltige Entwicklung ländlicher Gebiete ist eine globale Herausforderung. Sie ist politische Agenda vieler Länder, sowohl mit niedrigem als auch mit hohem Einkommen. Ein großes ländliches Gebiet in Kenia besteht aus den ariden und semi-ariden Gebieten (ASAL). Diese umfassen nahezu 90 Prozent der Landfläche des Landes und sind zuhause von fast 30 Prozent der Landesbevölkerung. Historisch gesehen haben die ASAL jedoch unter begrenzter politischer Repräsentation, mangelnder Integration in soziale Dienste, einer schwachen Infrastruktur sowie geringen wirtschaftlichen Investitionen gelitten. Diese Marginalisierung hat dazu geführt, dass die Lebensstandards in betroffenen Gemeinden zurückbleiben. Diese Doktorarbeit trägt zum Verständnis von zwei wichtigen Aspekten im Leben der überwiegend auf Viehzucht spezialisierten Gemeinschaften bei, die in den ASAL Nordkenias leben. Der erste Aspekt bezieht sich auf soziales Vertrauen, welches weithin als eine grundlegende Komponente von wirtschaftlichen Interaktionen und Wachstums gesehen wird. Der zweite Aspekt bezieht sich auf Ernährungsqualität, welche eine grundlegende Komponente menschlicher und wirtschaftlicher Entwicklung darstellt. Insbesondere soll diese Arbeit zeigen, dass die Erhöhung des sozialen Vertrauens und die Verbesserung der Ernährung von Hirtengemeinschaften durch den Einsatz von Mobiltelefonen erreicht werden kann. Diese Dissertation besteht aus drei Arbeiten, die jeweils eine bestimmte Komponente der Gesamtanalyse hervorheben. Das erste Papier dieser Arbeit in Kapitel II trägt den Titel: "A Radius of Trust? Contrasting Insights from Experiments and Survey Data" (übersetzt in etwa: "Ein Radius des Vertrauens? Abweichende Einsichten aus Experimenten und Umfragedaten") betitelt. Es gibt Einblicke in die Vertrauenskultur der Hirtengemeinschaften im Bezirk Turkana, Nordkenia. Die Analyse basiert auf Primärdaten, die im Juli/August 2018 gesammelt wurden. Wir haben eine anreizorientierte Version des Vertrauensexperiments von Berg et al. (1995) mit 402 Teilnehmern durchgeführt. Unter Verwendung eines between-subject-designs wurde das Vertrauen für drei Treatments gemessen: Vertrauen gegenüber Menschen aus dem eigenen Dorf, Vertrauen gegenüber Menschen aus einem Nachbardorf und Vertrauen gegenüber Stadtbewohnern aus der Bezirkshauptstadt. Während Personen aus dem eigenen Dorf und Personen aus einem Nachbardorf gleichermaßen vertraut wird, zeigen die experimentellen Daten, dass die Teilnehmer statistisch signifikant weniger Vertrauen in die Stadtbewohner aus der Kreisstadt setzen. Wir argumentieren, dass sich dieses Phänomen mit dem Konzept des Vertrauensradius erklären lässt. Wir stellen dann das Experiment den selbstberichteten Vertrauensniveaus aus den Umfragedaten gegenübergestellt. Die Umfragedaten unterscheiden sich von den experimentellen Daten insoweit, dass hier Dorfbewohnen aus dem eigenen Dorf mehr Vertrauen entgegengebracht wird als Menschen aus einem Nachbardorf. Eine mögliche Ursache für diese Diskrepanz liegt in relativer Übertreibung von Vertrauensbekundungen gegenüber Menschen aus dem eigenen Dorf in den Umfragedaten aufgrund einer Verzerrung durch Soziale Erwünschtheit (social desirability bias). Die zweite Arbeit dieser Dissertation in Kapitel III, "Can Mobile Phones Build Social Trust? Insights from Rural Kenya" (übersetzt in etwa: "Können Mobiltelefone soziales Vertrauen aufbauen? Einblicke in das ländlichen Kenia") verwendet den gleichen Datensatz wie die oben genannte Arbeit. Die Auswirkung der Mobiltelefonnutzung auf das Vertrauen steht im Mittelpunkt dieser zweiten Studie. Das Experiment wird hier zur Messung des sozialen Vertrauens verwendet. Die in dieser Studie genutzte Variationsquelle basiert jedoch auf der Mobiltelefonnutzung der Teilnehmer und nicht auf dem Unterschied zwischen den drei Treatments. Um Verzerrungen aufgrund unbeobachteter Heterogenität von Nutzern und Nicht-Nutzern zu beachten, führen wir eine Instrumentvariablenschätzung durch. Netzwerkverfügbarkeit in der Wohnstätte stellt die Instrumentvariable dar. Die Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass Mobiltelefone dazu beitragen können das Vertrauen gegenüber Menschen. Wir finden positive Effekte jedoch nur in Bezug auf Menschen, die weit entfernt wohnen, nämlich gegenüber Menschen aus der Kreisstadt. Es werden keine statistisch signifikanten Effekte hinsichtlich höheren Vertrauens gegenüber Menschen gefunden, die näher wohnen, nämlich gegenüber Mitbewohnern und Menschen aus einem Nachbardorf. Der unterschiedliche Effekt von Mobiltelefonen auf das Vertrauen könnte dadurch erklärt werden, dass Mobiltelefone die Kommunikation insbesondere zwischen Menschen erleichtern, die weit voneinander entfernt leben. Das dritte Papier dieser Dissertation in Kapitel IV trägt den Titel "Can mobile phones improve nutrition among pastoral communities? Panel data evidence from Northern Kenya" (übersetzt in etwa: "Können Mobiltelefone die Ernährung von Hirtengemeinschaften verbessern? Ergebnisse von Paneldaten aus Nordkenia".) Diese Studie präsentiert eine Folgenabschätzung des Einflusses der Mobiltelefonnutzung und des Mobiltelefonbesitzes auf zwei Indikatoren der Ernährungsvielfalt. Die Studie basiert auf sechs Runden von sekundären Paneldaten, die von 2009 bis 2015 im Bezirk Marsabit im Norden Kenias gesammelt wurden. Wir zeigen, dass die Region durch ein relativ niedriges Niveau der Ernährungsvielfalt gekennzeichnet ist. Gleichzeitig hat die Mobiltelefonnutzung im beobachteten Zeitraum deutlich zugenommen. Wir argumentieren, dass die Nutzung von Mobiltelefonen und der Besitz von Mobiltelefonen mit einer Zunahme der Ernährungsvielfalt in Verbindung gebracht werden können. Mehrere Robustheitsprüfungen deuten darauf hin, dass ein leichterer Zugang zu Lebensmittelmärkten und gekauften Lebensmitteln zu dieser Zunahme der Ernährungsvielfalt beiträgt. Auf der Grundlage dieser drei Papiere ziehen wir mehrere Schlussfolgerungen. Erstens bekräftigen wir frühere Warnungen, dass die Hirtengemeinschaften in Nordkenia in der Tat mit mehreren schwerwiegenden Herausforderungen konfrontiert sind: Das soziale Vertrauen in der Region ist gering, und den Stadtbewohner aus der Bezirkshauptstadt wird sogar besonders wenig Vertrauen entgegengebracht. Dieser Mangel an Vertrauen kann die soziale Interaktion und die wirtschaftliche Entwicklung der Gemeinschaften potenziell behindern und verlangsamen. Die begrenzte Vielfalt der Ernährung stellt ein weiteres kritisches Problem dar, das durch unsere Analyse deutlich wurde. Als Folge einer suboptimalen Ernährungsqualität kann die volle Entfaltung von Individuen und ihren Fähigkeiten eingeschränkt werden, wodurch das wirtschaftliche Potenzial der betroffenen Haushalte eingeschränkt wird. Gleichzeitig zeigen wir, dass Mobiltelefone in den Händen von Hirtengemeinschaften ein besonders leistungsfähiges Werkzeug darstellen. Die Technologie hat das Potenzial, wichtige Wohlfahrtsdimensionen zu verbessern. Mobiltelefone können mit einer Zunahme des Vertrauens gegenüber den Menschen aus der Kreishauptstadt in Verbindung gebracht werden, was dazu beitragen könnte, einige der oben genannten Herausforderungen zu verringern. Darüber hinaus können Mobiltelefone mit vielfältigeren Ernährungsgewohnheiten in Verbindung gebracht werden. Diese Verbesserung einer konkreten und hoch relevanten Dimension des Lebensstandards bekräftigt die Chancen und Verbesserungen, die die Mobiltelefontechnologie den Hirtengemeinschaften bereits gebracht hat und weiterhin bringt. ; The arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL) cover close to 90 per cent of Kenya's landmass and are home to nearly 30 per cent of its population. Historically, the ASAL have however suffered from limited political representation, weak integration into social services, and low infrastructure investments. This marginalization has caused affected communities to fall behind in economic development and overall welfare. This thesis contributes to the understanding of two important aspects in the lives of the predominantly pastoralist communities that inhabit Northern Kenya's ASAL. The first aspects relates to social trust, which is considered a fundamental component of economic interaction and growth. The second aspect relates to nutrition, which is considered to be a fundamental component of human and economic development. In particular, this thesis aims at showing that increases in social trust and improvements of diets among pastoralist communities can be achieved through the use of mobile phones. This dissertation is composed of three papers, each highlighting a particular component of the overall analysis. The first paper of this thesis in chapter II, is titled: "A Radius of Trust? Contrasting Insights from Experiments and Survey Data". It provides insights into the trust culture of pastoralist communities in Turkana County, Northern Kenya. The analysis is based on primary data collected in July/August 2018. We conducted an incentivized version of the canonical trust game by Berg et al. 1995 with 402 participants. Using a between-subject design, trust was measured for three treatments: trust towards people from one's own village, trust towards people from a neighboring village, and trust towards city dwellers from the county capital. While fellow villager and people from a neighboring village are equally trusted, experimental data show that participants place statistically significantly less trust into city dwellers from the county capital. We argue that this phenomenon can be explained with the concept of the radius of trust. The experiment is then contrasted with self-reported trust levels. Survey data differ from the experimental data in the aspect that fellow villagers seem to be more trusted than people from a neighboring village. A potential cause of this discrepancy lies in overstatements of trust towards fellow villagers in the survey due to a social-desirability bias. The second paper of this dissertation in chapter III, "Can Mobile Phones Build Social Trust? Insights from Rural Kenya" utilizes the same data set as the aforementioned paper. The effect of mobile phone use on trust is the focal point of this second study. The experiment is used here as a measurement for social trust. However, the source of variation exploited in this study is based on mobile phone usage of the participants rather than the difference between the three treatment groups. To deal with bias due to unobserved heterogeneity of users and non-users, we use a control function approach with mobile phone reception as an instrumental variable. The results suggest that mobile phones might help to increase trust towards people that live far ways, namely towards people from the county capital. No statistically significant effects are found with regard to trust towards people who live closer, namely towards fellow villagers and people from a neighboring village. The differential effect of mobile phones on trust could be explained by the fact that mobile phones facilitate communication particularly between people that are distant from each other. The third paper of this dissertation in chapter IV is called "Can mobile phones improve nutrition among pastoral communities? Panel data evidence from Northern Kenya". This study presents an impact assessment of the effect of mobile phone use and mobile phone ownership on two indicators of dietary diversity. The study is based on six rounds of secondary panel data collected from 2009 to 2015 in Marsabit County in the North of Kenya. We show that the region is characterized by relatively low levels of dietary diversity. At the same time, mobile phone usage has risen substantially in the observed time period. We argue that mobile phone use and mobile phone ownership can be associated with increases in dietary diversity. Several robustness checks suggest that easier access to markets and purchased food contribute to this increase in dietary diversity. Based on these three papers, we draw several conclusions. Firstly, we reinforce previous alerts that pastoralist communities in Northern Kenya do indeed face several severe challenges: social trust in the region is low, and city dwellers from the county capital even face particularly low trust levels. This lack of trust can potentially hamper social interaction and economic development of the communities. Limited dietary diversity represents another critical issue that became apparent through our analysis. As a consequence of sub-optimal dietary quality, full evolvement of individuals and their skills might be constrained, thereby restricting the economic potential of affected households. At the same time, we show that mobile phones represent a particularly powerful tool in the hands of pastoralist communities. The technology has the potential to improve important welfare dimensions. Mobile phones can be associated with increases in trust towards people from the county capital, which might help reduce some of the aforementioned challenges. Furthermore, mobile phones can be associated with more diverse diets. This improvement of a concrete and highly relevant household welfare dimension reinforces the advantages that the mobile phone technology has brought and continues to bring to pastoralist communities.
This report presents the synthesis of household level surveys in five intervention countries (Angola, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia, and Zimbabwe) of the Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa (DTMA) project designed and implemented by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and national research and extension institutions in 13 countries of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). In each of the study countries, two districts were randomly selected provided that the districts fall in predetermined categories (20-40%) of probability of failed season (PFS). A total sample of 1108 households was randomly drawn with sample sizes varying country to country. The report has different sections that focus, in order, on description of the sample households, extent and determinants of poverty and inequality among the sample population, characteristics of maize production, perception and management of drought risk, and determinants of likelihood and intensity of adoption of improved maize varieties. The distribution of the age of the sample population shows that the population below the age of 16 years is 54% in Zambia, 47% in Malawi and more than 42% in the other three countries. Most of the sample households in each of the countries are headed by males. Only, Malawian sample has about one third of the households headed by women. The literacy level of household heads is considerably high by African standards. The proportion of literate household head ranges from 67% in Angola to 97% in Zimbabwe. The details of the literacy level show that about 48% of Zimbabweans have attended secondary school or higher followed by 32% in Zambia and to 28% in Angola. Most of the literate household heads in Malawi and Mozambique fall in the primary school category. The farming systems in the study areas are predominantly traditional and semi-subsistence oriented. The plough culture is an important feature of the systems and hence the traction power of draft animals is indispensable. Nonetheless, only Zambian (44%) and Zimbabwean (42%) farmers use draft animals. No sample household in Angola and Malawi owns a draft animal. The livestock owned per household, in tropical livestock units (TLU), ranges from 0.41 in Malawi to 2.9 in Zambia. Accordingly, the current value in US$ of the livestock owned by a typical household ranges from 102.7 in Malawi to 1051 in Zambia. The average farm land holding is highest in Mozambique where a typical household owns nearly 8 hectares of land, followed by Zambia at 6.63 hectares, and Zimbabwe at 3 hectares. The smallest average farmland was observed in Malawi with a typical household owning 1.25 ha. Wealth indices were computed based on asset holdings to look into the relative welfare distribution of the sample communities. Forty four percent of the sample households in Angola have negative wealth index. The households with negative indices can generally be considered as poor. Nearly 55% Malawian, 57% Mozambican, and 54% Zambian sample households do have negative wealth indices. Sixty two percent of the sample households in Zimbabwe have negative wealth indices, which is higher than any other country in the study.Asset wealth based rough classification of the households has shown that most of the sampling households are poor. A more detailed analysis of poverty and inequality was done based on reported income and expenditure. Household level determinants of poverty were identified using quantile regression. Generally, sample households in Mozambique and Zambia were found to be poorer than the sample households in Angola and Malawi. The poverty profiles show that the absolutely poor households in four of the countries (Angola, Malawi, Mozambique, and Zambia) do have significantly smaller family size, smaller number of illiterate household members, less number of important assets such as phones and radio, livestock and smaller farm sizes. An important observation is that the proportion of total land allocated to maize by absolutely poor households is significantly higher than that of better-off households. The study has also detailed the extent and determinants of poverty and inequality in the countries. The importance of maize technology use and resource allocation to the crop in determining magnitude of poverty and inequality is an important finding in view of the fact that the sample population is essentially semi-subsistent with limited market orientation. This finding also justifies the effort being exerted on development and deployment of maize and maize related technologies in rural communities of the study countries. Maize production in the region has peculiar characteristics with important distinctions across countries. The land allocated to maize ranges from 45.9% in Mozambique to 69.8% in Malawi of the whole farmland. In Angola, Malawi and Mozambique, most of the maize land is covered with land races; whereas in Zambia and Zimbabwe, hybrid maize covers most of the maize area. All the sample farmers in Zimbabwe are aware of the difference between improved Open pollinated varieties (OPVs) and hybrid maize varieties. On the contrary, about 95% of the sample farmers in Angola do not know the difference between OPV and hybrid maize. Most of the sample farmers in Malawi (72.0%), Mozambique (98.0%), and Zambia (78.0%) are in fact aware of the difference between OPVs and hybrid maize varieties. Regarding recycling of hybrid seeds, it was found out that Zimbabweans hardly recycle, whereas Mozambicans do on average recycle 1.5 times. This pattern of recycling also applies to improved OPVs. Despite considerable number of farmers depending on the market to fetch maize seeds, 90.7% of the farmers in Angola purchased and planted only local maize varieties. Malawian and Zambian farmers, followed by Mozambicans and Zimbabweans, do mostly purchase and grow improved seeds. In terms of the proportion of seed types used, Zimbabwe stands out well-above others with 94.6% of the seed used being improved, followed by Zambia (64.3%) and Malawi (24.8%). In Malawi, the most preferred varieties, in order of preference are: local, MH36, Kanyani, and Makolo. In Mozambique, Ndau ou Chindau, Matuba, SC513, Laposta, and Pan 67 were indicated to be the most preferred varieties in that order. In Zambia, the four most preferred varieties were identified to be Gankata, SC513, Pool 16, and Obatampa. In Zimbabwe, SC513 is the most preferred variety followed by ZM521 and the local Heckory King variety. Drought was reported to be the most important challenge on the livelihoods of people in Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe, whereas it was indicated to be second, next to sickness and mortality of a family member, in Angola and Mozambique. Maize varieties in general and improved OPVs and hybrids in particular are being considered very risky in terms of predictability and reliability of yields. Given the importance of maize and the vulnerability of the farming communities in the region, drought and risks associated with it will have paramount and potentially irreversible consequences on the poor sections of the region. The decisions regarding level and intensity of improved maize adoption have also been investigated to show that gender based intra-household division of labor was an important factor considered in deciding to adopt or not improved maize varieties. Asset endowments such as farm size and livestock wealth were found to be important determinants of level and intensity of adoption in the region. Similarly, membership in social groupings and engagement of off-farm activities influenced adoption decisions. Access to extension services has universally been identified as an important factor in determining the level and, when relevant, the intensity of adoption of improved maize varieties in the region. As important as this service is, however, the extent to which farmers are getting the service is not that encouraging according to respondents. It is, therefore, imperative to underline again the need for investment in the agricultural extension system and the effort that shall be exerted in enabling the private sector to engage in generation and deployment of agricultural information. In designing and implementing any intervention that aims at contributing to the risk coping ability of farmers, it is essential to take into account heterogeneity of the farming communities. Due consideration of this heterogeneity shall be made while assessing the importance of drought risk and while analyzing the effectiveness of the contributions to be made with the intention of strengthening drought risk coping strategies. The trait preferences of farmers are for instance an important indicator of the heterogenous demand structure. This study has shown that despite the fact that yield size is among the most preferred traits, farmers' strong reference to maize as a risky crop urges refocusing breeding activities to generation of germplasms with reliable yield distribution. Farmers have also shown strong interest in traits such as drought tolerance, early maturity, and good performance under poor rainfall implying the need for multi-trait focused breeding schemes. Public agricultural extension institutions and public mass media are by far the two most important sources of agricultural information in the region. Despite the political importance of agriculture in general and maize in particular, there is always a lack of incentive in publicly owned institutions to deliver the information as timely and as adequately it is needed. Agricultural extension efforts in the region should in fact be accompanied by comprehensive microfinance institutions to relieve farmers of the seasonal cash shortage which almost all of them experience every year. So far, except in Zimbabwe, access to rural credit and finance seems to be farfetched.
Günümüzün rekabet yoğun iş yaşamında, örgütlerin birer öğrenen örgüte dönüşümü, onların rekabetçi yeteneklerini artırmalarını sağlamaktadır. Ayrıca, günümüzde çalışanların sadece kendilerinden beklenen rol davranışlarını değil, bunun ötesindeki, gönüllü sergilenen rol ötesi davranışları da sergilemeleri beklenmektedir. Örgüt yazınında bu tür davranışlar örgütsel vatandaşlık davranışları (ÖVD) olarak isimlendirilmektir. Öğrenmeyi destekleyen, astları güçlendiren bir liderlik sitilini uygulayan, takım çalışmasına ve iletişime değer veren yapıları ile öğrenen örgütler, çalışanların rol ötesi davranışlar sergilemeleri için uygun bir ortam hazırlayabilirler. Bu temel düşünceden hareketle yürütülen çalışmanın amacı, çalışanların öğrenen örgüt algılarının, örgütsel vatandaşlık davranışlarına etkilerini araştırmaktır. Yabancı veya yerli yazında böyle bir araştırmanın daha önce yürütülmemiş olması ise çalışmanın önemli bir boşluğu doldurmasını sağlamaktadır. Çalışmaya, Türkiye'de faaliyet gösteren 20 farklı firmadan 436 beyaz yakalı çalışan katılmıştır. Analiz bulguları, araştırmaya katılan çalışanların öğrenen örgüt algıları ile örgütsel vatandaşlık davranışları arasında aynı yönlü ve anlamlı bir ilişki olduğunu göstermiştir. Regresyon analizi sonuçları ise sürekli öğrenme, diyalog ve araştırma, gömülü sistemler ve destekleyici liderlik boyutlarının ÖVD üzerinde ilave varyans açıkladığını; ancak takım çalışması, güçlendirilmiş çalışanlar ve sistemler arası bağlantı boyutlarının ise ÖVD üzerinde böyle bir etki yaratmadığını ortaya koymuştur. Bu bulgular, öğrenen örgüt algısının çalışanların örgütsel vatandaşlık davranışları üzerinde önemli bir etken olduğunu göstermektedir. Ayrıca araştırma bulguları yöneticiler açısından değerlendirildiğinde de önemli sonuçlar sunmaktadır. Örgütsel vatandaşlık davranışları, çalışanların gönüllü ve örgütün işleyişine katkı yapan davranışlar olduğundan, bu tür davranışların çalışanlar tarafından sergilenmesi, hem örgütün ürün ve hizmet kalitesinin artmasına yardımcı olmakta, hem de böyle bir artış için hiçbir ilave maliyet ödenmemektedir. Şu halde bu davranışları artıracak yönde örgütü dönüştürmek, yönetsel anlamda da fayda sağlayabilecektir. Araştırmada, ortaya konulan bulgular tartışılmıştır. ; Discretionary behaviors that promote the effectiveness of organizations differ from formal role behaviors. These informal role behaviors have been termed as prosocial organizational behavior (Brief and Motowidlo, 1986; George, 1990) or organizational citizenship behavior (OCB; Bateman and Organ, 1983; Organ, 1988; Smith et al., 1983). Dennis Organ and his colleagues (Bateman and Organ 1983; Smith et al., 1983) were the first to conceptualize OCB, describing it as "individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and in the aggregate promotes the efficient and effective functioning of the organization" (Organ, 1988, p. 4). Briefly, these behaviors are not compulsory in job definitions, are not rewarded or punished by organization management, and are discretionary. Dimensions of OCB include altruism (discretionary behavior that intends to help others in the organization about a certain problem), conscientiousness (a general compliance that requires employees to go beyond their minimum job requirements), courtesy (intentions that consider others before acting or deciding and informing them about the actions), civic virtue (employees' self-responsibility about organizational problems and attention to the social and political life of the organization) and sportsmanship (willingness to accept the inevitable problems or matters that are related to the job; Organ, 1988). As the ability to survive in an uncertain and turbulent environment is becoming more vital for work organizations today, the need for employees who voluntarily contribute to the organizational welfare beyond their formal roles is greater than ever (Somech and Drach-Zahavy, 2004). Therefore, organizational climate and structure need to be designed to support the emergence of OCBs. Transforming an organization into a learning organization by spreading the learning culture throughout the organization may both expedite to cope with the uncertainty of the environment more effectively and to meet with OCBs more frequently because employees' expectations will be satisfied. In this study we tried to demonstrate how employees' perceptions about their companies in the case the companies being learning organizations would affect their OCBs. Many studies have focused on the antecedents of OCB or OCB's relation with some organizational factors. However, the learning capacity of the organization as an antecedent of OCB has not been treated as often. A common result of all these studies is that employee perceptions about the job atmosphere are crucial if employees are to behave beyond formal roles or display OCB (Somech and Drach-Zahavy, 2004). In learning organizations, people focus on continuous learning processes that are carried out collectively by all of the employees rather than on their own performance results. In such organizations, people expand their own points of view beyond formal role definitions and develop a system approach (Senge, 1996). This approach facilitates organizational learning so that learning ability of the organization can support OCB within the organization (Somech and Drach-Zahavy, 2004). In some studies, it is suggested that OCB could support interpersonal relations in the organization and that it also might be a useful tool for managers to use in fostering a lively work climate (Kidwell et al., 1997). In this respect, the discretionary characteristic of OCB might be both a motivational factor and one of the most important antecedents of teamwork in an organization. As another antecedent of OCB, the clarity of the job might be conceptualized as the extent to which employees know what to expect in their daily routine and how explicitly rules and policies of the organization are communicated. OCB is closely connected to job clarity, comprehensible norms and rules, and good planning of work (Turnipseed and Murkison, 1996). Job clarity is especially related to the shared vision dimension of the concept of learning organization. Sharing the vision among the organization members may increase the clarity of the job. Podsakoff et al., (1996) suggested that if the employees knew the future of their work, their OCB exhibitions would be augmented. Leader attitudes also play a key role in the emergence of OCBs in an organization (Brightman and Moran, 1999; Ehrhart, 2004; Turnipseed and Murkison, 1996). Some leader behaviors, especially transformational leadership behaviors, positively influence OCBs. Many studies have found a direct link between transformational leadership and OCB (e.g., Kent and Chelladurai, 2001; Koh et al., 1995; Podsakoff et al., 1990, 1996). In conclusion, given the interactions described above, it can be summarized that organizational structure and climate have a direct impact on the emergence of OCBs. Thus, we may expect more OCBs from employees in a learning organization than from those in an unlearning one. Hence, the hypotheses can be stated as follows: Hypothesis 1. There will be a positive relationship between employees' learning organization perceptions and their OCBs. Hypothesis 2. All of the learning organization dimensions will contribute significantly to each of the OCBs independently. In this study, the participants of the survey are white-collar workers from 20 different middle or large-sized companies in Turkey. The questionnaires, consist of Learning Organization Scale and OCB Scale, were posted to the human resources departments of the firms with an information note. Of the 600 questionnaires sent, 460 (76.6%) were returned. As a result, 436 valid responses were used in the study. Findings indicated that intercorrelations between the learning organization and OCB dimensions show statistically significant positive relations between the learning organization and OCB dimensions (p < 0.01). Although intercorrelations between learning organization dimensions were high (.71 ≤ r ≤ .86), they were average (.50 ≤ r ≤ .67) between OCB dimensions. The relation between the learning organization and OCB dimensions was significant, positive, and average (.24 ≤ r ≤ .55). Hierarchical multiple regression analysis was performed to test whether learning organization dimensions explained additional variance in OCBs. The final model for altruism included continuous learning (β = .11; p < .05), dialogue and inquiry (β = .12; p < .05), and providing leadership (β = .12; p < .05). The conscientiousness model contained continuous learning (β = .14; p < .05) and dialogue and inquiry (β = .16; p < .01). The courtesy model comprised dialogue and inquiry (β = .18; p < .001) and providing leadership (β = .09; p < .05). The sportsmanship model contained continuous learning (β = .13; p < .05), dialogue and inquiry (β = .14; p < .01), and embedded systems (β = .13; p < .05). Lastly, the civic virtue model included continuous learning (β = .16; p < .01) and dialogue and inquiry (β = .32; p < .001). It is interesting that team learning, empowerment, and systems connections dimensions had no significant effects on any of the OCB dimensions. The results of this study indicate that there is a significant and positive relation between employees' learning organization perceptions and their OCBs. Whereas the structures of the organizations are being transformed toward a learning organization, OCBs performed by employees found to be increased, yielding support for Hypothesis 1. To explore whether learning organization dimensions explained additional variance in OCBs, we conducted a hierarchical regression analysis. Results showed that the dimensions of continuous learning and dialogue and inquiry were the most important factors in predicting and explaining the variance of OCBs. Although embedded systems and supportive leadership helped to explain additional variance of OCBs, other learning organization dimensions (team learning, empowerment, and systems connections) had no significant effect; therefore, Hypothesis 2 was partly supported. These findings have some useful implications for managers. In today's working life, employees are obligated to move beyond their formal roles to increase the organization's accomplishments. Since the findings of this study revealed a strong and significant relationship between employees' learning organization perceptions and their OCBs, an organizational transformation toward a learning organization in those enterprises could augment OCBs throughout the organization. This study displayed a strong relation between learning organization concept and OCBs. OCBs play a key role in developing the quality of the services produced by organizations. To exist in a competitive world, organizations have to improve their service qualities. If managers can transform their organizations into learning organizations, it seems that OCB exhibition within the organizations is likely be enhanced—as will the service qualities.