For any educational policy to be successful it is necessary that it evolves in relation to its own objective context and is able to address social, cultural, economic, political and psychological requirements in the given situation. Therefore, any such policy developed in abstraction or in a different social setting cannot meet the specificities of its subjective requirements. It is so as no two social situations can be identical. However, while recognising differences, there is always scope to learn from each other's experiences and best practices. It is with this perspective that the theme of this presentation is dealt with. In spite of variations of size and socio political orientations between India and Vietnam there is scope for benefiting from each other's experiences in the realm of educational objectives, motivation and trainings. The objective of the Indian educational policy in recent years has been universal access to primary education. The Government has provided for right to education as mechanism of facilitating the universal access to education. This has to have relevance to all developing societies including Vietnam. For empowering a people ensured universal education will have tremendous relevance for human development in any society. The deficiencies if any at this level have to be met by special measures by Governments. Education from the age of 5/6 to the age of 11/12 and then to 14 has to be universally ensured and facilitated if a society has to be uplifted and empowered socially, educationally, and economically. The education at this level should be universal, non-repressive provided through play way method and in a friendly enabling atmosphere. This level education has to aim at multidimensional development of a child in cultural, psychological and social terms. This kind of education will help societies to develop a necessary edifice for prosperous, healthy, socially and politically empowered community. The teachers at this level are to be specially trained and motivated by adding to their social stature, and paying them better salary for their retention at this level of education setup. The secondary level of education focuses on skill development training and basic sciences among the students with some focus on initial level specialisation. This level of education covers the age group from 14 to 18. The much of the workforce that a healthy prosperous economy requires should be prepared at this level. This follows somewhat more specialised training and education for a third phase to further grounding the student in their respective areas of specialisation for all the superior services, teachers at various levels that can go for up to three to four years. In terms of their nature and objective there is a vital difference between lower and higher levels of education. In addition to bringing cultural refinement, social empowerment within a person, one of the main objectives of education up to the middle level globally is to impart knowledge and skill to prepare candidates for specialised services and assignments that are needed within a society, particularly in relation to skill based economic activities. That is why world-over up to middle (bachelors or equivalent) level of education in the relevant field is sufficient requirement for most of the middle and high ranked jobs. For example eligibility for highest administrative services in India is simple graduation. Higher education, particularly at the level of the universities, is not just to impart knowledge meant merely for preparing people for jobs but to prepare them for generating new knowledge by using their services for specialized academics and research assignments in sciences, medicine, engineering, social sciences and other academic disciplines. ; Để cho một chính sách giáo dục có kết quả, thì nó cần phải được đặt ở trong mối quan hệ với ngữ cảnh khách quan của nó và có thể đáp ứng yêu cầu xã hội, văn hoá, kinh tế, chính trị và tâm lý trong hoàn cảnh nhất định. Vì vậy, bất kỳ chính sách nào như vậy mà được xây dựng trong ngữ cảnh trừu tượng hoặc trong một môi trường xã hội khác biệt thì không thể đáp ứng các đặc trưng yêu cầu chủ quan của nó. Nó là như thế bởi vì không có hai tình huống xã hội có thể giống hệt nhau. Tuy nhiên, trong khi thừa nhận sự khác biệt, vẫn có thể học hỏi từ kinh nghiệm và thực tiễn tốt nhất của nhau. Chủ đề của bài báo sẽ được thảo luận từ quan điểm này. Mặc dù có sự khác nhau về quy mô và các định hướng chính trị xã hội giữa Ấn Độ và Việt Nam nhưng vẫn có cơ hội để cả hai quốc gia được hưởng lợi từ những kinh nghiệm của nhau về phương diện mục tiêu, động lực thúc đẩy giáo dục và các loại hình đào tạo. Mục tiêu chính sách giáo dục của Ấn Độ trong những năm gần đây là phổ cập giáo dục tiểu học. Chính phủ đã quy định quyền được giáo dục là cơ chế hỗ trợ phổ cập giáo dục. Điều này có liên quan đến tất cả các xã hội đang phát triển bao gồm Việt Nam. Để nâng cao vị thế cho người dân, phổ cập giáo dục sẽ có ý nghĩa to lớn đối với sự phát triển của con người trong bất kỳ xã hội nào. Những thiếu sót nếu có ở cấp bậc này phải được các chính phủ khắc phục bằng các biện pháp đặc biệt. Giáo dục từ độ tuổi 5/6 đến 11/12 và sau đó đến 14 tuổi phải được đảm bảo và tạo điều kiện nếu một xã hội cần được nâng cao và trao quyền về mặt xã hội, giáo dục và kinh tế. Giáo dục ở cấp độ này phải là phổ cập, không hà khắc được thực hiện thông qua phương pháp chơi và trong một bầu không khí thân thiện. Giáo dục ở cấp bậc này phải nhằm mục đích phát triển đa chiều cho một đứa trẻ về mặt văn hoá, tâm lý và xã hội. Loại hình giáo dục này sẽ giúp các xã hội hình thành một ngôi nhà cần thiết cho cộng đồng thịnh vượng, lành mạnh, được trao quyền xã hội và chính trị. Các giáo viên ở cấp bậc này phải được đào tạo và động viên đặc biệt bằng cách nâng cao vị thế xã hội của họ và trả lương cao hơn để họ theo giữ bậc giáo dục này. Bậc giáo dục trung học tập trung vào đào tạo phát triển kỹ năng và khoa học cơ bản cho học sinh và tập trung một ít vào chuyên môn ban đầu. Bậc giáo dục này bao gồm nhóm tuổi từ 14 đến 18. Phần lớn lực lượng lao động mà nền kinh tế thịnh vượng lành mạnh cần thì phải được học ở bậc này. Tiếp theo cấp bậc này là việc đào tạo và giáo dục chuyên biệt hơn cho giai đoạn thứ ba để tiếp nối nền tảng cho sinh viên trong các lĩnh vực chuyên môn tương ứng cho tất cả các dịch vụ cao hơn, mà giáo viên ở các cấp bậc khác nhau phải trải qua ba đến bốn năm. Về mặt bản chất và mục tiêu, có sự khác biệt quan trọng giữa giáo dục ở bậc thấp và bậc cao hơn. Ngoài việc mang lại sự tinh tế về văn hoá, quyền xã hội trong một con người, một trong những mục tiêu chính của giáo dục đến bậc trung trên toàn cầu là truyền đạt kiến thức và kỹ năng để chuẩn bị cho ứng cử viên đáp ứng các dịch vụ và các công việc chuyên môn cần thiết trong một xã hội, đặc biệt là trong mối quan hệ với các hoạt động kinh tế dựa vào kỹ năng. Đó là lý do tại sao bậc trung (cử nhân hoặc tương đương) trong lĩnh vực liên quan là yêu cầu cấp thiết cho hầu hết các công việc ở vị trí trung và cao. Ví dụ như điều kiện đủ để làm công tác hành chính cao nhất ở Ấn Độ là tốt nghiệp đại học. Giáo dục đại học, đặc biệt ở cấp độ của các trường đại học, truyền đạt kiến thức không chỉ đơn thuần là để chuẩn bị cho công việc mà còn chuẩn bị cho người học tạo ra những kiến thức mới bằng đào tạo phục vụ chuyên môn học thuật và nghiên cứu khoa học, y học, kỹ thuật, khoa học xã hội và các chuyên ngành khác.
The Intergenerational Justice Review (IGJR) has been published by the Stuttgart-based think tank Foundation for the Rights of Future Generations (FRFG) since 2002. The 2012 edition was published in cooperation with the London-based Intergenerational Foundation (IF), and likewise the 2015 edition. For the latter as well as for the 2016 editions, the FRFG and IF have been joined by the University of Tübingen. The 2016 (2) edition will have the additional help of Professor Bruce Auerbach of Albright College, Reading PA, who will be serving as a guest editor.Founded in 1997, the FRFG has played a leading role in gathering and supporting research in intergenerational issues at the academic level – research that usually falls within the compass of university departments of law, politics and philosophy. The Intergenerational Justice Review reflects this academic focus. Articles, submitted by senior academics and researchers in the field, are peer-reviewed and published only on the recommendation of two reviewers.From 2016, there will be two editions of the IGJR annually. The topic of the second 2016 edition will be: "Constitutions and Intergenerational Justice" We welcome submissions for this issue of the Intergenerational Justice Review that address the tension between constitutions and intergenerational justice, and how that tension can be resolved. How can constitutions be written to protect the rights and/or interests of future generations without at the same time becoming a barrier to future generations exercising full political sovereignty in the future?We also welcome submissions that address creatively constitutions and intergenerational justice from other points of view, and from the perspective of other cultural and political traditions; and that test the feasibility of new ideas, such as a 'permanent constitutional convention', that reassess the current constitution every five years or so.In addition to the above, other related questions include the following:How could a permanent constitutional convention (see above) be organised? What powers should it possess, and what should be its limitations? On the one hand such limitations should prevent a constitutional convention from being too dominant, while on the other its powers should be sufficient to ensure that it is more than merely symbolic.How can the legitimacy problems of such a constitutional convention be resolved? For example, parliaments, which usually propose constitutional amendments, are legitimised through elections.Are there any examples of countries where constitutions are regularly reviewed and amended? If so, how has this practice worked?What role should constitutional courts play? Are they the guardians of earlier regulations and therefore opponents of constitutional change?Are eternity clauses (clauses which prohibit changes to certain or all provisions of a constitution) generationally fair? To what extent do such guarantees take away from future generations the possibility to determine their own future?Where and how are young people actively engaged in debates about the constitution in force in their country? What lessons can be learnt from their experience? Background: By their very nature, constitutions are intergenerational documents. With rare exceptions, they are meant to endure for many generations. They establish the basic institutions of government, enshrine the fundamental values of a people, and place certain questions beyond the reach of simple majorities. Constitutions, especially written ones, are often on purpose difficult to modify.The question of constitutions and future generations has at least two different aspects. On the one hand, constitutions provide the opportunity to guarantee consideration of the rights of future generations, and may serve to protect future generations against the actions of current electoral majorities. On the other hand, the provisions of a constitution may become outmoded, restricting the ability of majorities in the future to respond to the real problems in ways they see as necessary and proper. We want constitutions to provide firm guarantees of fundamental rights, including those of future generations. But we do not want those same guarantees to become fetters on future generations, preventing them from exercising the same rights of sovereignty we enjoy.Ideally, constitutions strike a balance between seeking to protect and perpetuate those values and rights the present generation understands to be fundamental, while ensuring the right of future generations to define for themselves the values and rights they see as essential, and to modify the institutions they have inherited in light of their own experience.This tension between durability and flexibility finds expression in Edmund Burke's concept of a constitution as an intergenerational covenant. It also informs the discussion among Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826), James Madison (1751–1836) and Thomas Paine (1737–1809) in the course of founding the United States of America. Jefferson represented the position that every law and therefore every constitution should lose its validity after 19 years, so that every generation can organise itself, with a freedom comparable to the preceding one. Madison disagreed and referred to the uncertainty that would emerge from such an arrangement. Thomas Paine sided with Jefferson and formulated the following famous sentence: 'Every age and generation must be as free to act for itself in all cases as the ages and generations which preceded it.' This statement, written in 1795, defended the right to engage in revolution. This right was even enshrined in the French Constitution of 1793. Article 28 stated: 'Un peuple a toujours le droit de revoir, de réformer et de changer sa Constitution. Une génération ne peut pas assujettir à ses lois les générations futures.' ('A people always has the right to review, reform, and amend its constitution. One generation may not subject future generations to its laws.')The preservation of the same number of options and opportunities for action is also regarded as the one of most important elements of intergenerationally just behaviour in modern generational ethics. Edith Brown Weiss, for example, made such arguments, as have Gregory Kavka in 'The Futurity Problem', and Brian Barry in 'Circumstances of Justice and Future Generations'. Size limit of each submission: Up to 30,000 characters (including spaces, annotation etc.) For questions about style and presentation, please visit our website at www.igjr.org for our guidelines for authors.Deadline for submissions: 1 August 2016Proposed date of publication of IGJR 2016 (2): November 2016Articles may be submitted electronically to: editors@igjr.orgIntergenerational Justice Prize 2015/16: Note that this topic is also be the subject of the Intergenerational Justice Prize 2015/16, promoted by the Foundation for the Rights of Future Generations (FRFG) and the Intergenerational Foundation (IF). Young researchers may also wish to participate in this essay competition, and it is hoped that this edition of the IGJR will contain a selection of the best prize submissions in English. For more information, see www.if.org.uk/prizes. Recommended literatureAuerbach, Bruce / Reinhart, Michelle (2012): Antonin Scalia's constitutional textualism: The problem of justice to posterity. In: Intergenerational Justice Review, 17-22.Barry, Brian (1978): Circumstances of intergenerational justice. In: Sikora, Richard / Barry, Brian (eds.): Obligations to future generations. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 204-248.Beckman, Ludvig (2013): Democracy and future generations. Should the unborn have a voice? In: Merle, Jean-Christophe (ed.): Spheres of global justice. Volume 2: Fair distribution – global economic, social and intergenerational justice. Dordrecht: Springer, 775-788.Brown-Weiss, Edith (2002): Intergenerational fairness and rights of future generations. In: Intergenerational Justice, vol. 2 (3/2002), 1-5.Brown-Weiss, Edith (1989): In fairness to future generations. Tokyo/New York: United Nations University/Transnational Publishers.Gosseries, Axel (2008): Constitutions and future generations. www.uclouvain.beGosseries, Axel / Meyer, Lukas H. (eds.) (2009): Intergenerational justice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Kavka, Gregory (1978): The futurity problem. In: Sikora, Richard / Barry, Brian (eds.): Obligations to future generations. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 286-203.Kley, Andreas (2003): Die Verantwortung gegenüber künftigen Generationen – ein staatsphilosophisches Postulat von Thomas Jefferson. In: Hänni, Peter (ed.): Mensch und Staat. Festgabe der rechtswissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Universität Freiburg für Thomas Fleiner zum 65. Geburtstag. Fribourg: Universitätsverlag, 505-523. http://www.rwi.uzh.ch/lehreforschung/alphabetisch/kley/container/jefferson_pages_505_523.pdf.Tremmel, Jörg (2009): A theory of intergenerational justice. London: Earthscan.Tremmel, Jörg (2015): Parliaments and future generations: The four-power model. In: Birnbacher, Dieter / Thorseth, May (eds.): The Politics of sustainability: Philosophical perspectives. London: Routledge, 212-233.Tremmel, Jörg / Wilhelm, James (2015): Democracy or epistocracy? Age as a criterion of voter eligibility. In: Tremmel, Jörg / Mason, Antony / Dimitrijoski, Igor / Godli, Petter (eds.): Youth quotas and other efficient forms of youth participation in ageing societies. Dordrecht, NL: Springer, 125-148.Wolf, Clark (2008): Justice and intergenerational debt. In: Intergenerational Justice Review, 13-17.
An argument for a social-participative approach to citizenship. The development of values and meaningful communication in practices of citizenshipSocial professionals need to tack between a strong instrumental and moral concept of citizenship ("you will participate", "self responsibility") and the broader goal of local democratization. It is striking that the local-political dimension in pursuing active citizenship – linked with certain citizenship values – is currently a lower priority. Also, the competencies that can support more participation by citizens and a more democratic local society aren't much appointed. Both issues are important for social professionals because it is here that they find the legitimacy for their actions. The promotion of active citizenship needs support from local government and the professionals involved. It is also important to map the knowledge of "what works" in professional guidance for active citizenship. Research shows that executive professionals and team leaders (middle managers) who work at the local level in the social sector, talk and think about active citizenship in terms that emphasize process-oriented approaches and the specific situations of action (De Waal, 2014). At the same time, they take account of the complexity of recent emphasis on the role of citizens. In the way that they conceive of greater involvement by citizens and the promotion of active citizenship, it is not so much the final destination that is important, but the road to that destination and the role that professionals can play. This methodical perspective on citizenship shows that team leaders and their teams mainly adopt a process-based approach to activating citizens. This shows a type of practice knowledge that invites a more theoretical argumentation.This article explores the literature on a more social-participative approach to active citizenship. In the literature, the development of citizenship is tied to the need to develop an understanding of the operational contexts that are important to both citizens and social professionals. We explore the relevant literature and look at various studies and scholars such as De Toqueville, Dewey, Putnam, Lichterman and Biesta. In this way, we also seek to highlight citizenship as a practice and offer a close-up look at the work of social professionals, as well as questioning more closely the developments that currently surround the promotion of active citizenship.We focus more closely on the importance of the organized relationships that make up a part of civil society. Here we look to Putnam's social capital theory and the subsequent criticism that has been directed at it, particularly by Lichterman (based in part on De Tocqueville). In his study, Lichterman sketches a picture of citizens who are deployed instrumentally for all sorts of projects, so more as "assistants" than as "partners". He stresses that his "social spiral argument" is about the meanings that people develop in the daily conversations conducted by these groups in relation to political and moral issues. Moreover, Lichterman states that professionals in particular may be expected to contribute to this field. By showing that existing citizens' initiatives or forms of citizen involvement are not necessarily "desirable" or "good", Lichterman (and Eliasoph) stress that any argument for "citizen power" will lack real meaning unless it is tied to qualitative criteria.Citizenship building in education relates to a discussion about the importance of gaining experience in real-life practices. For this, we sought a connection between the writings of Dewey, Biesta and De Winter, who place the citizenship practices of citizens at centre stage, and in which the communal "doing" takes priority as the foundation on which the development of citizenship values can take place. Dewey states that democracy relates not only to government or state planning, but also extends to all areas of life. He states that democracy is, above all, a way of living together that finds expression in involvement in social practices. Children learn particularly through meaningful practices, and this pedagogic principle is also applicable to the practices of citizens. Dewey's conception of democracy is direct participation. It is open in nature, a way of life in which people become involved in all kind of experiences. In his transactional epistemology, Dewey seeks to transcend the difference or dualism between mind (the subjective individual) and world (the objective reality). According to him, there is no objective reality except for our actions, but we learn to understand reality better in and through our actions and reality subsequently reveals itself in a more meaningful and differentiated way. Dewey's philosophy puts transactions which have taken place in the world at the centre. It is obvious that gaining experience, experimental learning and situations of trial and error are at the heart of his philosophy. Gaining and developing knowledge is closely linked with actions. Not actions in themselves but actions in constant interaction with reflection.The literature in this article shows that stimulating active citizenship is closely linked with the values at stake. Active citizenship cannot be borne out of an imposed morality but must be embedded in the daily routines and the involvement of citizens whereby "learning by doing" coincides with the development of meaningful practices. In this field, social professionals need to be able to support and facilitate these kinds of practices.Pleidooi voor een handelingsgerichte benadering van burgerschap. Over waardenontwikkeling en betekenisvolle communicatie in burgerschapspraktijkenIn dit artikel wordt de literatuur verkend op het terrein van een meer sociaalparticipatieve benadering van actief burgerschap. In deze literatuur wordt de ontwikkeling van burgerschap verbonden met de noodzaak zicht te ontwikkelen op handelingscontexten die voor zowel burgers als sociale professionals van belang zijn. We verkennen relevante literatuur van onder andere De Tocqueville, Dewey, Putnam, Lichterman en Biesta. Door aandacht te besteden aan burgerschap als praktijk beogen we dichter op de huid van het werk van sociale professionals te kruipen, waardoor de huidige ontwikkelingen rondom de bevordering van actief burgerschap bevraagd kunnen worden.We zoomen nader in op het belang van georganiseerde verbanden die deel uitmaken van de "civil society" en op de ontwikkeling en instandhouding van informele sociale netwerken. Vertrekpunt is hier de sociaal kapitaaltheorie van Putnam en de kritiek, die met name van de kant van Lichterman (mede gefundeerd op De Tocqueville), op zijn onderzoek is gekomen. Lichterman schetst in zijn onderzoek een beeld van burgers die instrumenteel worden ingezet in allerlei lokale projecten, meer als "helpers" dan als "partners". Hij legt de nadruk op het proces van betekenisverlening, dat wil zeggen de dagelijkse gesprekken over politieke en morele kwesties die binnen deze groepen plaatsvinden en de wijze waarop relaties tussen burgers zich ontwikkelen. Lichterman stelt dat binnen de ontwikkeling van deze "social spiral" met name professionals een taak hebben om op dit terrein hun bijdrage te leveren. Burgerschapspraktijken zijn niet op voorhand wenselijk of goed, zo geeft hij aan, maar verdienen aangelegd te worden tegen kwalitatieve criteria.Ook binnen burgerschapsvorming in het onderwijs is de discussie aanwezig over het belang van het opdoen van ervaring binnen levensechte praktijken. Hierbij wordt teruggegrepen op Dewey. Dewey stelt de burgerschapspraktijken van burgers zelf centraal, waarin het gemeenschappelijke "doen" voorop staat als basis voor de ontwikkeling van burgerschapswaarden. Democratie is niet alleen een formele regeringsvorm of een staatsordening gebaseerd op representatieve democratie, maar strekt zich uit over alle levensterreinen. Het is in zijn ogen vooral een vorm van samenleven, die zich uitdrukt in deelname aan sociale praktijken. Daarmee legt hij, in wat hij verstaat onder democratie, het primaat bij het sociale in plaats van bij democratie als politiek concept (Berding, 1999). Kinderen leren niet of niet zozeer van overdrachtsituaties maar van actieve deelname binnen betekenisvolle praktijken. In de kern trekt Dewey ditzelfde pedagogische leerprincipe ook door naar burgerschapspraktijken. Het democratiebegrip van Dewey wordt niet beperkt tot de liberale representatieve democratie, maar gaat uit van het idee van democratie als directe participatie. Democratie is bij uitstek open van karakter, een "way of life" waarin mensen belangrijke ervaringen opdoen.De hier geschetste sociaalparticipatieve benadering van burgerschap maakt duidelijk dat de bevordering van actief burgerschap in sterke mate verbonden is – en dient te worden – met waarden die hierbij in het geding zijn. Wat deze literatuurverkenning in beeld brengt is dat actief burgerschap niet tot bloei komt vanuit een opgelegde moraal, maar verbonden dient te worden met het dagelijkse handelen van burgers, waarin het "al doende leren" samen op gaat met de ontwikkeling van betekenisvolle praktijken. Sociale professionals hebben vooral tot taak dit type praktijken te ondersteunen en te faciliteren.
ABSTRACT Objective: to examine the perceptions of politicians, education, health and Church registered during a visit to the social space of Alfredo Pinto Nursing School while managed by the director Maria de Castro Pamphiro. Method: historical-social, approach with the documentary analysis, in light of thought of Pierre Bourdieu. The documentary corpus included the Guestbook and management reports prepared by the director. The collection of data occurred by the fill of a planning matrix composed by: name of the agent, date of visit, profession, post occupied and impression registered. Inclusion criteria were: legibility of signatures and impressions and being a prestigious representation. The data were analyzed according to analysis of speech of Bourdieu, that corroborate the absence of the science of speech consider itself and for itself. Results: 93 impressions were found, 30 being used. They were written by political, education, health and Church representatives, who highlighted the director's efforts to achieve the profession ideals, raise standards and increase the recognition of the School in the nursing field. Conclusion: the visiting strategy adopted denoted greater visibility to the school and it can be ratified by the reports published by newspapers and magazines distributed throughout the country and greater interest on the part of new students from several states in Brazil, becoming more recognized and valued by social agents in the education and health field. Descriptors: history of nursing, education, nursing schools. RESUMO Objetivo: analisar as impressões dos representantes políticos, da educação, saúde e Igreja registradas durante visita ao espaço social da Escola de Enfermagem Alfredo Pinto na gestão da diretora Maria de Castro Pamphiro. Método: estudo histórico-social, com abordagem na análise documental, à luz do pensamento de Pierre Bourdieu. O corpus documental compreendeu o Livro de Visitas e os relatórios redigidos na gestão da diretora. A coleta de dados ocorreu pelo preenchimento de uma matriz de análise, composta por: nome do agente, data da visita, profissão, cargo ocupado e impressão registrada. Os critérios de inclusão selecionados foram: legibilidade das assinaturas e das impressões e configurar uma representação prestigiosa. Analisaram-se os dados na perspectiva do discurso de Bourdieu, que corrobora a inexistência da ciência do discurso considerado em si mesmo e por si mesmo. Resultados: encontraram-se 93 impressões, sendo utilizadas 30. Estas foram redigidas por representantes políticos, da educação, da saúde e da Igreja, que ressaltaram o esforço desta diretora em alcançar os ideais da profissão, elevar o padrão e ampliar o reconhecimento da Escola no campo da enfermagem. Conclusão: a estratégia de visitação atribuiu visibilidade à Escola, o que pode ser ratificado pelas reportagens dos jornais e revistas e pela procura de novos estudantes de diversos estados, tornando-se reconhecida e valorizada pelos agentes sociais do campo da educação e saúde. Descritores: história da enfermagem; escolas de enfermagem; educação. RESUMEN Objetivo: analizar las impresiones de los representantes políticos, de la educación, salud y de la iglesia registradas mientras la visita al espacio social de la Escuela de Enfermería Alfredo Pinto en la administración de la directora Maria de Castro Pamphiro. Método: histórico y social, con enfoque en el análisis documental conforme el pensamiento de Pierre Bourdieu. El corpus documental ha comprendido el Libro de Visitas y los informes escritos mientras la administración de la directora. La colecta de datos fue desarollada por el rellenamento de una matriz de análisis, compuesta por: nombre del agente, fecha de la visita, profesión, función y impresión registrada. Los criterios de inclusión fueran: legibilidad de las firmas y impresiones y, ser una representación prestigiosa. Se analizaron los datos na perspectiva del discurso de Bourdieu, que corrobora la ausencia de la ciencia del discurso considerado en sí mismo por sí mismo. Resultados: fueron encontradas 93 impresiones, donde se ha utilizado 30. Las impresiones fueron escritas por representantes políticos, de la educación, salud y iglesia, que resaltaron el esfuerzo de esta directora por los ideales de la profesión, elevar el padrón y reconocimiento. Conclusión: la estrategia de visitación ha denotado visibilidad a la escuela, lo que puede ser ratificado por los informes de los periódicos y revistas distribuidos y la busca de nuevos estudiantes, tornándose reconocida y valorada. Descriptores: historia de la enfermería, educación, escuelas de enfermería. ; ABSTRACT Objective: to examine the perceptions of politicians, education, health and Church registered during a visit to the social space of Alfredo Pinto Nursing School while managed by the director Maria de Castro Pamphiro. Method: historical-social, approach with the documentary analysis, in light of thought of Pierre Bourdieu. The documentary corpus included the Guestbook and management reports prepared by the director. The collection of data occurred by the fill of a planning matrix composed by: name of the agent, date of visit, profession, post occupied and impression registered. Inclusion criteria were: legibility of signatures and impressions and being a prestigious representation. The data were analyzed according to analysis of speech of Bourdieu, that corroborate the absence of the science of speech consider itself and for itself. Results: 93 impressions were found, 30 being used. They were written by political, education, health and Church representatives, who highlighted the director's efforts to achieve the profession ideals, raise standards and increase the recognition of the School in the nursing field. Conclusion: the visiting strategy adopted denoted greater visibility to the school and it can be ratified by the reports published by newspapers and magazines distributed throughout the country and greater interest on the part of new students from several states in Brazil, becoming more recognized and valued by social agents in the education and health field. Descriptors: history of nursing, education, nursing schools. RESUMO Objetivo: analisar as impressões dos representantes políticos, da educação, saúde e Igreja registradas durante visita ao espaço social da Escola de Enfermagem Alfredo Pinto na gestão da diretora Maria de Castro Pamphiro. Método: estudo histórico-social, com abordagem na análise documental, à luz do pensamento de Pierre Bourdieu. O corpus documental compreendeu o Livro de Visitas e os relatórios redigidos na gestão da diretora. A coleta de dados ocorreu pelo preenchimento de uma matriz de análise, composta por: nome do agente, data da visita, profissão, cargo ocupado e impressão registrada. Os critérios de inclusão selecionados foram: legibilidade das assinaturas e das impressões e configurar uma representação prestigiosa. Analisaram-se os dados na perspectiva do discurso de Bourdieu, que corrobora a inexistência da ciência do discurso considerado em si mesmo e por si mesmo. Resultados: encontraram-se 93 impressões, sendo utilizadas 30. Estas foram redigidas por representantes políticos, da educação, da saúde e da Igreja, que ressaltaram o esforço desta diretora em alcançar os ideais da profissão, elevar o padrão e ampliar o reconhecimento da Escola no campo da enfermagem. Conclusão: a estratégia de visitação atribuiu visibilidade à Escola, o que pode ser ratificado pelas reportagens dos jornais e revistas e pela procura de novos estudantes de diversos estados, tornando-se reconhecida e valorizada pelos agentes sociais do campo da educação e saúde. Descritores: história da enfermagem; escolas de enfermagem; educação. RESUMEN Objetivo: analizar las impresiones de los representantes políticos, de la educación, salud y de la iglesia registradas mientras la visita al espacio social de la Escuela de Enfermería Alfredo Pinto en la administración de la directora Maria de Castro Pamphiro. Método: histórico y social, con enfoque en el análisis documental conforme el pensamiento de Pierre Bourdieu. El corpus documental ha comprendido el Libro de Visitas y los informes escritos mientras la administración de la directora. La colecta de datos fue desarollada por el rellenamento de una matriz de análisis, compuesta por: nombre del agente, fecha de la visita, profesión, función y impresión registrada. Los criterios de inclusión fueran: legibilidad de las firmas y impresiones y, ser una representación prestigiosa. Se analizaron los datos na perspectiva del discurso de Bourdieu, que corrobora la ausencia de la ciencia del discurso considerado en sí mismo por sí mismo. Resultados: fueron encontradas 93 impresiones, donde se ha utilizado 30. Las impresiones fueron escritas por representantes políticos, de la educación, salud y iglesia, que resaltaron el esfuerzo de esta directora por los ideales de la profesión, elevar el padrón y reconocimiento. Conclusión: la estrategia de visitación ha denotado visibilidad a la escuela, lo que puede ser ratificado por los informes de los periódicos y revistas distribuidos y la busca de nuevos estudiantes, tornándose reconocida y valorada. Descriptores: historia de la enfermería, educación, escuelas de enfermería.
This dissertation on late Enlightenment poetics and the history of the biomedical sciences unfolds a lapsed possibility near the historical beginnings of the division of labor between literary and scientific representation. Against the pressure, then and now, to treat the culture of science as context or antithesis to literary production, I recover a countervailing epistemology that cast poetry as a privileged technique of empirical inquiry: a knowledgeable practice whose figurative work brought it closer to, not farther from, the physical nature of things.In his late life science, Morphology, Goethe mischievously re-signified "objectivity" to mean an observer's vulnerability to transformation by the objects under view: "every new object, well seen, opens up a new organ in us." Such a gesture at once opens the scene of experiment to the agency of objects, and shifts biology's question from the life force within beings, to the metamorphic relations between them. From Wordsworth's call for a "science of the feelings," to Blake's for a "sweet Science," and Goethe's for a "tender Empiricism," my project argues for a series of late Enlightenment attempts to re-invent empiricist methodology - and to do so with the resources of verse and figure. These revisionary poetic sciences, I argue, challenged early biological and aesthetic protocols to countenance the mutual, material influence between the subjects and objects of experiment; to represent `bare' sensation as itself vulnerable to social and rhetorical transformation; and to position vulnerability - to impression, influence, and decay - as central, not inimical, to life.I show that writers from James Thomson and Erasmus Darwin to Percy Shelley retrieved Lucretius's classical materialism as a model for describing bodies (textual and animal) as porous assemblages, shaped by losses and incorporations of what is not self, and not immediately present. In Lucretius's De Rerum Natura, all things, decaying in time, scatter fine atomic husks from their bodies: simulacra, figurae, imagines. Here `figures' are fractions of the real estranged from their sources, and all bodies, not just poets or their language, produce them. Such an epistemology afforded poetry a strong claim upon the real, and proved particularly fit to connect the epochal interest in living bodies to the period's new sense of its own historicity. Poets deployed Lucretius's atomist imaginary in order to make historical experience palpable as what Wordsworth called an "atmosphere of sensation." The material tropes they mobilized to do so, I argue, have been unrecognizable through the symbol-allegory paradigm that controls most rhetorical readings of romanticism.Such a view of the period's philosophy of life differs from a more frequent argument, whereby romantic poetics and early biology converge in the ideal of organism or artwork as self-sufficient whole, "both cause and effect of itself" - and the ideal of life or imagination as the "power" productive of such wholes. This Kantian and Coleridgean ideal of "organic form," I argue, has overshadowed our critical understanding of what the late Enlightenment poetics of life might have sought to do. Working through the tense collaboration between the Poet and the Man of Science in Wordsworth's 1800 "Preface" to Lyrical Ballads and in Blake's notion of "sweet Science" (The Four Zoas,1797), my introduction extracts two critical lenses - "matter figures back," and "atmospheres of sensation" - with which to discern the rival epistemology described in the dissertation's four body chapters. In chapters that center on, and move outward from, Goethe's poetic biology (1-2) and Shelley's "poetry of life" (3- 4) I show how a neglected strain of materialist natural curiosity sought to uncouple professionalizing biology and subject-centered aesthetics from their rhetoric of agency, autonomy, and power.In my first chapter, "Composite Life," I translate previously unavailable pieces from Goethe's microscopy logs (1785-6) and On Morphology periodicals (1817-24) as emblematic of the broader contemporary interest in studying living beings as composite, rather than organic forms. Here, each "seeming individual" is as a "being-complex," a fractious "assemblage of independent beings." Morphology, moreover, redirects biological inquiry from the question of new life (generation) around which the discipline had coalesced, to the biology and poetics of decomposition and senescence - or, as Goethe names one essay, "Going to Dust, Vapor, Droplets." What, this essay begins to ask, might life look like from the perspective of the non-reproductive, but communicative, effluvia that mediate between beings? What arts of discomposure would be adequate to this view? Focusing on an experiment in which a cut mushroom "draws" its own image in spores, I argue for the credibility in the period of non-human acts of representation: that is, for material (neo-Lucretian) images that emanate not just from agents, but from things.My second chapter, "Thinking Like an Object, Contra-Kant" concerns the aesthetic and poetic stakes of the experimental method Goethe calls "tender Empiricism," an approach to composite life that I read as a sly critique of Kant's durable accounts of aesthetics and organism. From Goethe's perspective, Kant's celebrated epistemological modesty - his concern that a man not "presumptuously . tack a whim . to the objects" (Goethe's paraphrase) - screens a more significant hubris: the presumption that a person could produce whims without objects and a sensing body; and, more basically, that what is important about a subject is the way in which he is not a natural object. Re- valuing the passive quality of tenderness as an epistemic virtue, Goethe experiments in "objectively active thinking," permitting the way the self is (also) an object to re-enter natural and aesthetic philosophy. The chapter culminates in a re-reading of the didactic poem Dauer im Wechsel ["Durance in Change"] from the perspective of objective figuration, centering on a neo-Lucretian simulacrum that, I argue, Paul de Man consequentially mistook for a symbol.In Chapter Three I move from Goethe's poetic morphology to Shelley's "poetry of life." "Growing Old Together: Composite Physiognomy in The Triumph of Life" examines the way Shelley's Triumph revives Lucretian corporeality in order to rebuke the markedly triumphalist rhetoric of both contemporary vitalist physiology and post-Waterloo historiography. Offering a new account of the face-giving trope of prosopopeia in the poem, I argue that Shelley mobilizes Lucretian simulacra in order to think through the way personal bodies produce and integrate passages of historical time. Representing aging faces as mutable registers of the "living air" of a post-Napoleonic interval, The Triumph depicts senescence as the unintended work of multitudes, pressing towards a biology and epistemology of transience that holds rhetorical, vital, and historical materialisms together.In Chapter Four, "The Natural History of Violence: Atomist Pre-Histories for Shelley's The Mask of Anarchy," I continue the increasingly historical trajectory of the dissertation's materialism by turning to Shelley's poetic representation of the 1819 "Peterloo Massacre." Here, I attempt to put the dissertation's valuation of epistemological "sweetness" and "tenderness" to the test of an event in which subjects' vulnerabilities were tragically violated. Focusing on the The Mask's preoccupation with the way wrongly spilled blood enters geological and meteorological cycles, I argue that the poem, which Shelley called "wholly political," is also a form of natural history. I recruit Erasmus Darwin, William Cowper, and James Thomson as well as Walter Benjamin to argue for a didactic natural historical mode in which a poem speaks polemically for bloodstained materials that do not, in themselves, disclose their provenance. In this way I suggest that, despite its reputation, pre-Darwinian natural history - and especially its poetry - is anything but a-historical or a-political. In the dissertation's Coda, "Marx's Sensuous Science" I pick up this materialist current at the start of the historical materialism more familiar to present-day critics: Karl Marx's doctoral dissertation on classical atomisms. I link Marx's reception of Lucretius to the idea of natural history that emerges in his "Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844," which paraphrase Goethe on tender empiricism, and argue (like Blake, Wordsworth, and Shelley) that any sensation-based science needs to countenance the senses' susceptibility to historical re-configuration. The Manuscripts strain, very much in the tradition my chapters lay out, towards what Marx calls a "sensuous science." Like Goethe and Shelley, Marx presses past the biology of organicism in order to adumbrate "man's inorganic body," a body neither contemporaneous nor coincident with itself and whose life is traversed by and contingent upon innumerable others. In the Coda I take this cue to compare Marxian and neo-Lucretian ideology critique, asking how the embodied impressionability valued in "tender," "sweet," and "sensuous" sciences may run, but may also outrun, the risk Marx named "reification."
2008/2009 ; In light of the negotiations and the accession of Croatia to the European Union in a very near future, a dissertation on this topic presented itself as a very interesting opportunity. Agriculture has been (in case of past candidate countries, now Member States of the EU) and remains one of the most complex, discussed and controversial elements of the said negotiations. The PhD candidate, being a selected official translator and interpreter of the Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integrations and working in particular in the framework of negotiations conducted in Chapter 11 - Agriculture and rural development and Chapter 12 - Food safety, veterinary and phytosanitary policy, observed the need to give an overview of the social and historical context in this respect, describe the most recent developments, as well as to provide for a comprehensive terminology corpus to be used as reference for the translation of a very large number of documents in this sector in order to avoid any imprecision, lack of consistency and ambiguity of terms used. Interpretation and full understanding of EU acts by policy makers is crucial if those acts are to be transposed and implemented at the national level accurately and correctly, and a faithful and correct translation thereof plays a decisive role in this process. The PhD candidate was often faced with texts dealing with the same topic, but presenting significant discrepancies in translation approach and terminology (often errant solutions in spite of the existence of very precise terms in target language), which caused frequent misunderstandings between English- and Croatian-speaking participants and experts and unnecessary delays. The candidate also discovered a major lack of general knowledge by Croatian participants and translators regarding the Common Agricultural Policy and its effects on the Croatian agricultural sector, which has sometimes lead to embarrassing situations. Furthermore, failure to use "user-friendly" terminology, as well as to give less complex explanations of different mechanisms has been perceived by farmers as lack of transparency and fuels their mistrust towards the reforms enforced by the Croatian government. The identification and the use of appropriate terms in the target language should help not only to avoid that their meaning is misunderstood, but also to preserve a national language as is by using its existing resources and without recurring to unnecessary foreign words which might only add up to the vagueness of certain concepts, in particular taking into account that the final users required to apply any given act in this area are not policy-makers, but the general public, more precisely farmers. The choice of restricting the area of interest to agriculture has been done on the basis of the candidate's specialisation therein and due to the fact that agriculture has been one of the most challenging issues of the enlargement of the EU and it will continue to be so in the context of the future enlargements. The present dissertation and its glossary in particular are the result of three years of participation in negotiations at different levels and technical staff meetings, as well as of an equally long translation work and analysis of a large number of EU documents and national legal acts (including ordinances, orders and instructions) by means of which they are transposed into the Croatian legislation, as well as reports and memorandums. The trilingual approach has been selected owing to the experience gained in translating different kinds of EU documents, the English version of which (English has been selected as the source language by the aforementioned Ministry) sometimes presents ambiguities and inconsistencies, which requires a parallel use of the same document written in another language. The choice of Italian as the "control" language is a personal choice of the candidate, who often uses a fourth language, Slovene, for its similarity to Croatian as target language since both belong to the South-Slavic language group. However, Slovene has not been included in the glossary due to the candidate's passive knowledge only. The present dissertation consists in four main parts. The first part (Chapter 2) offers an overview of the history and enlargements of the European Community - from the aftermath of the World War II, the gradual enlargement to different European countries that have very soon realised the advantages of "standing together", evolution of European institutions (how they started and how their powers and responsibilities evolved over time) and the gradual formation of the European Economic and Monetary Union, to the dramatic events of 1989 which gave rise to unprecedented social and political changes of the 20th century and changed forever the face of the world and the course to which the European Community was heading. A separate sub-chapter is dedicated to the fifth enlargement – the largest and the most difficult so far as it included 8 former communist countries in 2004 (plus Malta and Cyprus) followed by Romania and Bulgaria in 2007. The said sub-chapter provides also for an overview of the accession process in general and certain difficulties encountered both by the new Member States and current candidate countries since the accession to the EU is not a goal per se, but an instrument to facilitate the implementation of reforms necessary to complete the transition, which goes far beyond the mere accession. The following sub-chapter deals with Croatia, in particular the timeline of its accession process and the main obstacles therein, which to a certain extent are somewhat different with respect to other candidate countries. The third chapter deals entirely with the agriculture – from the creation of the Common Agricultural Policy, the introduction of the Single Payment Scheme in 2003, representing one of the most substantial reforms in this respect, and the adjustment of the SPS due to the 2004 and 2007 enlargements to countries with a significantly lower standard and level of wellbeing, as well as with a very different economic background which has influenced their agriculture for almost half a century. The introduction of the SPS was an attempt to make the aid schemes in agriculture fairer and simpler. However, the second goal had to be sacrificed for the sake of the first one, which is reflected in numerous exceptions and derogations granted to single Member States on the basis of their particular national situation. An important sub-chapter herein is concerned with the enlargement and its impact on the agriculture of both old and new Member States. For farmers in the EU-15 the enlargement meant the reduction of EU aid, while for farmers in candidate countries it meant higher competition, but also the accessibility of EU funding. Each candidate country defined the conditions thereof in the framework of accession negotiations, which meant that some of them got a better deal than the others. In this sub-chapter particular attention has also been given to the illustration of some of the effects the CAP has had in the Central and Eastern European countries and different kinds of aid and pre-accession programmes available as central part of the CAP in order to prepare them for what is coming after the accession. The fourth chapter is concerned with the Croatian agricultural sector and it gives a general overview of its geography and climate, as well as certain statistical data regarding the current level of development. A sub-chapter is dedicated to a very important aspect, that is the legacies of the socialist past of the country, characterised by collectivism, state ownership, planned production entirely inconsistent with the market demand and low consideration for the environmental protection, but also to certain phenomena, such as the considerable fragmentation of agricultural land, the source of which is to be looked for beyond the past 50 years. A paragraph is also dedicated to cooperatives, which played a significant role in the Croatian agricultural sector before the World War II and which might become the key of the future development in this respect. The last sub-chapter describes the possible consequences and challenges before the Croatia agriculture in view of the accession of this country to the EU. Some of them are common to new Member States and Croatia can certainly learn a lot from their experience, but certain issues must be dealt with by Croatia alone as they concern its particular history, culture, traditions and political and social context. The fifth and the last chapter, which is also the most comprehensive one, is the terminology corpus with appropriate definitions developed by the author of the dissertation during the three-year-long research and containing more than 2100 entries in three languages. This glossary is non-exhaustive, which means that it is not a definitive one, but it will continue to be expanded and amended in parallel with the ongoing translation of Community documents. ; XXI Ciclo
Inhaltsangabe:Abstract: The emergence of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) has launched a global debate (digital or technological revolution) about a paradigm shift from an industrialised towards an Information Society. In the front of this debate lies the assertion that the application of ICT is the impelling factor of transformation which will result in far reaching changes within all parts of the economy, the society and the State. The State plays therefore an important role for this transformation. First, the creation of a 'New Economy' which stands for a branch of industry that develops and produces hardware, software and communication equipment and its penetration and application into the whole economy. The emergence of e-buzzwords such as e-commerce or e-business are related to the application of ICT within the economy. Second, after a laissez-faire policy implementation through the State, it has to care for social aspects such as to connect the society to the internet and create a digital literate society. This 'second stage' of the Information Society has its expression in the common used catchword 'digital divide'. Finally, the State itself comes under pressure to apply ICT within government institutions, expressed by the latest catchwords of e-government and e-governance. Their hype (chiefly technologically determined) can be equated with the emergence of the 'New Economy' within the global debate about the Information Society. Emerged from developed countries, e-government and e-governance experience an increasing use in developing countries. Their advocates (i. e. international development organisations) stress the catchwords for the purpose of poverty alleviation, improved living standards and economic growth, in developed and particularly in developing countries. Furthermore, both subjects of the thesis have started up a new tractive force within the debate of public administration reforms. Both can be summarised as ICT-led public administration reform. They are deemed to be an 'impelling factor of organisational change and transformation' of governmental institutions. Moreover, the literature concerning both catchwords, is full of positive expectations (i.e. enhance participation, accountability, transparency and overall democracy) and thus, they are seen as a medium to implement and support their theoretical concepts New Public Management (NPM) and Good Governance. Fairly few observations in developed countries stressed the significance of internal structures within governmental institutions which can influence the introduction of ICT in general and the developing countries. However, they are unrecognised within the debate of e-government and e-governance. Furthermore, the debate of these catchwords contains a lack of concern about and notice of a possible influence of internal structures of public administrations on the implementation of e-government and e-governance regarding developed and especially developing countries. Under this review and in bringing back the e-government/e-governance debate into reality, the central question of this thesis is: which preconditions have to be considered before the implementation of both catchwords in non-Weberian bureaucracies in developing countries? In answering this question, the case of Indonesia is taken as a basis because it is planning to implement an extensive e-government project since the end of 2001. The thesis will reveal that an ICT-led public administration reform through e-government or e-governance will certainly fail, as long as the developed preconditions in the constructed test model are unrecognised. E-government and/or e-governance will reinforce and strengthen existing internal structures within public administrations instead of transform them towards the normative concepts. In approaching the central question, the thesis is compiled as follows: First, chapter one discusses the catchwords' theoretical background under consideration of ICT and their general critiques. Then, the catchwords themselves are defined in the scope of the Information Society and their present critiques. Both sections expose the necessary preconditions for the implementation of e-government and e-governance. The preconditions are: The networking effects (totality of integration), the analysis of internal structures of public administrations (micro-level) and the analysis of related actors' interests (macro-level). From this point of view, chapter two constructs a test model where these more broad preconditions are substantiated and operationalised through the application of several theories. Chapter three applies the test model to the case of Indonesia. On the macro-level the theory of bureaucratic developmental State by Elsenhans is applied with an emphasis on the ICT sector. This section reveals that on the supply side within the ICT sector there are existing tendencies where indigenous and non-indigenous conglomerates regain there position on the economy, namely on the emerging ICT sector and their influence on IBRA (Indonesian Bank Restructuring Agency). Furthermore on the telecommunication sector there exists a duopoly of State-owned companies. Both findings are related to a segmentation of the State Class which favours more indigenous conglomerates instead of non-indigenous as in the pre-Soeharto area. The demand side of ICT is summarised through the analysis of the stage of networking effects. It includes quantitative indicators from 1997 to 2001 and policy indicators. It emphasises that at the present stage of networking the internet is biased towards an educated high-income group within the Indonesian society. The speed of developing a 'connected society' is reduced by weaknesses in policy formulation, implementation and monitoring. On the micro-level the duality of structure by Giddens and applied by Killian/Wind (1997) is used. This analysis concludes that the mesh of formal and informal structures and the old vision of political thinking lead to a concentration of power, authority and control over resources in the hands of top officials who are part of the State Class. With the emergence of ICT a new powerful group within the public administration can evolve which will challenge existing power and authority holders. Thus, in stabilising and guaranteeing their traditional economic and informational resources, the patrons (top officials) have to co-opt the ICT unit (new powerful group) to obtain control over the access, transfer and selection of information. The thesis finishes with a conclusion that emphasises important questions which should borne in mind before implementing e-government and/or e-governance. Table of Contents: Table of Contents AcknowledgementsI Table of ContentsII List of FiguresV List of TablesVI IntroductionVII 1.E-Government and e-Governance Against the Background of Their Theoretical Classification1 A.Theoretical Classification: New Public Management and Governance2 I.New Public Management2 a)Reasons for the Adoption of New Public Management2 b)Objectives of NPM3 c)Raise the Issue of Internal Structures in Developing Countries5 d)ICT as Driving Power for Civil Service Reforms in Developing Countries?8 II.The Concept of Governance10 a)The Basics10 b)The Emergence of Networking within the Concept through ICT12 1.Characteristics of Networking12 2.Tendencies so Far13 3.Critical Issues14 B.Definitions in the Scope of the Information Society16 I.Framework of the Information Society17 a)Technological and Economic Dimensions18 b)Policy Dimension20 II.E-Government22 a)Definition and Orientation in the Scope of e-Buzzwords22 b)Reasons for the Adoption of e-Government Concepts25 c)Objectives of e-Government26 d)Barriers or Challenges: Do Structures Matter?27 III.E-Governance29 a)Definition of e-Governance29 b)Reasons for the Adoption of e-Governance Concepts31 c)Objectives of e-Governance31 d)Barriers or Challenges: Do Structures Matter?33 C.Further Development? A Provisional Result34 2.Preconditions of e-Government/e-Governance for Their Implementation: Constructing a Test Model38 A.The Macro-level: The Bureaucratic Developmental State38 B.The Micro-level: Theory of Structuring40 C.Networking Effects: Summary of Quantitative Indicators and the Policy Environment42 3.Testing the Model: The Case of Indonesia46 A.Why Indonesia?46 B.Polit- and Socio-Economic Conditions in Post Soeharto Era and Networking Effects48 I.Reinforcing Economy: Government-Business Networks and ICT48 a)The Government-Business Networks in Indonesia49 b)The Destruction of Conglomerates by IBRA52 c)The ICT Sector and Telecommunication Market: Conglomerate's Impetus and State-owned Duopoly56 II.Unconnected Society: Multiplicity of Divide59 a)The Development of the Telecommunication Infrastructure59 b)Evaluating Networking Effects63 C.The Public Administration in Indonesia69 I.Civil Service Reform in Post-Soeharto Era70 a)Decentralisation Reform70 b)ICT-led NPM Reform71 II.The Ascendancy of Duality of Structures Within ICT-led Reforms73 a)Following Old Visions: Political Thinking in the Public Administration74 b)Backing the System: Formal Structures76 c)Human Factor: Informal Structures80 D.Summarising the Test Results84 Conclusion86 AppendixVI BibliographyIX Eidesstattliche ErklärungXXIII
The Breslau arts scene during the Weimar period was one of the most vibrant in all of Germany, yet it has disappeared from memory and historiography. Breslau was a key center for innovative artistic production during the Weimar Republic; recovery of its history will shed new light on German cultural dynamics in the 1920s. Such a study has art historical significance because of the incredible extent of innovation that occurred in almost every intellectual field, advances that formed the basis for aesthetic modernism internationally and continue to affect the course of visual art and architecture today. Architecture education, just one example in many, is still largely based on a combination of the Bauhaus model from the 1920s and the model developed at the Breslau Academy of Fine and Applied Art. The exploratory attitude encouraged in Weimar era arts endeavors, as opposed to the conformism of academic art, is still a core value promoted in contemporary art and architecture circles. Given the long-lasting influence of Weimar culture on modernism one would expect to find a spate of studies examining every aspect of its cultural production, but this is not the case. Recent scholarship is almost exclusively focused on Berlin and the Dessau Bauhaus. Although both interests are understandable, the creative explosion was not confined to these cities but was part of a larger cultural ethos that extended into many of the smaller regional centers. The Expressionist associations the Blaue Reiter in Munich and Brücke in Dresden are two well-known examples. Equally, innovation was not confined to a few monumental projects like the Stuttgart Weissenhofsiedlung but part of a broader national cultural ethos. The dispersion of modernism occurred partly because of the political history of Germany as a loosely joined confederation of small city states and principalities that had strong individual cultural identities before unification in 1871 but also because of the German propensity to value and take intense pride in the Heimat, understood both as the hometown and the region. Heimatliebe translated into generous support for cultural institutions in outlying cities. Host to a roster of internationally acclaimed artists and architects, major collectors, arts organizations, museums, presses, galleries, and one of the premier German arts academies of the day, Breslau boasted a thriving modern arts scene until 1933 when the Nazis began their assault on so-called "degenerate" art. This book charts the cultural production of Breslau-based artists, architects, art collectors, urban designers, and arts educators, who were especially interesting because they operated in the space between the margins of Weimar-era cultural debates. Rather than accepting the radical position of the German avant-garde or the reactionary position of German conservatives, many Breslauers sought a middle ground. It is the first book in English to address this history and presents the history in a manner unique to any studies currently on the market. 'Beyond the Bauhaus' explores the polyvalent and contradictory nature of cultural production in Breslau in order to expand the cultural and geographic scope of Weimar history; the book asserts a reciprocal dimension to the relationship between regional culture and national culture, between centers like Breslau and the capital Berlin. With major international figures like the painters Otto Mueller and Oskar Moll, architects Hans Scharoun and Adolf Rading, urban planners Max Berg and Ernst May, collectors Ismar Littmann and Max Silberberg, and an art academy that by 1929 was considered the best in Germany, Breslau clearly had significance to narratives of Weimar cultural production. 'Beyond the Bauhaus' contributes the history of German culture during the Weimar Republic. It belongs alongside histories of art, architecture, urban design, exhibition, collecting, and culture; histories of the Bauhaus; histories of arts education more broadly; and German history. The readership would include those interested in German history; German art, architecture, urban design, planning, collecting, and exhibition history; in the avant-garde; the development of arts academies and arts pedagogy; and the history of Breslau and Silesia. ; The Breslau arts scene during the Weimar period was one of the most vibrant in all of Germany, yet it has disappeared from memory and historiography. 'Beyond the Bauhaus' explores the polyvalent and contradictory nature of cultural production in Breslau in order to expand the cultural and geographic scope of Weimar history. ; Includes bibliographical references and indexes. ; The Breslau arts scene during the Weimar period was one of the most vibrant in all of Germany, yet it has disappeared from memory and historiography. Breslau was a key center for innovative artistic production during the Weimar Republic; recovery of its history will shed new light on German cultural dynamics in the 1920s. Such a study has art historical significance because of the incredible extent of innovation that occurred in almost every intellectual field, advances that formed the basis for aesthetic modernism internationally and continue to affect the course of visual art and architecture today. Architecture education, just one example in many, is still largely based on a combination of the Bauhaus model from the 1920s and the model developed at the Breslau Academy of Fine and Applied Art. The exploratory attitude encouraged in Weimar era arts endeavors, as opposed to the conformism of academic art, is still a core value promoted in contemporary art and architecture circles. Given the long-lasting influence of Weimar culture on modernism one would expect to find a spate of studies examining every aspect of its cultural production, but this is not the case. Recent scholarship is almost exclusively focused on Berlin and the Dessau Bauhaus. Although both interests are understandable, the creative explosion was not confined to these cities but was part of a larger cultural ethos that extended into many of the smaller regional centers. The Expressionist associations the Blaue Reiter in Munich and Brücke in Dresden are two well-known examples. Equally, innovation was not confined to a few monumental projects like the Stuttgart Weissenhofsiedlung but part of a broader national cultural ethos. The dispersion of modernism occurred partly because of the political history of Germany as a loosely joined confederation of small city states and principalities that had strong individual cultural identities before unification in 1871 but also because of the German propensity to value and take intense pride in the Heimat, understood both as the hometown and the region. Heimatliebe translated into generous support for cultural institutions in outlying cities. Host to a roster of internationally acclaimed artists and architects, major collectors, arts organizations, museums, presses, galleries, and one of the premier German arts academies of the day, Breslau boasted a thriving modern arts scene until 1933 when the Nazis began their assault on so-called "degenerate" art. This book charts the cultural production of Breslau-based artists, architects, art collectors, urban designers, and arts educators, who were especially interesting because they operated in the space between the margins of Weimar-era cultural debates. Rather than accepting the radical position of the German avant-garde or the reactionary position of German conservatives, many Breslauers sought a middle ground. It is the first book in English to address this history and presents the history in a manner unique to any studies currently on the market. 'Beyond the Bauhaus' explores the polyvalent and contradictory nature of cultural production in Breslau in order to expand the cultural and geographic scope of Weimar history; the book asserts a reciprocal dimension to the relationship between regional culture and national culture, between centers like Breslau and the capital Berlin. With major international figures like the painters Otto Mueller and Oskar Moll, architects Hans Scharoun and Adolf Rading, urban planners Max Berg and Ernst May, collectors Ismar Littmann and Max Silberberg, and an art academy that by 1929 was considered the best in Germany, Breslau clearly had significance to narratives of Weimar cultural production. 'Beyond the Bauhaus' contributes the history of German culture during the Weimar Republic. It belongs alongside histories of art, architecture, urban design, exhibition, collecting, and culture; histories of the Bauhaus; histories of arts education more broadly; and German history. The readership would include those interested in German history; German art, architecture, urban design, planning, collecting, and exhibition history; in the avant-garde; the development of arts academies and arts pedagogy; and the history of Breslau and Silesia. ; The Breslau arts scene during the Weimar period was one of the most vibrant in all of Germany, yet it has disappeared from memory and historiography. 'Beyond the Bauhaus' explores the polyvalent and contradictory nature of cultural production in Breslau in order to expand the cultural and geographic scope of Weimar history. ; Mode of access: Internet.
The Implementation of Gap Information Activity to Teach Speaking Procedure Text to the Ninth Graders Luhur Bayu Nirwana 092084002 English Education, Faculty of Language and Art, State University of Surabaya luhurnirwana@gmail.com Dosen Pembimbing: Him'mawan Adi Nugroho, S.Pd., M.Pd. English Department, Faculty of Language and Art, State University of Surabaya Abstrak Bahasa Inggris adalah salah satu pelajaran wajib yang dimasukkan ke dalam kurikulum sekolah SMP dan SMA. Ini berarti siswa telah belajar bahasa sejak tahun pertama di bangku SMP. Tapi kemudian ketika mereka lulus dari sekolah tinggi kemampuan mereka berbahasa Inggris tidak berkembang dengan baik. Strategi mengajar tampaknya menjadi salah satu faktor kegagalan. Kegiatan kesenjangan informasi tampaknya menjadi pilihan bagi guru dalam melakukan kegiatan mengajar kepada siswa. Berdasarkan pandangan CLT kegiatan ini sangat membantu untuk mengembangkan keterampilan berbicara siswa. Ini memberikan siswa banyak kesempatan untuk berlatih berbicara selama kegiatan pembelajaran. Dengan demikian, peneliti memutuskan untuk melakukan penelitian tentang kegiatan ini untuk digunakan dalam mengajar berbicara teks prosedur untuk anak kelas sembilan. Ada dua pertanyaan penelitian dalam penelitian ini. Pertama adalah tentang pelaksanaan kegiatan informasi kesenjangan dalam mengajar berbicara teks prosedur untuk anak kelas sembilan. Yang kedua adalah tentang respon siswa terhadap implementasi dalam mengajar berbicara teks prosedur untuk anak kelas sembilan. Penelitian ini dilakukan di SMP Negeri 1 Bangkalan. Subyek adalah siswa IX-D nilai. Ini adalah penelitian deskriptif yang menggambarkan pelaksanaan kegiatan informasi gap untuk mengajar berbicara prosedur teks untuk siswa kelas sembilan. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian, pelaksanaan kegiatan informasi gap yang baik untuk diterapkan di kelas untuk mengajar berbahasa Inggris. Selain itu, siswa juga memberikan respon yang positif terhadap penerapan Gap Information Activity di dalam kelas. Kata Kunci: Gap Information Activity, Pengajaran Berbicara, Prosedur Teks, Kelas IX Abstract English is one of compulsory lessons which is put in junior and senior high school curriculum. It means students have learned the language since the first year in junior high school. But then when they are graduated from high school their English speaking ability does not develop well. The strategy seems to be one factor of the failure. The gap information activity seems to be an option for teacher in conducting teaching activity to students. Based on the CLT view this activity is helpful to develop students' speaking skill. It gives students a lot of chances to practice speaking during the lesson activity. Thus, the researcher decides to conduct research about this activity to be used in teaching speaking procedure text to ninth graders. There are two research questions in this research. First is about the implementation of gap information activity in teaching speaking procedure text to ninth graders. The second is about students' response toward the implementation in teaching speaking procedure text to ninth graders. This research was conducted in SMP Negeri 1 Bangkalan. The subject was the students of IX-D grades. It is the descriptive research which describes the implementation of gap information activity to teach speaking procedure text to ninth graders. Based on the result of the research, the implementation of gap information activity is good to be applied in class to teach speaking English. Moreover the students gave positive response toward the implementation of the activity. Keywords: Gap Information, Teaching Speaking, Procedure Text, Ninth Graders. INTRODUCTION Background of Study There is no objection that language and human being cannot be separated. Language is a media for people to communicate each other. Without language we cannot make a good interaction with other people. It is like what Yule (2010) says that human language trully serves a communication system in any situation. Moreover language also tool for learning, Yule (2010) states in his book that we can use language as a tool to learn about language itself. English has taken its role to be an international language. As quoted by Crystal in Cahyono & Widiati (2004) it is abudantly clear that now English has achieved its global status and the global status of English cannot be separated from its popular role as the language, science and technology. As the result of this situation, English has started being popular to be the media of communication among people around the world including Indonesian. As a country that wants to take a role in the world trading and competition, Indonesian government puts English as compulsory lesson in junior and senior high school curriculums. It is stated in Depdiknas (2006) that the aim of English teaching is to enable students to communicate with target language. In the term of communication, speaking skill takes the bigest role. However the final target of learning a certain language is to use it as a media to communnicate with other. Here in Indonesia, students start to learn English from the first year of Junior High School and it is continued regularly until they graduate from senior high school. But then the problem appears here. Although they have started to learn English since first year in Junior High School, their English skill do not develop well. There are seceral factors cause this failure, one of those factors is the method that is applied in class. Most of English teachers in Indonesia still apply teacher-centered class setting in teaching English. This class setting does not optimally give students chance to communicate through target language. This class setting will also provide low students talking time, so that the researcher will conduct a research of The Implementation of Gap Information Activity to Teach Speaking Procedure Text to Ninth Graders. The researcher decides to carry out research in speaking field because the main purpose of learning a language is to communicate and the most obvious way of human being to communicate is by speaking. Speaking is an important part of learning to speak the language teaching purposes should improve the communication skills of students, because that way, students can express themselves and learn how to follow the rules of social and cultural right in communicative circumtance. Kayi (2006) It makes speaking takes very important role in either learning or teaching English. The purpose of the students who learn language is to communicate. Finally it only can be communicated as well as expressed through speaking. Moreover students need a motivation to stimulate their willingness to communicate. They need a reason and an environment that supports and encourages them to start speaking through target language, English. Here is where teachers take their roles. Teachers have to be able to motivate their students to speak through English by creating the atmosphere and environment that support their students to speak and communicate through the target language, English. How then teachers will provide all those thing to students? It is of course they should find the right method to be applied in the class. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) method can be a solution in this case. Richards (1999) says that CLT sees the needs of language teaching is to communicate each other in the real life. That is why the teacher should focus on communicative profiency rather than mastery of structures. There are some class activities that include in CLT, such as Role-play, interviews, information gap, pair-work and learning by teaching. Based on the perspective view of CLT, researcher decides to conduct a research about the implementatioan of Gap Information activity. It is because the gap of the information will make students curious and it gives the students reason to ask. Whenever they have a question to ask, it means they have reason to communicate and it can be good beginning for teacher to start teaching their students to communicate through target language. Moreover there are some genres in our national curriculum. They are procedure, descriptive, recount, narrative, report, news item, analytical exposition, hortatory exposition, spoof, explanation, discussion and review. The researcher will only concern on the procedure text because he believes it motivates students more since through procedure text students will be abble to share their idea of making or doing something. Based on the background study above, the researcher formulates questions in carrying out this study.Those questions are: (1) How is the implementation of gap information activity to teach speaking procedure text to ninth graders? (2) How is the students' response of the implementation of gap information activity to teach speaking procedure text to ninth graders? This research will only focus on students' speaking skill. It will be conducted to the ninth graders students in SMP Negeri 1 Bangkalan. The result of this research may not be the same with other school, other material and other students in different level Review Literature The aim for someone who learns language is in order to communicate with others using the target language. According to Harmer (2003) in order to make the communication to be successful, the speaker must have to structure the discourse in such a way that can be understood by the listeners. It means that when the speakers try to speak, they do not need to use complicated structure of discourse. They only need to make what they want to deliver can be understood by the listeners, so that the goal of communication can be achieved. Still related to the former, Kayi (2006) explains that the ability to communicate in a second language clearly and efficiently contributes to the success of the learners in school and success later in every phase of life. Kayi mentions the words "success" and "ability to communicate" in his statements. It is clearly enough that by being able to communicate well, people have a big chance to be successful in various situations. People tend to express what they feel through spoken language. If those people can express it well and understandable, they have more opportunity to get the things they want. In the country which uses English as foreign language like in Indonesia, most of its learners study language at school. They learn English with many limitations, such as limitation of time, place and situation, especially when they want to start learning speaking. They do not have enough opportunity to do that. Klancar (2006) states young learners in the communicative classroom should get as many speaking opportunities as possible and their speaking time should slowly but steadily rise so as to prepare them for various communicative situations. The opportunity of speaking will affect to the speaking ability. After giving the learners opportunity to speak teachers should improve learners' speaking skill. At this point, the role of the English teacher is also important to the students' speaking skill development. The teacher should be able to conduct a good teaching speaking during the lesson activity in class. to attract students' attention during the lesson, the teacher should be smart in positioning himself in front of the students during the lesson activity, because the way of how teacher takes role during the class activity can also affect the students' attention. One of the best methods in teaching English is Communicative Language Teaching. This method aims to make students can communicate through target language. Belchamber (2007) says that the main focus of CLT is to teach student use the target language as their media of communication. That is why this method is appropriate to support foreign language learners to communicate through the target language. There are lots of features that provide students to speak much use target language. CLT can be understood as the principles of teaching goal, all features in this method both the setting of the class, the role of teacher and also the class activities facilitate the learners well. One of the activities that is included in this method is Gap Information Activity. Harmer (2007) states that Information Gap is where two speakers have different bits of information and they can only complete the whole picture by sharing that information-because they have different information, there is a gap between them. It means that gap information is the class activity that is used to train students speaking skill communicatively. In this activity each student will be given a paper that consist different information with his partner. Students have to get the complete information by asking his partner. Harmer (2007) also says that the idea of information gap as an organizing concept for a speaking activity is that one person has information that another lacks. They must use English to share that information in order to accomplish a task. Through this activity student will get the real reason and situation that will make them communicate trough the target language In implementing gap information activity to teach speaking procedure text teacher needs to follow some steps that have been stated by Murray (2006) Pre Activity: This stage is the beginning of the lesson. Firstly, the teacher needs to tell students everything about the procedue text. Its aim, grammar features and also the generic structure. After that, teacher needs to tell the students the rules of the gap information activity. He also needs to show the students the example how they will do the gap information activity. Whilst Activity: This stage is the main activity of gap information. In this stage, teacher let students do the activity while the teacher himself watches his students and helps them with their difficulties. In this stage teacher should pay much attention to his students' activity to make sure that the activity is going well. Post activity; This is the last stage of the lesson activity. In this stage teacher discuss the students' work together. After that he tells the students the conclusion of the activity that they just did. Then he ends the lesson. It can be adapted from Ansarey (2012), her study by title "Communicative Language Teaching in EFL Contexts: Teachers Attitude and Perception in Bangladesh". One of its aims is to find out the contribution of communicative language teaching in Bangladesh and the result of this study is it obviously shows that CLT can contribute much in helping develop more proficient speakers of English. METHODOLOGY Research Design The researcher used descriptive qualitative research design to obtain the information concerning with the implementation of gap information activity to teach speaking procedure to ninth graders. According to McMillan (1996) descriptive study investigates and describes the existing phenomena. It shows the real condition happens when the research is being conducted. The researcher is not allowed to manipulate anything, the condition of the research must be naturally happens. The researcher used descriptive research since the objective of this research was to demonstrate a class activity in teaching speaking procedure text. The researcher did not get involved in teaching and learning process. He only observed the teaching learning process in the class. The researcher did not make any interaction or participation during teaching and learning activity in class. The researcher only observed all activity that occurred during the lesson concerning how the teacher delivered gap information activity in teaching speaking procedure text. He kept on detail recorded of what happened and monitored the observation as the result. The researcher would only write what he saw and listened during the lesson activity. At the end of the observation, he would analyze the data involved observation checklist, field note and questionnaire. The Subject of the Study The subjects of the study were the ninth grade students. This research was conducted in class IX D of SMP Negeri 1 Bangkalan which consists of 36 students. Setting of the Study This study took place in the IX D class in SMP Negeri 1 Bangkalan. The researcher chose SMP Negeri 1 Bangkalan as a place to conduct this study. The school was comfortable for learning activities since the school was surrounded by trees and the situation in the school was not too crowded, so that students could study pleasantly. Besides the students were also provided with facilities that supported teaching and learning activities, such as library and various laboratories, The important part of the school that encouraged the research to be successful was the clean, wide and comfortable classroom which the students were in to study. It was one of the essential facilities which give an effect for the teaching learning process. Those factors create conducive atmosphere in class the support the researcher to conduct this study. Moreover the teacher applies gap information activity that suitable with this study. Data and the Source of Data The data of the study were the activities in the teaching and learning process that were according to gap information activity. The researcher would describe the data in the form of words, phrases, and sentences, rather than numbers because the researcher would conduct the descriptive qualitative study. The data were in the form of description of the students' English oral performance during the gap information activity and the responses of the students. Those data were needed to answer research questions of the study. The data to answer the first research question "how is the implementation of gap information activity to teach speaking procedure to ninth graders?" were the class activity during the teaching and learning process. To get the data, the researcher use observation checklist to observe the presence of the behavior and field note to take a note of the thing that happened during the teaching and learning process. The data to answer the second research question "How is the students' response of the implementation of gap information activity to teach speaking procedure text to ninth graders" were the students' opinion. To get the data the researcher used questionnaire. Research Instrument Research instrument was an equipment to collect the data. In this study, the researcher would use observation checklist, field notes and questionnaire as instruments. Those would be explained below: Observation Checklist The researcher used observation checklist to understand individual behavior or process of occurring a noticeable activity in actual or situation. "The simplest device used is a checklist, which presents a list of the behaviors that are to be observed. The observer then checked whether each behavior were present or absent" Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen, & Razavieh (2010). Through checklist the researcher would know which part of behavior was missed by teacher during lesson activity. Field Notes Field notes was a kind of brief notes made by the researcher to observe the teaching-learning process. The researcher used field notes to observe the activity in the class by watching, listening, paying attention and writing everything that could be used as the data during the research. Bodgan and Biklen (2003) say that field notes are the written account of what the researcher hears, sees, experiences and thinks in the course of collecting and reflecting on the data in the descriptive qualitative study. The researcher would write all the important things she would see, hear and some additional information that was not mentioned in the observation checklist. It is also supported by Wallace (1998) that making field notes can prevent the researcher from trouble and confusion in presenting data caused by continuing to the next things. It will help her to organize the data before the data is being analized. Questionnaire Questionnaire was an instrument to get the survey information from the research participants. It is in line with McLean in Cohen, Manion, & Morrison's book ( 2007) state that questionnaire can be used to collect survey information that provide structure, often numerical data being able to administrated without the presence of the researcher and often being comparatively straight forward to analyzed. Data Collection Technique The researcher got the data from observation checklist, field note and questionnaire. The observation checklist was used to get the information during the teaching and learning process. The observation checklist was also to know whether the teacher applies the indicators or not. The field note would be used to records how teacher would implement gap information activity to teach speaking procedures text and what situation would occur during the lesson activity. It would be used by researcher to answer the first research question. To answer the second research question the researcher would use questionnaire. Questionnaire would gain the information about students' responses toward the implementation of gap information activity to teach speaking procedure text. Data Analysis Cohen, Manion, & Morrison (2007) state that data analysis of qualitative research is a process of categorization, description, and synthesis data in a form of participations' definition. In analyzing the data, the researcher would present the result of the observation checklist, field note and questionnaire during three meetings. The results of observation checklist were analyzed based on the class condition and responses of the data students. The researcher would observe the teaching and learning process during three meetings. The results of the field notes are used to support and explore the data from the observation checklist and questionnaire. The results of the questionnaire are analyzed by dividing number of comments of each item with the total number of students then are multiplied with a hundred percent. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Result The Result of the Observation Checklist and Field Note: Observation Day I The first observation was conducted on Wednesday, July 24th, 2013. It was Ramadan Month. Most of students who were Muslims were fasting that is why the learning activity in class was shorter than in regular days. It was 2 X 30 minutes for each meeting. The class was begun at 6.30 AM. Right at that time the observer together with all students entered the class. The observer took a seat at the back row in order to be able to take a note of the class situation during the class activity. The students were so crowded. They were so busy talking each other. At 6.35 AM the teacher came and asked all students to take their seat before the lesson began. In the very first time teacher asked one of the students to lead their praying before starting the lesson. This was the conversation that occurred in the beginning of the class: Dialogue I T : Halo guys, good morning S : Good morning sir, T : Ayo semuanya kembali ke tempat duduk masing2 yaa Ayo, rafa pimpin doa S : Before we start let's pray together Than all students pray S : Finish! After praying, teacher checked the students' attendance list by calling their names. At the beginning of the lesson, teacher reminded his students about the previous meeting. Their previous meeting was about reading procedural text. Teacher gave them short review about the previous meeting. Teacher asked students some questions about their previous meeting to stimulate students' memory about previous material and to give them chance to speak when they answered the question. Dialogue II T : Ok students, know I want to check do you still remember about procedure text? S : Yes sir ( they answer in a choir) T : All right students, raise your hand please. (Some students raise their hands) Yes, andika please S : Procedure text is text tell we about doing and making pak T : Oh good, any other answer? Yana, please yana S : Same sir, text telling us to make or doing thing T : Yes, good. Procedure text is a text that tells us about doing or making something. Very good. What about the generic structure? Anybody knows? (Students answer in choir and the class become crowded) Teacher chose one students to answer his question S : Title, ingredients, steps T : All right good, the other? Teacher point other student S : Same with sir, the title, the tool and ingredients and the steps T : Ok, very good, it seems you understand about procedural text, jadi sekarang kita akan mulai ke speaking, apa speaking itu? S : Ngomong paaak ( together) In this point teacher had succeed to remind his students about the previous meeting's material which was still related to today material. It also gives them chance to start speaking in answering some questions from the teacher which was as the warming up before they start to the main activity, speaking procedure. The next thing which was done by the teacher was telling his students about what they were going to do that day. Moreover teacher gave them example about their activity today. Teacher also asked his students to help him in doing the example of their main activity which was gap information activity. Dialogue III T : Oke anak anak, sekarang kita akan belajar speaking procedure text sambil main game, S : Horeee ( the class become crowded) T Nama gamenya adalah Gap Information. Dan dimainkan berdua dengan teman sebangku kalian yaa. Here I have the steps make instant noodle but it is not complete information it is only picture. Ayo latihan dulu sebelum main, mari kita lengkapi sama sama informasi how to make instant noodle Then the teacher sticks the incomplete text of how to make instant noodle to the whiteboard and ask the students to complete it together. T : OK, bangku sebelah sini, apa step number one? S : Masak airnya sir, T : Yes, come on in English please S : Boil the water T : Ok, good. Come on next row S : Keluarkan the noodle from its kemasan sir and then put in to the boiling water T : Ayo open your dictionary S : Take it of the package T : Ok, good, what's next? S : Mix the flavor T : All right, and then? S : Mix the flavor with the noodle, and it's ready to serve T : All right, you all are very good. Nah nanti kalian kerjakan sepert tadi ya, saling melengkapi dengan temen sebangku kalian masing-masing. Remember, always speak English because I will watch all of you. Ok students? S : yes sir After giving the students example about the activity, teacher gave his students the worksheet. The worksheet was a procedure text about how to serve a simple diner. Each student received a text with the same title but had different information. One student had the information which his bench friend did not have. The teacher asked them to complete their worksheet by asking to their bench friend. After that he walked around the class to watch and help his students. In the other side students were being so busy completing their worksheet. They did the gap information activity like what their teacher did. They asked their bench friend about the information they need to complete their worksheet. The conversation occured among the students during the main activity. They tried to speak English bravely and confidently to their friend. The atmosphere in the class was good enough and conducive that support students to speak English. Here are the examples of the students' conversation. The examples of the conversation bellow were taken from several pairs of students in class: Dialogue IV S1 : What is the first ingredient? S2 : The first ingredient is water. S1 : OK, what is next? S2 : Akuuu. . . S1 : Oh,OK yes please. Dialogue V S3 : What is the second ingredient? S4 : The second ingredient is meatball S3 : Oke I get it. S4 : Next, what is the third? S3 : The ingredient number three is noodle S4 : Ok, its hamper lengkap S3 : What is next? S4 : Next ingredient is chili flavor. Now, what is the last ingredient? S3 : The last ingredient is salt. S4 : Ok, now it is complete. . Dialogue IV and dialogue V were the script of conversation that occurred from two different groups in the class during the activity of gap information. They participate very well and actively speak with their partners to complete the information of what ingredients they needed to serve a simple dinner. The similar conversation also occurred in the other pairs during the activity. They kept speaking actively during the gap information activity. The examples below were the conversation that occurred when some students were completing the steps of how to serve a simple diner. Dialogue VI S1 : The first step, Boil the water for ten minutes. S2 : Thank you S1 : Come on, next! S2 : Next is put in the meatball to the boiling water. Dialogue VII S1 : What is the step number three? S2 : Take the meatball, then put in the noodle to the water S1 : Ok, after that when the noodle masak, what is masak? S2 : Sir, masak bahasa inggrisnya apa sir? T : Just say being cooked, pake tobe ya. Is being cooked S1 : Thank you, Sir. Ok. When the noodle is being cooked put in the salt and mix it S2 : Ok, next step. Put in the chili flavor and mix it. S1 : Yes, after that put in the meatball and wait for three minutes. S2 : Then the food is ready. All students conducted the similar conversation with the examples above during the gap information activity. In the other side the teacher kept watching and guiding his students during the activity. The student centre activity like what happened in this class really gave much time to students to speak and express their English during the lesson. They did not need to be afraid of making mistake or asking because they had supporting environments to learn and practice to speak English. Besides, the teacher was always ready to help them if they had some difficulties or questions. After doing the gap information activity teacher asked all students to check their worksheet. At last teacher asked the students randomly to deliver the step how to serve a simple diner to the class. Teacher chose two students to speak in front of the class. Those lucky students are Suci and Ramdan. They did it well although grammatically they still made some mistake. In the end of class activity teacher asked his students to review what they had done that day. After that, the teacher asked students to make group of 6 that would be used in the next meeting. Teacher also gave students some assignment to find a procedural text for each group. And finaly teacher asked the captain of the class to lead his friends prayed before they went home. The Result of the Observation Checklist and Field Note: Observation Day II The observation day II was conducted on Friday, July 26th,2013. This observation was also conducted in 2 X 30 minutes. It was the same with the day I, the class also began at 6.30 AM. All students and the researcher entered the class right at 6.30 AM. Same with day I, the observer took seat in the back row in order to be able to watch the whole class. For about ten minutes after all students entered the class, teacher entered the class and greeted his students. After greeting and having little conversation with the students, he checked the attendance by calling the students' name on by one. Next, he asked the students to sit with their group that they had made. After all students sit with their group, he asked the captain of the class to lead their friend prayed before starting the lesson. After that, teacher reviewed their previous meeting. The following was the dialogue between teacher and students in the beginning of the lesson. Dialogue VIII : T : Ok students, how are you all? S : Fine, Sir. T : Good, before we continue the lesson, I want all of you to sit with your group. S : (Students move to sit with their group) T : All right, good. Now before we start the lesson. Raffa, ayo pimpin doa S : Before we start, let's pray together. (Everybody starts praying) Finish! T : Well students. now, I want to check. Who still remember about our class meeting (students answer in a choir, it makes the class crowded) T : Silent please, ayo dibiasakan raise your hand. Jangan keroyokan Yes, Lita please S : Learn about procedure text sir, play gap information how to serve simple dinner. T : Very good. Gitu dong, ngacung dulu kalo mau jawab. OK, now who still remember the generic structure of procedure text? Yes, anang, please S : The title, ingredients and steps sir. T : That's good. I think You all still remember everything. Now it is time to submit your task. Ayo ketua kelompoknya maju kumpulkan tugas yang bapak kasih kemarin. This review was very useful as the warm up for the students before they continued to the main activity. Moreover, by remembering what they did in the previous meeting, it would make students be ready to receive material of the lesson that day. In this point, teacher also asked students some questions to make them speak, this was done to create English atmosphere in the class. However, when students had supporting environment they would participate well to the whole activity during the lesson. The next activity which was carried out by the teacher was another gap information activity. Different with the previous meeting, it was conducted in group not in pair. Students would do the activity with their group. It applied the basic concept of gap information activity where one of the group members had the information while the others did not have. Those who had the information should tell his friends what information he had to complete the worksheet was given by the teacher. Since the activity that day was different with the previous meeting. Teacher gave them example how to do the activity. He asked some students who were the representative from each group to come forward and help him gave an example to their friends. Before teacher started the example he stuck a passage of how to make meatball to the white board. After that all students who came forward was asked to gather as a group. Then he asked one of the members to read the text in the white board and remember it. Later when that students came back to the group he would tell the group what he had read and all members of the group will take a note of what their friend told them. Every single member of the group would have their own turn to read the passage and tell his group about the information that he read. In the end the group should collect all the information and complete the work sheet as the perfect procedure text. The dialogues bellow were some conversations that occurred when the teacher was giving the example. Dialogue IX : T : Well students, now we will do another gap information activity. S : Horeee ( students yelling together) T : We will do this activity in group. Does everybody have the group? S : Yes, Sir! T : Ok very good. I will give you example, but I need some students to help me. Ayo masing masing kelompok kirim satu orang untuk maju. How many groups is in here? S : Six groups, Sir T : OK. Sekarang bapak dan teman teman kalian akan memberi contoh bagaimana kita nanti akan melakukan gap informationnya. Well, here I have a passage of how to make meatballs. I will stick this passage to the whiteboard. Nah, sekarang. One of you read one sentence of this passage and tell your group. Come on do it. S : One student walks toward the whiteboard to read the text and then tell his friends what he just red. T : Nah sudah, gantian. Diikuti yang lain. Begitu seterusnya, urutan sampai teksnya selesai. Is it clear students? S : yes sir. After the example was given, the main activity, gap information, was started. On the white board there were three passages of procedure text. Text number one was how to make egg and lemon soup, text number two was how to make milkshake and text number three was how to make tomato soup. Group one and five were asked to do text number one, group two and four were asked to do text number two while group three and six got text number three. After listening to all instructions and getting their job, each group started doing the task. Every student was so busy completing the worksheet which had been given by the teacher. When completing the task some conversation occurred among students. The following dialogue was the example of conversation that occurred among students. Dialogue X S1 : The title is how to make egg and lemon soup. To make egg and lemon soup you need all these ingredients. (While one of the group member was saying the sentences, the other group members were taking note in their paper. Then after the first member finish, the next member immediately went to the whiteboard to get next information) S2 : Number one. Three pints chicken stock. Number two juices of two lemons. S3 : Number three salt and pepper. Number four, four eggs well beaten. The conversation above was the example of the dialogue when students in group one completing the ingredients of the procedure text. The similar conversation and situation also happened is the other group. The following was the dialogue of group six. Dialogue XI S1 : Number four, a half teaspoon of salt. Number five eight cups of water. S2 : Number six, one per four teaspoon of pepper. Number seven small clove of garlic S3 : The last ingredient is one pr four teaspoon of butter. In completing the next part of procedure text, the steps, students took longer time because the sentences were longer than in ingredients. However they still actively took part in the activity to complete their worksheet. The dialogue below was the example of conversation in group four when they were doing the steps of how to make milkshake. Dialogue XII S1 : Now follow these steps to make a milkshake S2 : Number one, place milkshake glasses into the freezer. S3 : Number two take the ice cream from the freezer before you. . . I forget, wait. (She went back to the whiteboard to read the text.) From the freezer before your shake. S4 : Number three, mix the ice cream, milk and added flavors into blender for one minute. S5 : Number four, pour shakes into the frosty glasses. Take the milkshake glasses out of the freezer, then pour the shake mixture in. S6 : Drop a straw into the shake, then enjoy The last thing that students needed to do after they had completed the ingredients and steps was collecting all those information and write it to the worksheet. Directly after it was completed, they submitted their worksheet to the teacher. In thirty minutes all groups had finished their work. Then, teacher asked one student of each groups to read their worksheet in front of the class. in the end of activity teacher asked the students to review what they had done that day. After that the captain of the class led their friend to pray. Before the class dismissed teacher greeted his students and the class was over. The Result of the Questionnaire The result of the questionnaire was used to find out the students' responses during the implementation of gap information activity in teaching speaking procedure text. The questionnaire consisted of fourteen statements in the form of multiple choices. After classifying the result of the questionnaire, each opinion was calculated by dividing number of comments of each item with the total number of students then was multiplied with a hundred percent. The Students' Opinion About the Teacher's Role The result of the questionnaire showed that teacher really had good skill in teaching. More than seventy percent students said that they can easily follow his teaching way. Moreover most of students said that they understood what their teacher taught them. It was proved by more than seventy five percent students choose "understand" for the statement "do you understand what your teacher has taught you?". Teacher also gave much time for students to take their role during the learning activity. More than eighty percent students said that teacher did not dominate the class activity. Most of students in that class also said that their teacher often gave them explanation for something they did not understand well. As well as more than eighty percent students agreed that their teacher also often asked them to deliver their idea or opinion during the class activity The Students' Opinion About the Material Based on the sixth statement of the questionnaire, the text that was given by the teacher was quite easy to catch by students. More then half students in the class also agreed that the topic of the text was interesting enough for them. Moreover most of the students said that the material from the teacher increased their motivation to practice speaking English. However, students still found some difficult words in the text that was given by teacher as the material in during lesson activity. The Students' Opinion About the Technique Students also gave their opinion relating with the activity conducted by the teacher. More than seventy percents of the students agreed that the activity was interesting for them. Teacher also gave quite clear explanation to the students about the procedure to do the activity. Most of the students also said that the activity increased their knowledge about the procedure text. They strongly agreed that gap information activity had motivated them well to speak English with their friend during the lesson. Moreover most of the students said that the activity was easy to do. Discussion The Implementation of Gap Information Activity to Teach Speaking Procedure Text to Ninth Graders In this chapter, the researcher would answer the first question of the research question. It was how the implementation of gap information activity to teach speaking procedure text to ninth graders is. The implementation of the gap information activity could be seen in the result of observation checklist and field note. In the first meeting the teacher began the meeting with reviewing their previous meeting. It was about the procedural text. The teacher explained about its generic structure and its aim. He also gave the example of the procedure text to the students. Afterward he explained to the students about the activity, gap information. Then, he continued giving them example how to do it. He asked the students to do the example together to stimulate them to speak as the warm up. After that he guided his students to conduct the main activity, gap information activity. In the first day, the activity of gap information was conducted in pair work. It was because the pair work was simple to do since the students had never done the gap information before. In the second day it was conducted in group work. The teacher let the students make the group of six by them self. During the main activity both in day I and day II the teacher walked around the class and kept his eyes on the students while the students were working with their partners. Sometimes he helped the students translating the difficult words. In the end of the lesson teacher asked some students to deliver their work in front of the class and discussed it together. The way of teacher conducted the lesson above showed that he gave much time to the students to practice their English. Klancar (2006) the opportunity of speaking will affect to the speaking ability. The more of speaking the learners get, the better they will become. The point was done during the teacher conduct the lesson. Before doing the main activity he gave students chance to speak while they were doing the example of gap information activity. Before, he also gave students chance to speak while reviewing the previous meeting. The gap information activity which was applied by teacher in class was suitable with Murray (2006). However, he modified the system according to the situation in the class. In the preparation the teacher preferred to make the worksheet by himself than collect the information from the students. The rest of the procedure was similar with what Murray suggested. He divided the students into small group (pair group in day I and bigger group in day II). Then he gave them the worksheet and asked them to complete the worksheet by trading the information they had with their friends. During the main activity, students actively spoke with their friends to complete the task. It was truly like what Harmer (2007) states that the idea of gap information activity as organizing concept for speaking is that one person has the information that another lacks. They have to speak English to share the information in order to accomplish the task. As the time ran out, he asked his students to deliver their work in front of the class. While a group was delivering their work, teacher was doing correction to it. Moreover the implementation of gap information activity really had helped teacher to attract students' attention. It
The current pressure on water resources is such, that water scarcity is now an important issue in regions with abundant water resources like the Tropics. These regions are characterized by high precipitation rates almost all year long. This results in a relatively large availability of water resources. However, these water resources are not always equally distributed in time or space, which causes periods and puts areas under water stress in tropical regions. Added to this is the challenge related to the access to these water resources, resulting in a reduced availability in general terms. Costa Rica is a clear example of a country in the Tropical regions, where water scarcity is, actually, on the top of the water agenda. Costa Rica is in the torrid tropical region in Central America, yet it experiences periods of shortage in its available water resources at the end of the dry season. This affects all water sectors, specially agriculture and drinking water supply systems. This situation has been magnified by global change, with a greater demand of resources from population growth, impermeabilization of recharge areas due to urbanization, and reduction of resources due to climate change. To adapt to the situation, it is necessary to conduct an evaluation of suitable water management tools for the country's environmental conditions in a systematic way. This work focuses on one of these tools: managed aquifer recharge (MAR) MAR techniques are a promising approach to address the defined problems, by storing the excess of available water resources during the rainy season in suitable aquifer systems for later use during the dry season. MAR techniques present certain advantages compared to surface storage: less losses through evaporation, less demand of superficial area, among others. In order to determine if MAR techniques are suitable for Costa Rica and will help overcome the temporary water scarcity challenge, three main topics at different scale are investigated. First, at a country scale, the search of suitable areas for specific MAR techniques within the country is carried out based on physical criteria. Second, at a research scale, it is reduced to a basin level. For this case, the assessment of a MAR project based on the first stage of the Australian MAR guidelines is done. This consists of a checklist of five critical elements, which constitutes the base for the assessment of a MAR project. Third, the research is taken into a laboratory scale, where the research focuses on an injection well in an unconfined aquifer system. For the first topic, suitable areas for the implementation of MAR technique spreading methods are identified in Costa Rica by conducting a geographical information science-multi-criteria decision analysis (GIS-MCDA) approach. This is based on four criteria: hydrogeological geoaptitude, terrain slope, top soil texture, and drainage network density. By carrying out a GIS-MCDA, the country is classified into suitable and unsuitable. Based on this method, 61 % of the country is suitable for spreading methods. Among the higher ranked suitable areas are the ones located in the northern and northwest regions. The ranking of the country based on spreading methods by means of a GIS-MCDA method is a first course of action to determine where further research is needed. In the second research level, the feasibility of a MAR project was assessed in the Machuca River basin. This river basin was chosen because: the drinking water supply systems (WSS) do not meet the actual demand, there is government interest to research new water supply alternatives and there is enough basic information on this water basin. To evaluate the feasibility of a MAR project in the basin, the first stage of the feasibility assessment proposed by the Australian MAR guidelines was performed. This consists of a checklist of five critical elements: 1) sufficient demand, 2) adequate recharge source, 3) suitable aquifer, 4) space to treat and, 5) human capability. For an easier analysis of the whole river basin, it was divided into five locations based on the superficial aquifer water levels. It was concluded that a MAR project seems viable in this river basin in the Coyolar and Orotina locations. Regarding the MAR technique to be applied in the MAR project at the Machuca River basin, two considerations were taken: the previously determined suitability and the local conditions. First, the entire Machuca River is ranked as suitable for surface infiltration (MAR spreading method) based on the results from the country scale analysis. The Coyolar and Orotina locations are ranked as having a moderate suitability (between 0.4-0.6). Second, the best material aquifer for recharge in these two locations are the fractured lavas and alluvium located under clay layers. For these two reasons (moderate spreading methods suitability and local conditions), it was decided that direct injection MAR techniques (aquifer storage and recovery – ASR) will be more appropriate for these two locations. At the laboratory research scale, the effect of the well screen length on the injection rate for an unconfined aquifer was corroborated under controlled laboratory conditions. This is one of the first experiments on the topic to the best of the author's knowledge. One of the main findings of the laboratory research is the almost neglectful effect on the injection rate for screen lengths above 80 % of the saturated thickness in an unconfined aquifer. The effect on the screen length is notable in the injection rate for open screen length under 80 % of the total aquifer thickness (95 % of the maximum achievable injection rate) and it increases for open screen lengths under 40 % (90 % of the maximum achievable injection rate). Based on the experimental results, it is recommended to use a screen length of 40 % of the saturated aquifer thickness for ASR wells and of 80 % for injection wells. This assessment shows that MAR techniques are suitable for Costa Rica's environmental conditions. Further on, the assessment at the basin level shows MAR techniques as a promising solution to overcome water scarcity issues. The laboratory scale aquifer-well interactions show promising results regarding the effect of the screen well in the injection rate. Still, more research is needed in this field regarding other aquifer types. Based on all these findings, MAR techniques are an appropriate tool for the integrated water management in the tropical regions. ; Der gegenwärtige Druck auf die Wasserressourcen ist so groß, dass Wasserknappheit sogar in den Tropen zum Thema wird. Diese Regionen sind von hohen Niederschlagsraten geprägt, was zu einer relativ großen Verfügbarkeit von Wasserressourcen führt. Diese sind jedoch nicht immer zeitlich und räumlich gleich verteilt, was temporären und/oder regionalen Wasserstress verursacht. Darüber hinaus hängt die Herausforderung auch mit dem Zugang zu diesen Wasserressourcen zusammen, was zu einer allgemein reduzierten Verfügbarkeit führt. Costa Rica ist ein Beispiel für ein tropisches Land, in dem Wasserknappheit in den letzten Jahren zunehmend an Relevanz gewonnen hat. Costa Rica leidet gegen Ende der Trockenzeit fast jedes Jahr an einem temporären Wassermangel. Dies betrifft alle Wassersektoren, insbesondere die Landwirtschaft und die Trinkwasserversorgung. Diese Situation wird durch den globalen Wandel verstärkt, mit einer größeren Nachfrage nach Ressourcen aufgrund von Bevölkerungswachstum, der Verhinderung von Grundwasserneubildung durch Urbanisierung und Versiegelung und, nicht zuletzt, den Klimawandel. Um sich an diese Situation anzupassen, ist es notwendig, eine systematische Evaluierung geeigneter Wasserbewirtschaftungsinstrumente für die Umweltbedingungen des Landes durchzuführen. Die vorliegende Arbeit konzentriert sich auf eines dieser Werkzeuge: Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR). MAR-Techniken stellen einen vielversprechenden Ansatz dar, um die zuvor definierten Probleme anzugehen, indem die überschüssigen Wasserressourcen während der Regenzeit in geeigneten Grundwasserleitersystemen zur späteren Nutzung in der Trockenzeit gespeichert werden. MAR-Techniken bieten im Vergleich zur Oberflächenspeicherung gewisse Vorteile, unter anderem geringere Verdunstungsverluste und geringeren Raumbedarf. Um zu bestimmen, ob MAR-Techniken für Costa Rica geeignet sind und dabei helfen können, die zeitlichen Wasserknappheitsherausforderungen zu überwinden, wurden drei Hauptthemen in unterschiedlichen Skalen untersucht. Die Suche nach geeigneten Gebieten für spezifische MAR-Techniken im Land erfolgte zunächst auf der Grundlage von physikalischen Kriterien. Als Zweites wurde die Forschungsskala auf ein Beckenniveau reduziert. Für diesen Fall wurde die Bewertung eines MAR-Projekts auf der Grundlage der ersten Stufe der australischen MAR-Richtlinien durchgeführt. Diese basiert auf einer Checkliste mit fünf kritischen Elementen, welche die Grundlage für die Bewertung eines MAR-Projektes bilden. Zuletzt wurde die Untersuchung im Labormaßstab durchgeführt, wobei sich die Experimente auf Injektionsbohrlöcher in einem ungespannten Grundwasserleitersystem konzentrierten. Für das erste Thema wurden in Costa Rica geeignete Bereiche für die Implementierung von MAR-Technik-Verteilungsmethoden mithilfe eines GIS-basierten Multikriterien- Entscheidungsanalysen-Ansatzes (GIS-MCDA) identifiziert. Dieser basierte auf vier Kriterien: Hydrogeologie, Geländegefälle, oberste Bodentextur und Drainagenetzdichte. Durch die Realisierung eines GIS-MCDA wurde das Land in geeignete und ungeeignete Gebiete eingeteilt. Mit dieser Methode wurden 61 % des Landes als geeignet für die Beckeninfiltration befunden. Gut eingestufte Gebiete liegen hierbei größtenteils im Norden und im Nordwesten. Das Ranking-Verfahren des Landes mit Hilfe einer GIS-MCDA-Methode ist eine erste Vorgehensweise zur Bestimmung weiterer Forschungsgebiete. In der zweiten Forschungsstufe wurde die Machbarkeit eines MAR-Projekts im Machuca-Einzugsgebiet untersucht. Dieses Flussgebiet wurde aus folgenden Gründen gewählt: Die Trinkwasserversorgungsanlagen erfüllen die tatsächliche Nachfrage nicht, weshalb es auch im Interesse der Regierung liegt, nach Alternativen für die Wasserversorgung zu forschen. Darüber hinaus ist die Region geologisch gut erschlossen und die Informationsdichte ist ausreichend hoch. Um die Realisierbarkeit eines MAR-Projektes im Einzugsgebiet zu bewerten, wurde die erste Stufe der Machbarkeitsbewertung anhand der Checkliste an fünf kritischen Elementen durchgeführt: 1) ausreichende Nachfrage, 2) angemessene Wiederaufladungsquelle, 3) geeigneter Grundwasserleiter, 4) Raum für Maßnahmen und 5) Humanressourcen. Um die Analyse des gesamten Flusseinzugsgebietes zu vereinfachen, wurde es in fünf Bereiche eingeteilt, die auf den oberflächennahen Grundwasserständen basieren. Es wurde der Schluss gezogen, dass ein MAR-Projekt in diesem Flussgebiet an den Standorten Coyolar und Orotina nachhaltig erscheint. In Bezug auf die MAR-Technik, die in einem MAR-Projekt am Machuca-Flussbecken angewendet werden soll, wurden Überlegungen angestellt hinsichtlich der zuvor ermittelten Eignung und der örtlichen Gegebenheiten. Zunächst wurde der gesamte Machuca-Fluss aufgrund der Ergebnisse der Länderanalyse als geeignet für die Oberflächeninfiltration eingestuft. Die Coyolar- und Orotina-Standorte wurden mit einer moderaten Eignung eingestuft. Weiterhin wurde festgestellt, dass die für die Grundwasseranreicherung geeignetste Formation die Kies- und Bruchlavenlagen darstellen, die sich unter einer Tonschicht befinden. Aus diesen beiden Gründen (moderate Eignung für Beckeninfiltration, und lokale Hydrogeologie) wurde entschieden, dass MAR-Techniken mit direkter Injektion (Aquifer Storage and Recovery - ASR) für diese beiden Standorte geeigneter sind. In der kleinsten Untersuchungsskala wurde der Einfluss der Filterlänge auf die Injektionsrate für einen freien Grundwasserleiter unter kontrollierten Laborbedingungen bestätigt. Dies ist eines der ersten Experimente zu diesem Thema nach bestem Wissen des Autors. Eines der Hauptergebnisse der Laborforschung ist der fast vernachlässigbare Effekt auf die Injektionsrate bei Filterlängen von über 80 % der gesättigten Mächtigkeit in einem freien Grundwasserleiter. Die Wirkung auf die Filterlänge ist bei der Injektionsrate für offene Filterlängen unter 80 % der gesamten Grundwasserleiterhöhe (95 % der maximal erreichbaren Injektionsrate) und bei offenen Filterlängen unter 40 % (90 % der maximal erreichbaren Injektionsrate). Basierend auf den experimentellen Ergebnissen wird empfohlen, eine Filterlänge von 40 % der gesättigten Grundwasserleiterhöhe für ASR-Brunnen und 80 % für Injektionsbohrungen zu verwenden. Die vorliegende Bewertung zeigt, dass MAR-Techniken für die Umweltbedingungen in Costa Rica gut geeignet sind. Darüber hinaus demonstriert die Bewertung auf der Einzugsgebietsebene MAR als eine Lösung zur Überwindung von Wasserknappheitsproblemen. Die Grundwasserleiter-Brunnen-Interaktionen im Labormaßstab zeigen vielversprechende Ergebnisse hinsichtlich der Wirkung der Filterlänge auf die Injektionsrate. Dennoch ist auf diesem Gebiet mehr Forschung in Bezug auf andere Aquifertypen erforderlich. Basierend auf all diesen Erkenntnissen sind MAR-Techniken ein geeignetes Werkzeug für das integrierte Wassermanagement in der tropischen Umwelt. ; La presión actual sobre los recursos hídricos es tal, que la escasez de agua es ahora un problema importante en áreas con abundantes recursos hídricos como las regiones tropicales. Estas regiones se caracterizan por altas tasas de precipitación casi durante todo el año. Esto da como resultado una disponibilidad relativamente grande de recursos hídricos. Sin embargo, estos recursos hídricos no siempre se distribuyen equitativamente en el tiempo y el espacio, lo que causa períodos y pone áreas bajo estrés hídrico en las regiones tropicales. Además de esto, el desafío también está relacionado con el acceso a estos recursos hídricos, lo que crea una disponibilidad reducida en términos generales. Costa Rica es un claro ejemplo de un país en las regiones tropicales, donde la escasez de agua se encuentra en lo más alto de la agenda del agua. Costa Rica está situada en la región tropical tórrida de América Central, sin embargo, experimenta períodos de escasez en sus recursos hídricos disponibles al final de la estación seca. Esto afecta a todos los sectores de agua, especialmente a la agricultura y a los sistemas de suministro de agua potable. Esta situación ha sido magnificada por el cambio global, con una mayor demanda de recursos por el crecimiento de la población, la impermeabilización de las áreas de recarga por la urbanización y la reducción de recursos debido al cambio climático. Para adaptarse a esta situación, es necesario llevar a cabo una evaluación sistemática de las herramientas de gestión del agua adecuadas para las condiciones ambientales del país. Este trabajo se centra en una de estas herramientas: la gestión de la recarga acuíferos gestionados (MAR). Las técnicas de MAR son un enfoque prometedor para abordar los problemas previamente definidos, almacenando el exceso de recursos hídricos disponibles durante la estación lluviosa en sistemas acuíferos adecuados para su uso posterior en la estación seca. Las técnicas de MAR presentan ciertas ventajas en comparación con el almacenamiento en superficie: menos pérdidas por evaporación y menor demanda de área superficial, entre otras. Con el fin de determinar si las técnicas de MAR son adecuadas para Costa Rica y ayudarán a superar los desafíos temporales de escasez de agua, se investigaron tres temas principales a diferentes escalas. Primero, en una escala de país, la búsqueda de áreas adecuadas para técnicas específicas de MAR en el país se realizó con base en criterios físicos. En segundo lugar, la escala de investigación se reduce a un nivel de cuenca. Para este caso, se realizó la evaluación de un proyecto de MAR basado en la primera etapa de las directrices australianas de MAR. Esta consiste en una lista de verificación de cinco elementos críticos, que constituye la base para la evaluación de un proyecto MAR. En tercer lugar, la investigación se lleva a escala de laboratorio, donde la investigación se centra en los pozos de inyección en un sistema acuífero no confinado. Para el primer tema, las áreas adecuadas para la implementación de los métodos de infiltración de la MAR se identifican en Costa Rica mediante un enfoque de ciencia la información geográfica y análisis de decisión multicriterio (SIG-MCDA). Esto se basa en cuatro criterios: geoaptitud hidrogeológica, pendiente del terreno, textura del suelo superior y densidad de la red de drenaje. Al realizar un GIS-MCDA, el país se clasifica en áreas adecuadas e inadecuadas. Con base en este método, el 61 % del país se consideró adecuado para métodos de infiltración. Las áreas adecuadas mejor clasificadas se encuentran en las regiones del norte y noroeste del país. La clasificación del país según el potencial de los métodos de infiltración por medio de un método GIS-MCDA es un primer curso de acción para determinar otras áreas de investigación. En el segundo nivel de investigación, se evaluó la factibilidad de un proyecto MAR en la cuenca del río Machuca. Esta cuenca hidrográfica se eligió porque: los sistemas de suministro de agua potable no satisfacen la demanda real, existe un interés del gobierno en buscar nuevas alternativas de suministro de agua y hay suficiente información básica en esta cuenca hidrográfica. Para evaluar la factibilidad de un proyecto MAR en la cuenca, la primera etapa de la evaluación se realizó sobre la base de la lista de cinco elementos críticos: 1) demanda suficiente, 2) fuente de recarga adecuada, 3) acuífero adecuado, 4) espacio para tratar el agua y, 5) la capacidad humana. Para facilitar el análisis de toda la cuenca del río, se dividió en cinco localidades en función de los niveles de agua superficiales del acuífero. Se concluyó que un proyecto MAR parece viable en esta cuenca en las localidades Coyolar y Orotina. Con respecto a la técnica de MAR que se aplicará en un proyecto MAR en la cuenca del río Machuca, se tomaron dos consideraciones: la idoneidad previamente determinada y las condiciones locales. En primer lugar, todo el río Machuca se clasifica como adecuado para la infiltración superficial (método de infiltración MAR) en función de los resultados del análisis a escala de país. Las localidades Coyolar y Orotina se clasifican con una idoneidad moderada. En segundo lugar, el mejor material acuífero para la recarga en estos dos lugares son las fracturas lavas y aluviones ubicados bajo capas de arcilla. Se decidió que las técnicas de inyección directa MAR (almacenamiento y recuperación - ASR) serán más apropiadas para estas dos ubicaciones por estas dos razones (idoneidad de los métodos de propagación moderada y condiciones locales). En la escala de investigación más pequeña, el efecto de la longitud de la pantalla del pozo sobre la tasa de inyección para un acuífero no confinado se corroboró bajo condiciones de laboratorio controladas. Este es uno de los primeros experimentos sobre el tema según el mejor conocimiento del autor. Uno de los principales hallazgos de la investigación de laboratorio es el efecto casi nulo en la tasa de inyección para longitudes de pantalla superiores al 80 % del espesor saturado en un acuífero no confinado. El efecto en la longitud de la pantalla es apreciable en la velocidad de inyección para pantalla abierta inferior al 80 % del espesor total del acuífero (95 % de la máxima velocidad de inyección alcanzable) y aumenta para longitudes de pantalla abierta por debajo del 40 % (90 % de la máxima tasa de inyección alcanzable). En base a los resultados experimentales, se recomienda utilizar una longitud de malla del 40 % del espesor del acuífero saturado para los pozos ASR y del 80 % para los pozos de inyección. La presente evaluación muestra que las técnicas de MAR son adecuadas para las condiciones ambientales de Costa Rica. Más allá, la evaluación a nivel de cuenca muestra las técnicas de MAR como una solución para superar los problemas de escasez de agua. Las interacciones entre acuíferos y pozos a escala de laboratorio muestran resultados prometedores con respecto al efecto de la pantalla en la velocidad de inyección. Aun así, se necesita más investigación en este campo con respecto a otros tipos de acuíferos. Con base en todos estos hallazgos, las técnicas de MAR son una herramienta apropiada para la gestión integrada del agua en las regiones tropicales.
Technical Report 2018-08-ECE-137 Technical Report 2002-09-ECE-006 Engineering of Enterprises a Transdisciplinary Activity Murat M. Tanik Ozgur Aktunc John Tanik This technical report is a reissue of a technical report issued September 2002 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Alabama at Birmingham August 2018 Technkal Report 2002-09-ECE-006 Engineering of Enter·prises A Transdisciplim•ry Activity Murat M. Tanik Ozgur Aktunc John Tanik TECHNICAL REPORT Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Alabama at Birmingham September 2002 ENGINEERING OF ENTERPRISES A TRANSDISCIPLINARY ACTIVITY OVERVIEW Contributed by: Murat M. Tanik, Ozgur Aktunc, and John U. Tanik This module is composed of two parts: Part I surveys and defines Enterprise Engineering in the context of transdiscipline. Part II introduces Internet Enterprise and addresses engineering implementation consider ations. PART I ENTERPRISE ENGINEERING ESSENTIALS 1 INTRODUCTION When Henry Ford rolJed out his first automobile assembly during 1913, he created the archetype of single-discipline enterprise. Ford's adventure was a self-contained and efficient exercise in mechankal engineering. With no competition, no regulatory constraints, and no pressing need for cross-disciplinary partnerships, from design development to process development, all ideas primarily originated from Ford's own engineers. The world is a different place today. Automobiles are complicated hybrids of mechanical, electrical, electronic, chemicaJ, and software components. Modern 4 manufacturers must now pay dose attention to new technological developments in hardware (mechanisms associated with physical world), software (mechanisms associated with computational world), netware (mechanisms associated with communications), and peopleware (mechanisms associated with human element). The changes experienced in the automotive industry exemplify the needs of the ever increasingly complex nature of today's modern enterprise. In other words, the ubiqui tous existence of the ";computing element" forces us to take into account disciplinary notions, ranging from psychology to ecology. In one word, the world is becoming transdisciplinary. In this world of transdisciplinary needs, we need to approach designing of enterprises as engineers, moving away from the traditional ad hoc approach of the past. This module expl ai n~ the changes to be made to current enterprise organization in order to be successful in the networked economy. A brief definition of Enterprise Engineering is given as an introduction, foJJowed by a summary of Enterprise Engineering subtopics, namely modeling, analysis, design, and implementation. In the last section of Part I, the definition of an intelJigent enterprise is made with an emphasis on knowledge management and integration using Extensible Markup Language (XML) technology [1]. 2 DEFINITION The Society for Enterprise Engineering (SEE) defined Enterprise Engineering as ";the body of knowledge, principles, and practices having to do with the analysis, design, implementation and operation of an enterprise" [2]. Enterprise Engineering methods include modeling, cost analysis, simulation, workflow analysis, and bottleneck analysis. 5 In a continually changing and unpredictable competitive environment, the Enterprise Engineer addresses a fundamental challen ge: ";How to design and improve all elements associated with the total enterprise through the use of engineering and analysis methods and tools to more effectively achieve itsgoals and objectives" [3]. Enterpr.ise Engineering has been considered as a disdpline after its establishment in the last decade of the 20th Century. The discipline has a wor]dvicw that is substantial enough to be divided into sub-areas, with a foundation resting on several reference disciplines. In the Enterprise Engineering worldview, the enterprise is viewed as a complex system of processes that can be engineered to accompli sh specific organizational objectives. Enterprise Engineering has used several reference disciplines to develop its methods, technologies, and theories. These reference disciplines can be listed as the following: Industrial Engineering, Systems Engineering, Information Systems, Information Technology, Business Process Reengineeling, Organizational Design, and Human Systems [2]. 2.1 Understanding Enterprise Engineering Like most engineering profession als, Enterprise Engineers work on four main areas: modeling, analyzing, design, and implementation. One important issue facing Enterprise Engi neering is the development of tools and techniques to support the work of analyzing, designing, and imp1ementjng organizational systems. These tools must assist enterprise engineers in the initial transformation of functional, often disjoint, operations into a set of integrated business processes replete with supporting information and control systems [4]. To develop new models of enterprises, the enterprise should be analyzed 6 using process analysis, simulation, activity-based analysis, and other tools. Also an abstract representation of the enterprise and the processes should be modeled in a graphical, textual, or a mathematical representation. The . design issues in Enterprise Engineering consist of developing vision and strategy, integration and improvement of the enterprise, and developing technology solutions. Lastly, implementation deals with the transformation of the entetprise, integration of corporate culture, strategic goals, enterprise processes, and technology. We will take a look at these areas in the fol1owing section: • Enterprise Engineering Modeling (EEM), • Analyzing Enterprises, • Design of Enterprises, and • Implementation. 2.2 Enterprise Engineering Modeling Enterprise Engineering Modeling (EEM) is basically dealing with the abstraction of engineering aspects of enterprises and connecting them to other business systems. The model encompasses engineering organizations' products, processes, projects, and, ultimately, the ";engineered assets" to be operated and managed. EEM coordinates design and deployment of products and assets at the enterprise level. It integrates engineering information across many disciplines, allows engineering and business data to be shared through the combinatjon of enterprise IT (information technology) and engineering IT, and simulates the behavior of intelligent, componentbased models [5). 7 The selection and design of enterprise processes for effective cooperation is a prime objective of Enterprise Engineering. Enterprise models can assist the goal of Enterprise Engineering by helping to represent and analyze the structure of activities and their interactions. Models eliminate the irrelevant details and enable focusing on one or more aspects at a time. Effective models also facilitate the discussions among different stakeholders in the enterprise, helping them to reach agreement on the key fundamentals and to work toward common goals. Also it can be a basis for other models and for different information systems that support the enterprise and the business. The enterprise model will differ according to the perspective of the pers.on creating the model, including the visions of the enterprise, its efficiency, and other various elements. The importance of an enterprise model is that it wm provide a simplified view of the business structure that will act as a basis for communication, improvements, or innovations and define the Information Systems requirements that are \ necessary to support the business. The term business in this context is used as a broad term. The businesses or the activities that can be represented with Enterprise Engineering models do not have to be profit making. For example, it can be a research environment with the properties of an enterprise. Any type of ongoing operation that has or uses resomces and has one or more goals, with positive or negative cash flow, can be referred to as a business [6]. The ideal business model would be a single diagram representing all aspects of a business. However this is impossible for most of businesses. The business processes are so complex that one diagram cannot capture all the information. Instead, a business model is composed of different views, diagrams, objects, and processes: A business 8 model is illustrated with a number of different views, and each captu~cs infmmation about one or more specific aspects of the businesses. Each view consists of a number of diagrams, each of which shows a specific part of the business structure. A diagram can show a ~1ructure (e.g., the organization of the business) or some dynamic collaboration (a number of objects and their interaction to demonstrate a process). Concepts are related in the diagrams through the use of different objects and processes. The objects may be physical such as people, machines, and products or more abstract such as instructions and services. Processes are the functions in the business that consume, refine, or use objects to affect or produce other objects. There are cunently hundreds of modeling tools for enterprises, and many modeling techniques such as Integrated Definition Language (IDEF), Petri-Net, Unified Mode1ing Language (UML), and meta-modeling. Modeling involves a modeling language and the associated modeling tools. Different enterprises may need different modeling tools according to the nature of the enterprise. Before selecting the modeling tool, a detailed analysis should be made to select the most appropriate modeling language and the tool. For the software industry, UML has become the standard modeJjng language [7]. 2.3 Enterprise Analysis The increasing complexity of enterprises has stimulated the development of sophisticated methods and tools for modeling and analysis of today's modern enterprises. Recent advances in information teclu1ology along with significant progress in analytical and computational techniques have facilitated the use of such methods in industry. 9 Applying Enterprise Analysis methods results in a documentation that supports a number of programs, which are as follows: strategic information resource planning, information architecture, technology and services acquisition, systems design and development, and functional process redesign. Most organizations have a wealth of data that can be used to answer the basic questions supporting strategic planning: who, what, where, and bow much. By modeling with these data using an Enterprise Analysis toolset, the enterptise models can be built incrementally and in less time. The most important use of Enterprise Analysis is that it presents the organization's own business, demographic, and workload data in a compelling manner to tell the story. Whether they are used to support programs for acquisitions, information architectures, or systems development, Enterprise Analysis studies are rooted in the business of the organization and thus are easily understood and supported by executive management. 2.4 Enterprise Design The design of an enterprise deaJs with many issues, including development of a vision and a strategy, the establishment of a corporate cu.lture and identity, integration and improvement of the enterprise, and development of technology solutions. Optimization of several perspectives within an enterprise is the objective of Enterprise Design. Examples of enterprise perspectives include quality, cost, efficiency, and agility ,. and management perspectives s uch as motivation, culture, and incentives. For example, consider the efficiency perspective. The modeling task will provide ontologies (i.e., object libraries) that can be used to construct a model of the activities of a process, such as its resource usages, constraints, and time. Based on these models the efficiency 10 perspective will provide tools to design, analyze, and evaluate organizational activities, processes, and structures. These tools will also be capable to represent and model the current status of an enterprise and to analyze and assess potential changes. One issue is wbetber there exists sufficient knowledge of the process of designing and optimizing business activities/processes to incorporate in knowledge-based tools. The main goal of an Enterprise Design application is to deveJ~p a software tool that enables a manager to explore alternative Enterprise Designs that encompass both the stmcture and behavior of the enterprise over extended periods of time. lssues such as motivation, culture, and incentives are explored, along with other relevant parameters such as organizational structure, functions, activity, cost, quality, and information [8]. 3 STRATEGY FORMULATION FORE-BUSINESS Electronic commerce is becoming a growing part of industry and commerce. The speed of technological change is enabling corporations large and small to transact business in a variety of ways. Today, it is routine practice to transact some aspect of business electronically from e-mail to exchanging data via Electronic Data Interchange (EDI), World Wide Web (WWW), and various shades these technologies. Numerous benefits accrue to corporations when they use automated capabilities. In order to maximize such benefits, electronic enterprises must base their efforts on welJdeveloped strategies. In this manner, tbe probability of success is increased many folds. Embarking on electronic commerce or business should never be thought of as the sole quest of the information systems department. The following strategies are a synthesis of II best practices introduced to assist information systems departments to prepare the organization for the information age [9, 1 0]. 3.1 Strategy 1 - Improve Corporate System DeveJopment Skms In addition to developing technical skills, corporations must pay close attention to effective communication, eliminating cross-functional language barriers, and improving inadequate facilities in geographically dispersed systems. 3.2 Strategy 2 -Build a Proactive Infrastructure There must be a constant effort to keep up with technological changes. Frequently, these changes trickle down from the top as a result of various business strategies. For example, top managers may discover that they need video-conferencing capability, and the information technology people are under pressure to deliver it. This kind of approach will put the chief information officer(CIO) in a reactive posture, trying to put out fires as they appear. In putting out such fires, local resources may be used to satisfy higher level needs without any obvious benefits to local managers who may resent this fact and create barriers against success. CIOs should try to get the cooperation of all users in anticipating system needs. If users are not satisfied with an imposed system, they wiiJ try to build their bootleg systems for their own needs. Thus, project needs should be anticipated as far as possible and should be planned to meet both short-term goals of management and yield benefits for the development of the infrastmcture of the corporation in the Jong term. 12 3.3 Strategy 3 - Consolidate Data Centers A corporation embar1dng on developing an e-business system must realize that there do already exist semiautonomous data centers distributed throughout various geographical locations. There may have been a time when such data centers were desirable. Today, e-business demands integrated information systems, and the data centers must be consolidated. An integrated information system is far more effic ient in controlling corporate operations. Obviously, operating fewer facilities, maintaining minimum levels of inventory, and giving better service to customers will bring handsome returns to corporations. During the consolidation process, a number of problems of compatibility and standardization will occm, but tackling such problems is better than having semiautonomous data centers. 3.4 Strategy 4 - Standardize Data Structures As corporations grow, different data processing systems and data centers proliferate, especiaUy in transnational corporations. Consolidating data centers and systems as suggested in strategy 3 may not be sufficient. Corporations need to determine data needed at global levels and standarclize them. Standardization may not be possible for certain applications in an international setting since regulatory accounting of different countries may be a roadblock. However, this should not be taken as a signal for nonstandardization. Standardization will make useful information available throughout the corporation. For example, these days many corporations are adapting XML as part of data stmcture consolidation strategy. XML issues are addressed in the next section with more detail. 13 3.5 Strategy 5 - Accommodate Linkages with Cui-rent Strategic Allies and Provide Expansion for Future Str ategic Alliances Recent developments in globalization and Internet technology are spurring corporations to form sliategic alliances. Automobile manufacturers are, for example, forming alliances to influence prices and qualities of their raw materials and parts purchases. Similar alliances are growing at an accelerated pace in other industries. These alliances are designed to create not only purchasing power but also a variety of other mutual interests, from technological co-operation to joint production. 3.6 Strategy 6 - Globalize Human Resource Accounting As companies centralize their information systems through computerization, a global inventory of human skills should be developed. Frequent human resource problems arjse when Information Systems (IS) personnel focus locally rather than globally. Recmiting of specialists, for example, must be done not with a local perspective but with a global one. This will help eliminate possible redundancies with potential savings. 4 INTELLIGENT ENTERPRISES Enterprises competing in global markets assume complex organizational forms such as supply chain, virtual enterprise, Web-based enterprise, production network, e-business, and e manufacturing. Common traits of these organizations are willingness to cooperate, global distributed product development and manufacturing, and high coordination and communication. These traits have led the trend of transformation from 14 capital intensive to intelligence intensive entetprises [1 1]. Visions of the organization's future e-Business roles as an intelligent enterprise could be formulated as follows [12]: • Transparent - Intelligent enterprises will contain substantial amounts of information on capabilities, capacities, inventories, and plans that can be exchanged between tools, servers, and optimizing agents that will augment capabilities of their human masters. • Timely - Intelligent enterprises will be designed to meet a customer need exactly when the customer wants it. • Tuned - Through collaboration and sharing of knowledge, the intel1igent enterprise wiJl serve customer needs with a mjnimum of wasted effort or assets. 4.1 Knowledge Management and Integration with XML One important challenge for enterprises today is storing and reusing knowledge. For many organizations, up-to-dale knowledge of what is relevant and important to customers distinguishes their offerings. The challenge is to assimilate this rapidly changing knowledge about products and services quickly and distribute it rapidly to leverage it for improved performance and quality service. This means finding all knowledge that is embedded in and accessed through technologies and processes and stored in documents and external repositories and being able to share it quickly with the customers. The capital-based organization needs to transform into bigh-perforrn.ing, processbased, knowledge-based enterprises, characterized by agility, f lexibility, adaptability, and willingness to learn. To overcome the difficulties during the transformation, powetful tools are needed to manage the knowledge within the enterprise and to develop the 15 communication between the company and the customers. The key tool to be used within this process is XML, which will set the standards of communication and wm help to manage the knowledge [13]. To understand how XML will help us managing the knowledge, a def111ition of a knowledge-based business is needed. 4.2 Knowledge-Based Businesses The following six characteristics of knowledge-based business were defined in Davis and Botkin [14]. ~hese characteristics are actually guidelines for businesses to put their information to productive use. 4.2.1 The More You Use Knowledge-Based Offerings, The Smarter They Get This characteristic fits in the customer-defined offerings the companies give. For example, a credit card company can build a system that could understand the buying patterns of a customer that can protect the customer from fraud. A news agency can change the interface of its system to give the type of news that a newspaper or journal requests. Knowledge-based systems not only get smcuter but also enable their users to learn. For example, General Motors' computer-aided maintenance system not only helps novice mechanics to repair automobiles but also helps expe1t mechanics to refine their knowledge. As the technology advances, the amount of information that a mechanic needs to know expands rapidly. With tllis system a mechanic can leverage the knowledge of all mechanics using the system. As a result, the system continually improves, as does the service quality. 16 4.2.2 Knowledge-Based Products And Services Adjust To Changing Circumstances When knowledge is built into a product, the product may adjust itself in a smart manner to changing conditions. For example, a glass window that may reflect or transmit sunlight according to temperature is such a product. Producing tbese producl:s will not only be marketed well but also have important economical advantages. Tbe smart pr~ducts will guide their users as well. 4.2.3 Knowledge-Based Businesses Can Customize l1teir Offerings Knowledge-based products and servkes can determine customers' changing paltems, idiosyncrasies, and specific needs. For example, a smart telephony system can understand which language will be used on specific num bers~ also by using the voice recognition system, the need for telephone credit cards can be diminished. 4.2.4 Knowledge-Based Products A11d Services Have Relatively Short Life Cycles Many knowledge-based products have short life cycles, because they depend on the existing market conditions; their viability is short-lived. For example, the foreign exchange advisory services offered by a commercial bank are highly specialized and customized for corporate clients. Such services should be constantly upgraded to keep the profits and the proprietary edge. 4.2.5 Knowledge-Based Businesses Enable Customers To Act In Real Time Information becomes more valuable when it can be acted on constantly. A system that will deliver the tour book information while you are driving the car will have a great 17 value. An interactivity. added to the system will make the product's value even higher. Knowledge-based products can also act in real time. For example, a copier machine that calJs the maintenance provider when an error occurs wiJJ have a great value in this sense. 4.3 XML's Role in Business Applications The smallest cluster of knowledge is data. These are basic building blocks of information that come in four particular forms: numbers, words, sounds, and images. Manipulation of the data determines its value. The arrangement of data into meaningful patterns is information. For example, numbers can be arranged in tables, which is information; a series of sounds, which is music, can also be considered as information. Today, an important challenge for Internet-based businesses is using the information efficiently and in a productive way that will upgrade the information to knowledge. Thus, we say that knowledge is the application and productive use of information. The shift from the information to knowledge age will be via technology. The new enabling technologies of software development such as XML, J2EE, and Visual Studio are forcing e-businesses to build knowledge-based businesses. Here we will explain the most important enabling technology, XML, within the development of e~businesses. XML can be used effecti~ely for exchanging of business documents and information over the Internet. XML is a standard language that simultaneously presents content for display on the Intemet and describes the content so that other software can understand and use the data. Therefore XML can be a medium through which any business application can share documents, transactions, and workload with any other 18 business application [15]. In other words, XML can become the common language of ebusi. ness and knowledge management. One impmtant property of XML is providing .information about the meaning of the data. Thus, an XML-Jonnatted document could trigger a software application at a receiving company to launch an activity such as shipment loading. But to provide that level of data integration, trading partners would have to agree on definiti ons for the various types of documents as well as standard ways of doing business. In addition to facilitating e-commerce, having common defini tions and uses for data also enable an enterprise to better leverage the .knowledge ctmenrly stored in information silos. XML supports the searching and browsing of such information sHos [16]. It structures documents for granularity, such as alJowing access to sections within documents and fine-tuning retrieval Also, it annotates documents, which enables users to not restrict themselves to what is in the document. XML organizes documents by classifying documents into groups and supports browsing them. AdditionaiJy, it has Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML)-like linking options that help the information users to find the documents they arc seeking. Fig. I shows the tools that are common in the organization of information through XML. XML is the next evolution in knowledge management, and organizations are beginning to understand the potential of this technology to develop enterprise-wide information architectures. As a technology, XML does not bring any value to an organization. The value of XML wHI depend on how it js used within a company. The agreement on data definitions within an enterprise has always been a hard task. At rn.inlmum, XML should be implemented strategically within the organization. Ideally, the 19 Annotate Documents I RDF I Schemas J:: I XML I (.---, X-Poin- ter--, Fig. 1. Organization of information through XML. implementation should include strategic partners and other organizations that have a need to share data and information. XML is a majm advance in the standardization of information sharing across traditional information boundaries, both internal and external Information security and privacy issues are major concerns revolving around customer and corporate data flowing across wires. Successful knowledge management in a company often depends on having access to information outside the enterprise walls. XML can also be of value here by helping to improve the functioning of supply chains and the extranet. In conclusion, it becomes obvious that managing knowledge requires better tools. We need to create systems that manage documents, as people would do, and we know that better tools need better documents. Thus by building on a solid knowledge management strategy using XML, we believe an organization can gain competitive differentiation in the near future. 20 PART II INTERNET ENTERPRISE IMPLEMENTATION CONSIDERATIONS 1 INTRODUCTION In the first section of this module we introduced essential elements of enterprise engineering in abstract and general terms. Building on the notions explored in the first section, we will address here, specifics concerning designing and implementation of Internet enterprises. In this section, a review is provided of the key concepts and concerns an Internet enterprise engineering (IEE) project would encounter and need to address. Business engineering fundamentals, technologies, and strategies for the lrlternet such as Unified Modeling Language, Cosmos Model, Enterprise Maturity Model, Web Business . Models, Methods of Electronic Transaction, Online Contracts, Security Protocols, selected integrated development tools, Next Generation Internet, and Internet2 arc covered. Over 20 occupational roles within IEE are identified and described separately. A technology implementation platform and strategy are introduced, along with marketing and customer retention technologies and strategies on the Internet A detailed overview is provided of the various Internet business tools, technologies, and terminology for the systematic construction of new ventures on the Internet l7]. For convenience, all these issues are summarized in table fmm at the end of this section. 2 BUSINESS ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS 2.1 UML: Officially introduced in November 1997, UML has quickly become the standard modeling language for software development [6]. It bas a business model approach that provides a plan for engineering an orchestrated set of business functions. It 21 provjdes a framework by which business is to be performed, allowing for changes and various improvements in the process. The model is designed to be able to anticipate changes in business function in order to maintain an edge on the competition. One of the advantages of modeling in UML is that it can visually depict functions, relationships, and paradigms. UML is a recommended tool for business analysts to break down a large-scale business operation into its constituent parts. Capturing a business model in one diagram is not realistic, so it should be noted that a business model is actually composed of a number of different views. Each view is designed to capture a separate purpose or function without losing any important overall understanding of the business operation. A view is composed of a set of diagrams, each of which shows a specific aspect of the business structure. A diagram can show a structure or a kind of dynamic collaboration. The diagrams contain objects, processes, rules, goals, and visions as defined in the business analysis. Objects contain information about mechanisms in the business, and processes are functions that use objects to affect or produce other objects. Objectoriented techniques can be used to describe a business. There are similar concepts in business functions that mn parallel to object-oriented techniques of designconceptualization. Another advantage of UML is derived from the ability of business modelers and software developers to use the same conceplualization tools and techniques to achieve a common business end. Additionally, the power of UML is derived :from its ability to transcend tbe standard organizational chart [ 17]. 22 2.2 Cosmos Model: A generic approach for a business to manage change is through a holistic framework as described by Yeh in his three-dimensional model called Cosmos (Fig. 1). One of the important aspects of this model is that three dimensions exist interdependently because each dimension behaves as an enabler and an inhibitor to the other dimensions. The ";activity structure" dimension covers how work is structured in an organization, factoring in the steps and tasks that are taken to achieve an appropriate level of workflow. The ";infrastructure dimension" covers how resources are allocated and factors in the assets of an enterprise. The ";coordination dimension" covers how information is created, shared, and distributed. The cultural aspects of the enterprise are factored in here. The Cosmos model provides a conceptual space bounded by concrete factors for successfully navigating from one point of an organizational situation to another. Infrastructure Long-term vs. short-term objectives Activity Structure Stability vs. Flexibility Target Coordination Structure Modu]arity vs. Interconnectedness Fig. l. Cosmos model--holistic framework for managing change. [13) 23 The Cosmos model is an abstract tool for managers to guide their company along the best possible path. The trade-offs between the three dimensions at each point in the journey along the path are what the manager must determine to be most effective and best for the organization as a whole. In the case of work structure, there is an inherent tradeoff between stability and flexibility. In the case of a coordination structure, there is a tradeoff between strictly aligning of human resources with company objectives and providing each operating unit with sufficient autonomy. More autonomous organizations are generally organized with a greater degree of modularity, allowing for the ability to make rapid decisions by adapting to changing market conditions. In the case of infrastlucture, there is a trade-off between seeking short-term gain versus long-term gain. Overall, the Cosmos mode] provides an executive or project manager with another technique to visualize the overaJJ situation and path of an organization by laking into account the three dimensions that correspond to the three main forces that affect its future [ 18]. 2.3 Enterprise Maturity Model: In order to characterize a business in terms of its level of maturity, focus, activity, coordination, and infrastructure, please refer to Table l, provided by Yeh [18]. The table provides an overview of the various levels of enterprise maturity. 2.4 Web Business Models: Entrepreneurs who wish to start e-businesses need to be aware of e-business models and how to implement them effectively. The combination 24 of a company's policy, operations, technology, and ideology defines its business model. Table 2 describes in more detail the types of business models in existence today [6, 19]. 2.5 IVIethods of Elech·onic Transaction: There are various methods and mechanisms that merchants can collect income through electronic transactions. Table 3 provides the types of transactions covered such as credit card, e-walJets, debit cards, digital currency, peer-to-peer, smartcards, micro-payments, and e-billing [19]. 2.6 OnJine Contracts: An online contract can be accomplished throt1gh the use of a digital signature. Digital signatures are the electronic equivalent of written signatures. The Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act of 2000 (E-sign Bi11) recently passed into law were developed for use in public-key cryptography to solve the problems of authentication and integrity. The purpose of a digital signature is for electronic authorization. The U.S. government's digital authentication standard is called the Digital Signature Algorithm. The U.S. government also recently passed digitalsignature legislation that makes digital signatures as legally bindiqg as handwritten signatures. This legislation is designed to promote more activity in e-business by legitimizing online contractual agreements. 2.7 Security Protocols: Netscape Communkations developed the SSL protocol, developed as a non-proprietary protocol commonly used to secure communication on the Internet and the Web. SSL is designed to use public-key technology and digital 25 certificates to authenticate the server. in a transaction and to protect private information as it passes from one party to another over the Tnternet. SSL can effectively protect information as it is passes through the Internet but does not necessarily protect private information once stored on the merchant's server. An example of private information would be credit card numbers. When a merchant receives credit-card information with an order, the information is often decrypted and stored on the merchant's server until the order is placed. An insecure server wi th data that are not encrypted is vulnerable to unauthorized access by a third party to that information. SET protocol was developed by Visa International and MasterCard and was designed speci.tically to protect e-commerce payment transactions [20]. SET uses digital certificates to authenticate each party in an e-commerce transaction, including the customer, merchant, and the merchant's bank. In order for SET to work, merchants must have a digital certificate and special SET software to process transactions. Additionally, customers must have complementary digital certificate and digital walJet software. A digital wallet is similar to a real wallet to the extent that it stores credit (or debit) card information for multiple cards, as well as a digital certificate verifying the cardholder's identity. Digital wallets add convenience to online shopping because customers no longer need to re-enter their credit card information at each shopping site. 2.8 Integrated Tool Example: Drumbeat 2000: Macromedia Drumbeat 2000 is a tool capable of accepting and delivering complex infmmation and functionality through a web-interface [21]. The tool aids a visually skilled Web designer in competitively building a website without necessarily having to do any coding, which is useful in the 26 initial prolotyping phase. It is a tool that can interact with the back-end database with the ability to build a user-friendly client-side using Active Server Page (ASP) Web technology. ASP technology enables a real-time connection to the database, so any changes made to the database are immediately re flected on the client side. Macromedia D1umbeat 2000 claims to provide everything needed to build dynamic Web applications and online stores visually at a fraction of the typical development time and expense. The designers of Drumbeat 2000 also cl aim that the development environment can keep up with continuously evolving web technology, thus making it a future-oriented technology. 2.9 NGI: This initiatjve is a mulli-agency Federal research and development program began on October 1, 1997 with the participation of the following agencies: DARPA, DOE, NASA, NIH, NIST, and NSF (Table 4). These agencies arc charged with the responsibility of developing advanced networking technologies and revolutionary applications that require advanced networkjng. 2.10 Internet2: The Intemet2 is a consortium of over 180 uruversit ies leading the way towards a partnership with industry and government to develop advanced network applications and technologies in order to accelerate formation of a more advanced Internet. The primary goals of Internct2 are to create a leading edge network capability for the national research community, enable revolutionary Internet applications, and ensure the rapid transfer of new network services and applications to the broader Internet community. Through Intemet2 working groups and initiatives, Internet2 members are 27 collaborating on advanced app.lications, middleware, new networking capabilities, advanced network infrastructure, partnerships, and alliances [22). 3 OCCUPATIONAL ROLES IN illE In order to build, deploy, and maintain an Internet Enterprise, certain roles and positions most be filled for the organization to be effective. Table 5 lists and describes many of the relevant roles required within an enterprise initiative, such as Chief Privacy Officer (CPO), in addition to the more traditional organizational roles such as Chief Executive Ofilcer (CEO), Chief Technology Officer (CTO), and Chief Financial Officer (CFO) [20, 23]. 4 TECHNOLOGY IMPLEMENTATION AND STRATEGY 4.1 Microsoft Dotsmart Initiative: There are various approaches to imp.lementing strategic planning and technology implementations. For illustrative purposes, Microsoft is considered in this thesis to be one such approach for enterprise planning. Once the overall conceptualization and business pattern is created and a.ll the necessary occupational roles within the organization are identified, it is necessary to identify exactly which technology to utilize in order to build and implement the business venture. As the requirements of a business are analyzed, a useful guide is the Microsoft Dotsmarl Initiative. This mode of business analysis will help determine which business engineering concepts to use and what kinds of personnel are needed to 1un the operation. Additionally, the Microsoft Dotsmatt Initiative provides key points to address when building an Intemet operation from scratch. 28 4.2 Microsoft Technology Centers (MTCs): MTCs are areas designed for groups of entrepreneurs, Information Technology personnel, and businessmen for the rapid development. of robust e-commerce solutions. At these facilities, developers, entrepreneurs, and high-technology business persons use Microsoft Technology and the relevant knowledge to build enterprise solutions. The centers provide the essentials a team would need to develop an enterptise from the initial conception of the idea to launch. Microsoft provides essential equipment, support, and expe11ise, with an application of a ";best-practices" approach. These best practices have been tested before at MTCs, expediting the development progress and time to market. Laboratory sessions are designed to bring together an assortment of entrepreneurial individuals as they facilitate the development process using the latest Microsoft products. The MTCs offer customers wishing to capitalize on emerging Microsoft.NET technologies the service, infrastltlctme, and development environment to accelerate their projects and reduce thejr risk. The working laboratory is intended to help customers develop and test next-genera6on e-commerce technologies and demonstrate further the value of Windows platforms and other industry-standard systems for powering ebusiness. 4.3 Impact of XML: XML represents a more general way of defining text-based/ documents compared to Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). Both HTML and XML descend from Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML). The greatest difference between HTML and XML is the flexibi lity of the allowable tag found in XML. An XMLbased document can define its own tags, in addition to including a set of tags defined by a 29 third-party. This ability may become very useful for those applications that need to deal with very complex data structures. An example of an XML-based language is the Wireless Markup Language (WML). WML essentially allows text pm1ions of Web pages to be displayed on wireless devices, such as cellular phones and personal digital assistants (PDAs). WML works with the Wireless AppHcation Protocol (W AP) to deliver this content. WML is similar to HTML but does not require input devi ces such as a keyboard or mouse for navigation. In the case of a PDA thal requests a Web page on the Intemet, a WAP gateway receives the request, translates it, and sends it to the appropriate Internet server. In response, the server replies by sending the requested WML document. The WAP gateway parses this document's WML and sends the proper text to the PDA. This introduces the element of device portability. 4.4 Microsoft.Net Initiative: Microsoft announced a new generation of software called Microsoft .NET. This software is intended to enable every developer, business, and consumer to benefit from the combination of a variety of new Internet devices and programmable Web services that characte1ize NGI. Microsoft is trying to create an advanced new generation of software that wiiJ drive NGI. This initiative is called Microsoft.NET and it.s key purpose is to make information available at any time, in any place, and on any device. 4.5 Microsoft BizTalk 0 1·chestration: For IEE purposes, BizTalk Server 2000 is the considered a nex t-generation software that plays an important role in forming the infrastructure and tools for building successful e-commerce communities. The core of 30 BizTalk Server offers business document routing, transformation, and tracking infras tructure that is mles based. BizTalk Server offers many services that allow for quickly building dynamic business processes for smooth integration of applications and business partners while utilizing pubJic standards to ensure interoperability. Essentially, BizTalk server provides a method to build dynamic business processes quickly. 4.6 Back-end Configurations Using Microsoft Technology: In the design of the backend of a website, special considerations must be given to security. This is done by providing a kind of safety buffer from the greater world of the Internet using a demiUtarized-zone (DMZ) strategy. The components of a DMZ such as the firewall, the front-end network, the back-end nelwork, and the secure network function as a security buffer from the outside world. 4.7 Rapid Economic Justification (RE.fl: The REJ framework makes it possible for IT and business executives to demonstrate how specific investments in IT will eventually benefit the business, ensuring in the process that the IT projects are aligned with the specific business strategies and priorities. IT investments play a critical role in Internet enterprises. Important decision-making at the early stages of any venture does require an effective methodology to identify the best strategic IT investments. Leaders in the upper echelon of organizations such as CEOs, CTOs, and CFOs are being overwhelmed with complex information. REJ may prove to be a reliable method to quickly evaluate the true value worth and potential of a company by taking into consideration its intangible IT assets. 31 In the past, companies developed metrics for the valuation of IT investments on the basis of cost improvements. Metric methodologies have focused on Total Cost of Ownership (TCO), whereas the strategic role of IT in boosting new opportunities for business has been largely ignored. Understandably, the benefits of IT can be traced to ways of measuring business value the traditional way. Unfortunately, current business practices are not necessarily adequately equipped to handle the complexities of the New Economy. Although the economic justification of IT projects has been researched extensively in the past decade, the problem is that these metiJods and techniques require too much data-crunching power and time to prepare. These unwieldy research techniques need to be replaced by a new and practical approach to quantify swiftly and accurately the true value of IT investments. 5 MARKETING AND CUSTOMER RETENTION 5.1 Online Marketing: The Internet provides marketers with new tools and convenience that can considerably increase the success of their marketing efforts. An Internet marketing campaign such as advertising, promotions, public relations, partnering and Customer Relationship Management (CRM) systems are all an integral prut of the marketing process. Table 6 describes the various techniques at the marketer's disposal when using the Internet as the medium of customer information delivery [19]. 5.2 CRM Systems: CRM is a general but systematic methodology using both business and technological techniques to maintain and grow a business's customer base. CRM systems enable a business to keep detaj led records on the activity of its c ustomers 32 by using new, sophisticated tracking systems on the Internet. Table 7 shows various areas where CRM technology and CRM business techniques can assist in managing a customer base [19]. 5.3 Web Design Technology Example: Dreamweaver Technology: Macromedia Dreamweaver is Web technology for building websites on the Internet without the need for programming directly in HTivlL [21]. Also, Web designers are easily able to create Web-based leaming content with Dreamweaver 4.0. A Web designer has the ability to create site maps of the website that can be easily maintained and enhanced. This is a very popular technology available on the market that can be used to make professional quality websites for marketing and promotional purposes. 5.4 Web Enhancement Technology Example: Flash Technology: Macromedia Flash is a multimedia technology for applications on the Web. This technology gives the user, especially one not artistically talented, the ability to develop interactive animations that can look quite impressive. A flash movie can be embedded into a Web site or run as a standalone program, and Flash is compatible with Dreamweaver. Flash movies can be made with sound and animation, so it is useful as a software tool to produce demonstrations at the user-interface. Flash can be used on CD-ROMs and allows for the construction of cross-platform audio/video animations and still jmages. 33 \ 6 SUMI\-IARY TABLES We would like to reiterate emphasis areas for Electronic Enterprise as listed in the introduction of this module. These are a) hardware (mechanisms associated with physical world), b) software (mechanisms associated with computational world), c) netware (mechanisms associated with communications), and d) peopleware (mechanisms associated with human element) [23, 24]. Following tables provide a useful Jist in all these areas. For convenience, we include all summary tables in following order: Table 1 Enterprise Maturity Levels Table 2 Web Business Models Table 3 Electronic Transactions Table 4 NGI Participating Agencies Table 5 Occupational Roles in lEE Table 6 Marketing Techniques on the Internet Table 7 Customer Relationship Management 34 Table 1 Enterprise Maturity Levels Levels Focus Activity Coordination Infrastructure 5. Whole Human-society Process Self-directed teams Long-term oriented; in engineering dominate orientation, harmony with methodology workplace; toLal personal mastery, nature, people institutionalized; alignment; open, heavy investments routinely do the Flexible and honest in IT, continuous right things: predictable communication improvement change is second process, right the channels institutionalized nature first time, value- throughout adderl activities only 4. Wise Stakeholders and Process monitored Organjzational Organi:z.ation community automatically for structure based on competency oriented in high performance; cross-trained case management; harmony with dominated by teams; vision continuing community; value-added al igned with the education; team-people routinely activities; high needs of the based structure; doing things right. degrl:e of society tenm-oriented HR Changes are concurrency; few policy planned and handoffs mannged 3. Mature Customer oriented; Process defined Vision defined Integrated customer's needs and is measured with extensive capacity, are anticipated; buy-ins, multi- con sol ida ted people are proud to functional project function; work here teams exist; investment in participatory training and work culture with force planning; managers as flattened coaches organization 2. Stable Competition- Process under Internal focus, Short-term focus, oriented reactive statistical control; control oriented, fragmented bench-marking as functional division capacity, little IT, a result of reaction, hierarchical, inflexible process, difficult to get has many information, no handoffs and a formal HR policy substantial number of non-value-added tasks I . Ignorant Disoriented- Fire-fighting Ad- No clear vision, Don' t know where chaotic hoc, unpredictable, resources exist fragmented Rumor mill rampant 35 e-Business Model Storefront Model Auction Model Portal Model Dynamic Pricing Model Comparison Pricing Model Demand-Sensitive Pricing Model Table 2 Web Business Models Description The~ storefront model is what many persons think of when they bear the word ebusiness. The storefront model combines transaction processing, security, online payment and information storage to enable merchants to sell their products on lhe web. This is a basic form of e-commcrce where the buyer and seller interact directly. To conduct storefront c-commerce, merchants need to organize an online catalog of products, take orders through their Web sites, accept pnyments in a secure envi ronment, send merchandise to customers, and manage customer data. One of the most commonly used e-commercc enablers is the shopping cart. This order-processing technology allows customers to accumulate items they wish to buy as they continue to shop. www.amazon.com is a good example. Forrester Research reveals that an estimated $3.8 billion will be spent on online person-to-person auctions in the year 2000 alone. This number is expected to rise to $52 billion for Business-to-Business (B2B) auctions. Usually auction sites act as forums through which Internet users can log-on and assume the role of either bidder or seller. As a seller, you are able to post an item you wish to sell, the minimum price you require to sell it, your item, and a deadline to close the auction. As a bidder, you may search the site for availability of the item you are seeking, view lhe current bidding activity and place a bid. They usually do not involve themselves in payment and delivery. www.ebay.com is a good example. Portal sites give visitors the chance to find almost everything they are looking for in one place. They often offer news, sports, and weather, as weU as the ability to search the Web. Search engines are h01i zontal portals, or portals that aggregate information on a broad range of topics. Yahoo! at www.yahoo.com is an example of a horizontal portal. America Online (AOL) www.aol.com is an example of a vertical portal because it is a community-based site. The Web has changed the way business is done and the way products are priced. Companies such as Priceline (www.pricelinc.com) and Imandi (www.imandi.com) have enabled customers to name their prices for travel, homes, automobiles, and consumer goods. The name-your-price model empowers customers by allowing them to choose their price for products and services. The comparison pricing model allows customers to polJ a variety of merchants and find a desired product or service at the lowest price (i.e. www.bottomdollar.com). The Web has enabled customers to demand bener, faster service at cheaper prices. It has also empowered buyers to shop in large groups to achieve a group rate (i.e., www.rnercata.com). Customers become loyal to Mercata because it helps them save money. 36 e-Business Model Bartering Model Advertising Model Procurement Model B2B Service Provider Model · Online Trading Model Online Lending Model Online Recruiting Model Online Travel Service Model TabJe 2 (Continued) Description A popular method of conducting e-business is bartering, offering one item in exchange for anotiier. If a business is looking to get rid of an overstocked product, iSolve ~isolve.com) can help sell it PotenHal customers send their pricing pre ferences to the merchant who evaluates the offer. Deals are often part barter and part cash. Examples of items typically bartered are overstocked inventory items, factory surplus, and unneeded assets. Forming business models around advertising-driven revenue streams is the advertising model. Television networks, radio stations, magazines, and print media usc advertising to fund their operations and make a profit. www.Iwon.com is a portal site that rewards users with raffle points as they browse the site's content. www.freemerchant.com offers free hosting, a free store builder, a free shopping cart, free traffic logs, free auction tools and all the necessary elements for running an e-commerce storefront. Frccmerchanl makes money from its strategic partnerships and referrals. The procurement model means acquiring goods and services with effective supply chain management via a B2B Exchange. ICG Commerce Systems (www.icgcommerce.com) is a site that enables businesses, customers, suppliers, purchasers, and any combination of these to interact and conduct transactions over the Internet. The system supports B2B, B2C, and all variations of these models. · B2B service providers make B2B transactions on the Internet easier. These e-businesscs help other businesses improve policies, procedures, customer service, and general operations. Ariba (www.ariba.com) is a B2B service provider. The online trading model is essentially securities trading on the Internet. Trading sites allow you to research securities and to buy, sell, and manage all of your investments from your desktop; they usually cost less. Charles Schwab (www.schwab.com) is a notable example. Companies are now making loans online. E-loan (www.eloan.com) offers creditcard services, home equity loans, and the tools and calculators to help you make educated borrowing decisions. Recruiting and job searching can be done effectively on the Web whether you are an employer or a job seeker. Refer.com (www.refer.com) rewards visitors for successful job referrals. Web surfers can search for and arrange for all their travel and accommodations online, and can often save money doing so. Cheaptickets (www.cheaptic kets.com) .is a similar site that helps customers find discount fares for airl.ine tickets, hotel rooms, cruise vacations and rental cars. 37 e-Business Model Online Entertainment Model Energy Distribution Model Braintrust Model Online Learning Model Click-and-Mortar Model Table 2 (Continued) Description The entertainment industry has recognized this and has leveraged its power to sell movie tickets, albums and any other entertainment-related content they can fit on a Web page. ICast.corn (www.icast.com) is a multimedia-rich entertainment site. A number of companies have set up energy exchanges where buyers and sellers come together to corrununicate, buy, sell, and distribute energy. These companies sell crude oil, electricity, and the products and systems for distributing them. Altranet (_www.altranet.com) also sells energy commodities. Companies can buy patents and other intellectual property online. Yet2 (www.yct2.com) is an e-business designed to help companies raise capital by selling intellectuaJ property such as patents and trademarks. Universities and corporate-training companies offer high-quality distance education directly over the Web. Click2learn ~www.click2 1earn.com) has created a database of products and services to elp mdtvtdunls and companies fi.nd the education they need. Brick-and-mortar companies who wish to bring their businesses to the Web must determine the level of cooperation and integration the two separate entities will share. A company that can offer its services both offline and o nline is called click-and-mortar, such as Barnes & Noble (www.bn.com). 38 Electronic Transaction T e Credit Card Transactions E-wallets Debit cards Digital Currency Table 3 Electronic Transactions Descrjption Merchant must have a merchant. account with a bank. Specialized Internet merchant accounts have been established to handle online credit card transactions. These transactions are processed by banks or third-party services. To faci litate the credit card process, many companies are introducing electronic wallet services. E-wallets allow you to keep track of your billing and shipping information so it can be entered with one click. Banks and businesses are also creating options for online payment that do not involve credit cards. There are many forms of digital currency; digital cash is one example. It is stored electronically and can be used to make online electronic payments. Digjtal cash is often used with other payment technologies such as digital wallets. Digital cash allows people who do not have credit cards to shop online, and merchants accepting digital-cash payments avoid creditcard transaction fees. 39 Examples Companies like Cybercnsh (www.cybercash.com) and ICat (www.icat.com) enable merchants to accept credit card payments online like www.Charge.com. www. visa.com offers a variety of ewallets. Entrypoint.com offers a free, personalized desktop toolbar that includes an e-wallct to facltitate one click shopping at its affiliate stores. In order to standardize e-wallet technology and gain wider acceptance among vendors, Visa, Mastercard, and a group of e-wallet vendors have standardized the technology with the Electronic Commerce Modeling Language (ECML), unveiled in June 1999 and adopted by many online vendors. Companies such as AroeriNet allow merchants to accept a customer's checking-account number as a valid form of payment. AmeriNet provides authorization and account settlement, handles distribution and shipping (fulfi11ment), and manages customer service inquiries. E-Cash Technologies (www.ccas.b.com) is a secure digitalcash provider that allows you to withdraw funds from your traditional bank account. Gift cash is another form of digital currency that can be redeemed at leading shopping sites. Web. Flooz (www.Jlooz.wm) is an example of gift currency. Some companies offer points-based rewards. www.beenz.com is an international, points-based currency system. Electronic Transaction Peer-to-peer Smart Cards Micropaymenls Table 3 (Continued) Description Peer-to-peer transactions allow online monetary transfers between consumers. A card with a computer chip embedded on its face is able to hold more information than an ordinary credit card with a magnetic strip. There are contact and contactless smartcards. Similar to smart cards, ATM cards can be used to make purchases over the Internet. Merchants must pay for each credit card transaction that is processed. The cost of some items could be lower than the standard transaction fees, causing merchants to incur losses. Micropayments, or payments that generally do not exceed $10.00, offer a way for companies offering nominal.ly priced products and services to generate a profit. 40 Examples cCash runs a peer-to-peer payment services that allows the transfer of digital cash via email between two people who have accounts at eCashcnablcd banks. Pay Pal offers a digital payment system known as X payments. PayPal allows a user to send money to anyone with an email nddress, regardless of what bank either person uses or whether the recipient is pre-registered with the service. EConnect has technology in the form of a device that connects to your computer and scrambles financial data, making it secure to send the data over the Internet. EpocketPay is another product developed by eConnect that allows a consumer to make secure purchases from the ePocketPay portable device. This device acts as a cell phone with a card reader built into it and will allow you to make secure purchases anywhere. Millicent js a micropayment technology provider. Millicent handles all of the payment processing needed for the operation of an e-busi ness, customer support, and distribution services. Millicent's services are especially useful to companies that offer subscription fees and small pay-per-download fees for digjtal content. c-Billi ng Electronic llill Presentment and payment (EllPP) offers the ability to present a company's bill on multiple platforms online. Payments arc generally electronic transfers from consumer checking accounts. 41 The Automated Clearing House (ACH) is the current method for processing electronic monetary transfers. Table4 NGI Participating Agencies _A~c~ro~t~1Y~n_l_ _~ E_x~p_a_n_si~n --- ~ --- ~--~ --- DARPA Defense Advnnced Research Projects Agency DOE Department of Energy (beg inning in PY 1999) NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration NIH National Insti tutes of Health NIST National Institute of Standards and Tec hnology NSF National Science Foundation 42 Occupation Entrepreneur e-Commerce Program Manager Enterprise Architect Business and Infonnation Architect Table 5 Occupational Roles in illE Descdptjon An entrepreneur on the Internet is usually the person with the initial idea for the entire business and is involved in its early stages of inception before official management takes over. e-Commerce Program Managers are involved in enterprise-wide ecommerce initiatives and projects, managing e-cornmerce integration and overall business and technology architecture and infrastn1cture. Usually, they arc senior-level line managers who are effective at uniting the business and technology front by coordinating units within an organization and across the extended enterprise. Enterprise Arc hitects are involved in the definition, alignment, and refinement of the overall ente rprise architecture. Their responsibilities include seeing to it that many of the tasks of program management are can·ied out properly. More important, they must provide guidance so individual projects can make optimal use of infrastructure resources for e-Cornmerce. A balancing act between business requirements and tcchnologicnl capabilities is accomplished through their efforts . Enterprise Architects have a duty to identify the requirements, goals, and constraints of the project. They allocate responsibilities for each of the architectural elements. They are also responsible for lhe coordination of the modeling and design activities for the overall enterprise architecture. They are the chief e-commerce architects because they coordinate the work information, infrastructure and application architects. All architects and modelers should be completely capable in design patterns common to the many facets of business and technology. The design pattern movement has affected all aspects of analysis, design, and implementation of componentbased systems. Design patterns are the reusable material of architecture and have an important role in the complex distributed information systems lhat are conceived and developed today. Business and Information Architects have business domain knowledge, including business processes and logical information structures. They coordinate the work of business and technology analysts and modelers who develop abstract representations or business object models of the subjects, rules, roles, events, tasks, activities, and policies of the business domain. Application-neutral models that are built enable the reuse of business engineering analysis and design patterns and artifacts 43 Occupation Infrastructure Architect Application Architect Humru1 Factors Engineer Business Manager Internet Commerce Architect Table 5 (Continued) Description Infrastructure Architects identify the technical services required of the technology infrastructure to empower and support the logical busi ness and information architecture. They evaluate existing infrastructure services, s\~l ect those appropriate to a given project and acquire (via build or buy) new components needed in the infrastructure. They oversee the work of technical specialists in modeling the service architecture of the technical infrastmcturc. They maintain the technical components of the development repository. Application Architects coordinate the business process modeling activities across multiple projects and business domains. They coordinate the work of domain modelers and maintain the repository of business and component models. They evaluate existing business component services, sclectthose appropriate to a given project and (via build or buy) new components needed in the evolving business model. They maintain the business application components of thC development repository. Most importantly. tl1ey guide solution developers in blending the business object model with the infrastruchJre services needed to implement the models in an e~com merce platform. Human Factors Engineers are needed to design the next generation of user interfaces. While the graphical user Interface (GUD is recognized as the enabler of wide-spread personnl computing, task centered user interfaces provide assistance to end-users and can be a boon to productivity in the world of e-commerce. E-commerce transactions can involve a multitude of complex steps and processes. Well-designed user interfaces can help navigate and guide the user through these tasks, keeping track of the progress, and picking up where users leave off when transactions span multiple sessions of work. The Business Manager is responsible for the business approach on the Internet, creating and operating the Internet presence for the business, deciding what products and services are sold online, determining pricing, and establishing the key business relationships needed lo make a venture successful. This is primarily a business role, with particular attention paid to the success of the online business and bottom line. The Internet Commerce Architect is generally a systems analyst who turns the business requirements into a system design that incorporates the creation and management of content, the tnmsaction processing, fulfillment, and technical aspects of customer service 44 Occupation Solution Developer Content Designer Content Author Implementor Database Administrator Internet Sales and Marketing Customer Service Representative T~lble 5 (Continued) Description Solution Developers are application developers. They develop the use cases for the specific application at hand, compose solutions through extensive use of business object models, and use repositories. They assemble application components to implement c-commercc application. Unlike conventional programmers or programmer/analysts, they do not build or pmgram components. Instead, they assemble or glue together business solut ions from prefabricated components. They use highly integrated development environments (IDEs) such as IBM's VisuaiAge, Symantec's Visual Caf6, Sybase's PowcrJ, and Inprise's Jbuilder. Emerging Computer Assisted Software Engineering (CASE) tools and related methods will likely appear that tighten the link between business modeling and software development. Tools for understanding and managing business processes, such as Inte11icorp's LiveModel allows solution developers to build logical business that can automate the configuration and management of the SAP/R3 ERP system. The Content Designer is responsible for the look and feel of an Internet commerce system, including the graphic design, page layout, and user experience. The Content Author creates or adapts product information into a form that can be used for internet commerce, working within the design laid out by the content designer. The Impleme::ntor is responsible for creating any programs or software extensions needed to make the Internet commerce system work. For example, an Implementor might write the software or construct an ASP page using Drumbeat 2000 that takes product information from a database and dynamically renders it into a Web page. In the case that a database is used in the back-end, the Database Administrator (DBA) manages the creation and operation of the database to ensure its reliability, integrity, and performance. The Sales and Marketing team is responsible for focused efforts in promoting Internet-based commerce. Customer Service Representatives answer questions about products, assist buyers with registration or the purchasing of goods and services. 45 Occupation Component Developer Operations Manager System Supervisor System Administrator Security Officer Fulfillment Agent CPO Internet Lawyer Internet Accountant Table 5 (Continued) Description Component Developers usually build components in the form of coding projects. They are masters of component technology and know the intricacies of composition, delegation, and object-oriented systems analysis and design. They are proficient in component development languages (such as Java and C++), modeling standards (such as UMLand XMI), and distributed computing platforms (such as CORBA, DCOM, EJB). They understand and think in terms of architectural design patterns. In the meanti me, they will close the gap between business requirements and available components. Component developers must be highly qualified software engineers since quality'components do not just happen. They are carefully constructed using quality soflware engineering disciplines. Component Developers, therefore, must be highly trained specialists and masters of software quality processes such as CMM and ISO, as well as masters of component-based development methods. The Operations Manager is responsible for managing all service activities for the Internet commerce system. The System Supervisor manages the system staff. The System Administrator is responsible for the technical operations of the computer systems and networks. The Security Officer ensures that appropriate security measures have been taken in the design and implementation of the Internet commerce system. The Fulfillment Agent is responsible for shipping and handling of physical goods or delivery of services. In the case of digital goods, the fulfillment agent is responsible for overseeing the operation of the fulfillment system. The Chief Privacy Officer is io charge of measures for ensuring the security of vital company information, such as customer credit card numbers remains secure within the company network. An Internet Lawyer is a legal expert for Internet fu nctions. The .importance of this position cannot be overstated, because new laws and regulations could ki ll a company without legal assistance, prevention, or intervention. The Internet Accountant is responsible for ensuring that the proper accounting procedures have been followed for Internet-based transactions. 46 Technique Domain name FAQ Forum Networking Faci litation Promotions c-Business advertising Pay-per-click Pay-per-lead Pay-per-sale Webcasting Interactive Advertising Public Relations and press releases Trade shows Table 6 Marketing Techniques on the Internet Description The Universal Resource Locator (URL) represents the address of the domain name, which must be chosen with care because it reflects the company's values immediately and connotes immediate meaning to customers with its first impression. One can purchose a domain name at www.networksolutions.com. A frequently asked questions (FAQ) section contributes to a userfiiendly site. An onli ne forum on the website enables customers to congregate at a pre-de~ign at cd place on the site to post comments and to share ideas. This promotes site activi ty. It is important to make it easy for the customer to recommend a site to a friend. This can be accomplished with a quick button that brings up an email exchange. c-Business promotions can attract visitors to your s ite and can influence purchasing. Netcenlives.com is a company that can provide your business with customer reward programs. P ublicizing through traditional channels such as television slots, movies, newspapers, and magazines is effective. Pay-per-click is a mode of operation that calls for paying the host according to the number of click-throughs to a site. Pay-per-lead is a mode of operation that pays the host for every lead generated from the advertisement. Pay-per-sale is a mode of operation that pays the host for every sale resulting from a click through. Webcasting is a broadcasting technique on the Web that uses streaming media to broadcast an event over the Web. Interactive Advertising involves consumers in the advertising campaign. An example is WebRIOT, a game show on MTV. The game is aired on television, and viewers can join in the game at the same time by playing online. Public Relations (PR) and press releases keep customers and your company's employees current on the latest information about products, services, and intemal and external issues such as company promotions and consumer reactions. Trade shows arc excellent opportunities to generate site interest by speaking at conferences, which increases brand awareness 47 Table 7 Customer Relationship Management CR.M:Area Handling Sales tracking Transaction support Data-mining Call center Log-file analysis Cookie Customer registrntion Personalization One-to-one marketing Onsite Search engine Registering with Internet search engines Partnering Afffiiate Programs Culture management Description Handling is essentially the maintenance of out-bound and in-bound calls from customers and service representatives. Sales tracking is the process of tracing and recording all sales made. Transaction support entails technology and personnel used for conducting transactions. Data-mini ng is a wny to analyze information collected from visitors. Data-mining uses algorithms and statistical tools to find patterns in data gathered from customer visits. A call center gathers customer-service representatives who can be reached by an 800 number or through email, online text chatting, or real-time voice communications. A log-file analysis is a useful way to keep track of your visitors in tenns of site visits, including each visitor's location, IP address, time of visit, frequency of visits, and other key indicators. A cookie is a technology that keeps a profile on each visitor. Customer registration is an excellent method to create customer profiles because visitors fi ll out a form with personal information. Personalization technology can help a company understand the needs of its customers and the effectiveness of its website, thereby catering to the whims of the customer. One-to-one marketing such as e-mails confirms purchases and offers new products, showing customers that the business appreciates their patronage. Onsite Search engines allow people to find information relative to a subject of interest amidst the large amounts of information available on a personal website. Registering with Internet search engines is important because there are reportedly over 400 se::arch engines in usc on the Internet. This process makes a website known to the world by submitting the website as a searchable domain name in a sea of domain names. Partncring is a way of forming a strategic union with another company. Generally, legal contracts are usually written to define the relationship in a wf'ly to help a company provide customers with complimentary services and product<;. An Affiliate Program is an agreement between two parties that one will pay the other a commission based on a designated consumer action. Affi liate programs establish new income streams for companies and individuals that host the advertising affili ate websites. Culture management is the ability to understand and cater lo a target audience's patronage and culture, especially in global enterprises. 48 LIST OF REFERENCES [1] 0. Aktunc, ";The Role of Component Technologies on Enterprise Engineering,"; Masters Thesis, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 2002. [2] D.H. Liles, M.E. Johnson, L.M. Meade, and D.R. Underdown, ";Enterprise Engineering: A Discipline?"; Society for Ente1prise Engineering Conference Proceedings, June 1995. [3] L. Whitman, Enterprise Engineeiing IE8801 class webpage, http://webs.twsu. edu/enteng, 2002. [4] W.D. Barnett and M.K. Raja, ";Object-Oriented Enterprise Engineering,"; http:/ /webs. twsu .edu/enteng/papers/OOEE. pdf, 1999. [5] J. Orr, ";Enterprise Engineedng Modeling,"; http://www.cadinfo.net/editorial!eem. htm, 2002. [6] H. Eriksson and M. Penker, Business Modeling with UML, New York: Wiley, 2000. [7] G. Herzum and 0. Sims, Business Component Factory, New York: Wiley, 2000. [8] ";Enterprise Design and Engineering,"; http://www.eil.utoronto.ca/ent-eng/, 2002. [9] M. Segal, M. N. Tanju, 0. Aktunc, and M. M. Tanik, ";Strategy Formulation for E-Business ,"; in The fifth World Conference on Integrated Design & Process Technology, 2000, Proceedings CD. [10] E.M. Roche, ";Managing Information Technology in Multinational Corporations,"; Macmillan Publishing Company, New York, 1992. [11] C. Chandra and A.V. Smirnov, ";Ontology-Driven Knowledge Integration for Consumer-Focused Smart Companies,"; Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Conference of the Production and Operations Management Society, POM-2001, Orlando FL, 2001. [12] G.J. Cross, ";Now e-Business is Transforming Supply Chain Management,"; Journal of Business Strategy, March/April, pp. 36-39, 2000. [13] S. Chincholikar, 0. Aktunc, and M.M. Tanik, ";TheN-Queens Test-Bed,"; Technical Report 2001-1 0-ECE-0 11, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 2001. [14] S. Davis and J. Botkin, ";The Coming of Knowledge-Bases Business,"; D. Tapscott, eds., Creating Value in the Network Economy, Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing, 1999. 49
Preparatory Considerations -- § 1. Outset from the significations of the word logos: speaking, thinking, what is thought -- § 2. The ideality of language. Exclusion of the problems pertaining to it -- § 3. Language as an expression of "thinking." Thinking in the broadest sense, as the sense-constituting mental process -- § 4. The problem of ascertaining the essential limits of the "thinking" capable of the significational Function -- § 5. Provisional delimination of logic as apriori theory of science -- § 6. The formal character of logic. The formal Apriori and the contingent Apriori -- § 7. The normative and practical functions of logic -- § 8. The two-sidedness of logic; the subjective and the Objective direction of its thematizing activity -- § 9. The straightforward thematizing activity of the "Objective" or "positive" sciences. The idea of two-sided sciences -- § 10. Historically existing psychology and scientific thematizing activity directed to the subjective -- §11. The thematizing tendencies of traditional logic -- a.Logic directed originally to the Objective theoretical formations produced by thinking -- b.Logic's interest in truth and the resultant reflection on subjective insight -- c. Result: the hybridism of historically existing logic as a theoretical and normative-practical discipline -- I / The structures and the sphere of objective formal logic -- The way from the tradition to the full idea of formal logic -- 1. Formal logic as apophantic analytics -- § 12. Discovery of the idea of the pure judgment-form -- § 13. The theory of the pure forms of judgments as the first discipline of formal logic -- a.The idea of theory of forms -- b.Universality of the judgment-form; the fundamental forms and their variants -- c.Operation as the guiding concept in the investigation of forms -- § 14. Consequence-logic (logic of non-contradiction) as the second level of formal logic -- § 15. Truth-logic and consequence-logic -- § 16. The differences in evidence that substantiate the separating of levels within apophantics. Clear evidence and distinct evidence -- a.Modes of performing the judgment. Distinctness and confusion -- b.Distinctness and clarity -- c.Clarity in the having of something itself and clarity of anticipation -- § 17. The essential genus, "distinct judgment," as the theme of "pure analytics" -- § 18. The fundamental question of pure analytics -- § 19. Pure analytics as fundamental to the formal logic of truth. Non-contradiction as a condition for possible truth -- § 20. The principles of logic and their analogues in pure analytics -- § 21. The evidence in the coinciding of "the same" confused and distinct judgment. The broadest concept of the judgment -- § 22. The concept defining the province belonging to the theory of apophantic forms, as the grammar of pure logic, is the judgment in the broadest sense -- 2. Formal apophantics, formal mathematics -- § 23. The internal unity of traditional logic and the problem of its position relative to formal mathematics -- a.The conceptual self-containedness of traditional logic as apophantic analytics -- b.The emerging of the idea of an enlarged analytics, Leibniz's "mathesis universalis," and the methodico-technical unification of traditional syllogistics and formal mathematics -- § 24. The new problem of a formal ontology. Characterization of traditional formal mathematics as formal ontology -- § 25. Formal apophantics and formal ontology as belonging together materially, notwithstanding the diversity of their respective themes -- § 26. The historical reasons why the problem of the unity of formal apophantics and formal mathematics was masked -- a.Lack of the concept of the pure empty form -- b.Lack of knowledge that apophantic formations are ideal -- c.Further reasons, particularly the lack of genuine scientific inquiries into origins -- d.Comment on Bolzano's position regarding the idea of formal ontology -- § 27. The introduction of the idea of formal ontology in the Logische Untersuchungen -- a.The first constitutional investigations of categorial objectivities, in the Philosophie der Arithmetik -- b.The way of the "Prolegomena" from formal apophantics to formal ontology -- 3. Theory of deductive systems and theory of multiplicities -- § 28. The highest level of formal logic: the theory of deductive systems; correlatively, the theory of multiplicities -- § 29. The theory of multiplicities and the formalizing reduction of the nomological sciences -- § 30. Multiplicity-theory as developed by Riemann and his successors -- §31. The pregnant concept of a multiplicity-correlatively, that of a "deductive" or "nomological" system-clarified by the concept of "definiteness" -- § 32. The highest idea of a theory of multiplicities: a universal nomological science of the forms of multiplicities -- § 33. Actual formal mathematics and mathematics of the rules of the game -- § 34. Complete formal mathematics identical with complete logical analytics -- § 35. Why only deductive theory-forms can become thematic within the domain of mathesis universalis as universal analytics -- a.Only deductive theory has a purely analytic system-form -- b.The problem of when a system of propositions has a system-form characterizable as analytic -- § 36. Retrospect and preliminary indication of our further tasks -- b. Phenomenological clarification of the two-sidedness of formal logic as formal apophantics and formal ontology -- 4. Focusing on objects and focusing on judgments -- § 37. The inquiry concerning the relationship between formal apophantics and formal ontology; insufficiency of our clarifications up to now -- § 38. Judgment-objects as such and syntactical formations -- § 39. The concept of the judgment broadened to cover all formations produced by syntactical actions -- § 40. Formal analytics as a playing with thoughts, and logical analytics. The relation to possible application is part of the logical sense of formal mathesis -- §41. The difference between an apophantic and an ontological focusing and the problem of clarifying that difference -- § 42. Solution of this problem -- a.Judging directed, not to the judgment, but to the thematic objectivity -- b.Identity of the thematic object throughout changes in the syntactical operations -- c.The types of syntactical object-forms as the typical modes of Something -- d.The dual function of syntactical operations -- e.Coherence of the judging by virtue of the unity of the substrate-object that is being determined. Constitution of the "concept" determining the substrate-object -- f. The categorial formations, which accrue in the determining, as habitual and inter subjective possessions -- g. The objectivity given beforehand to thinking contrasted with the categorial objectivity produced by thinking — Nature as an illustration -- § 43. Analytics, as formal theory of science, is formal ontology and, as ontology, is directed to objects 119 -- § 44. The shift from analytics as formal ontology to analytics as formal apophantics -- a.The change of thematizing focus from object- provinces to judgments as logic intends them -- b.Phenomenological clarification of this change of focus -- ?. The attitude of someone who is judging naïvely-straightforwardly -- ?. In the critical attitude of someone who intends to cognize, supposed objectivities as supposed are distinguished from actual objectivities -- ?. The scientist's attitude: the supposed, as supposed, the object of his criticism of cognition -- § 45. The judgment in the sense proper to apophantic logic -- § 46. Truth and falsity as results of criticism. The double sense of truth and evidence -- 5. Apophantics, as theory of sense, and truth-logic -- § 47. The adjustment of traditional logic to the critical attitude of science leads to its focusing on the apophansis -- § 48. Judgments, as mere suppositions, belong to the region of senses. Phenomenological characterization of the focusing on senses -- § 49. The double sense of judgment (positum, proposition) -- § 50. The broadening of the concept of sense to cover the whole positional sphere, and the broadening of formal logic to include a formal axiology and a formal theory of practice -- §51. Pure consequence-logic as a pure theory of senses. The division into consequence-logic and truth- logic is valid also for the theory of multiplicities, as the highest level of logic -- § 52. "Mathesis pura" as properly logical and as extralogical. The "mathematics of mathematicians" -- § 53. Elucidations by the example of the Euclidean multiplicity -- § 54. Concluding ascertainment of the relationship be-tween formal logic and formal ontology -- ?.The problem -- b.The two correlative senses of formal logic -- c. The idea of formal ontology can be separated from the idea of theory of science -- II / From Formal to Transcendental Logic -- 1. Psychologism and the laying of a transcendental foundation for logic -- § 55. Is the development of logic as Objective-formal enough to satisfy even the idea of a merely formal theory of science ? -- § 56. The reproach of psychologism cast at every consideration of logical formations that is directed to the subjective -- §57. Logical psychologism and logical idealism -- a. The motives for this psychologism -- b. The ideality of logical formations as their making their appearance irreally in the logico-psychic sphere -- § 58. The evidence of ideal objects analogous to that of individual objects -- § 59. A universal characterization of evidence as the giving of something itself -- § 60. The fundamental laws of intentionality and the universal function of evidence -- § 61. Evidence in general in the function pertaining to all objects, real and irreal, as synthetic unities -- § 62. The ideality of all species of objectivities over against the constituting consciousness. The po.
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Since the hijacking of the Galaxy Leader cargo ship in the Red Sea last week, the Houthis reportedly fired ballistic missiles that landed within ten nautical miles of the USS Mason on Sunday. The missile launch followed the U.S. Navy destroyer's intervention in the attempted hijacking of another ship, a tanker named the Central Park, in the Gulf of Aden. The Houthis denied responsibility for this hijacking which appears to have been carried out by Somali pirates.The Houthis, who control most of northwest Yemen, also continue to launch cruise missiles and armed drones toward Israel.There are few good options when it comes to dealing with the Houthis. They are a formidable near-state organization that has evolved and been repeatedly tested during nearly two decades of war. From 2014, when they seized control of the Yemeni capital, Sana'a, the Houthis systematically vetted and incorporated many of Yemen's best engineers, technicians, and officers from the Yemeni military and intelligence services into its own organization. This incorporation, combined with assistance from Iran, has transformed the Houthis from a hardened guerrilla force into a militarily sophisticated group that is now, at least at a low level, an important regional actor.Saudi Arabia and the UAE, which launched an intervention in Yemen in 2015, are learning just how dogged and determined the Houthis are as an enemy. After repeated border incursions by the Houthis as well as missile and drone strikes on its territory, Saudi Arabia pivoted from war to negotiations. Rather than continue to pursue a policy modeled on a kinetic American approach, the Saudis returned to the careful and measured foreign policy that had served them well for decades. Since late 2022, the Saudis have been engaged in unilateral talks with the Houthis, part of a well-designed effort to de-escalate tensions and stabilize areas along the more than 800-mile-long Saudi-Yemeni border. These talks, which have been aided by China and Iran, were nearing a conclusion before the Houthis effectively declared war on Israel. Now, provocative actions by the Houthis are in danger of derailing those talks.The U.S. has indicated that the Biden Administration is considering re-designating the Houthis as a foreign terrorist organization (FTO). The Trump administration previously designated the Houthis as an FTO in January 2021, which the Biden administration subsequently revoked. While the designation is more justifiable now than when it was first imposed, it will have little or no impact on the Houthis or their leadership. Senior Houthi members do not leave Yemen and do not have foreign assets that would be subject to seizure. In fact, the designation will be celebrated in Sana'a as proof that the Houthis are "winning." However, the FTO designation will negatively impact the NGOs providing humanitarian assistance that must deal with the Houthis.Military strikes, which are undoubtedly at an advanced planning stage, are an equally poor option for dealing with the Houthis. The militant group has not only survived years of strikes carried out by Saudi Arabia and the UAE during their intervention in Yemen, but they thrived militarily and politically. The Saudi and Emirati-led airstrikes stoked public anger and acted as a glue that kept the broader Houthi organization together. During that time, the group refined its ability to hide weapons and facilities within northwest Yemen's maze of mountains and narrow valleys and within densely-populated urban areas. At the same time, they continued to launch cross-border attacks with men, drones, and missiles deep into Saudi territory.Much like the imposition of an FTO designation, attacks by the U.S .or Israel on targets in Yemen will be viewed as a victory by many within the Houthis' leadership. This is especially the case with the hardliners who are ascendant. Strikes are also likely to bolster support for the Houthis among Yemenis. Military strikes, which will likely be limited in nature, will do little to degrade the Houthis' ability to carry out strikes in the Red Sea or elsewhere.More worryingly, such U.S. or Israeli strikes, even if they are limited, are likely to set off an escalatory loop that could have regional and even global implications. The Houthis have the ability to impede shipping in the Red Sea, at least for short periods. They can also target vital energy-producing infrastructure in Saudi Arabia and the UAE. Such attacks, even if only modestly successful, can materially move global energy prices. It must also be noted that the Houthis still control the replacement tanker for the FSO Safer, which is anchored near the port of Hodeidah on the Red Sea. The UN successfully transferred over a million barrels of degraded crude from the rusting tanker to a new tanker, MOST Yemen, in August of this year. The Houthi leadership has an innate understanding of asymmetric warfare and, if cornered, they might well damage or blow up the tanker to cause havoc in the Red Sea.While the Houthis' missiles and drones have all been intercepted, the Houthis are viewed by many in Yemen and in the larger Muslim world, as "fighting back" against perceived Israeli aggression. The attacks, including the recent hijacking of the Galaxy Leader, which is partly owned by Israeli billionaire Abraham Ungar, have also demonstrated the group's military reach. Most importantly for the Houthis, the attacks on Israel-linked targets have, just as they were intended to, bolstered support for them among many Yemenis.Before the beginning of the Israel-Hamas war, the Houthis' were facing headwinds with respect to internal support. Unemployment, a profound lack of economic opportunity, rising food and energy prices, and the Houthis' brutal suppression of dissent were beginning to erode support for the group, especially among some key tribes. This is not to argue that the Houthis were in danger of losing control of northwest Yemen. They were not. But the fissures were growing. Now, even old enemies of the Houthis are signaling support for their attacks on Israel. Prominent members of Islah, Yemen's branch of the Muslim Brotherhood, which is aligned with Yemen's internationally recognized government, recently met with Houthi officials in Sana'a. This is noteworthy given that Islah has been engaged in deadly fighting with the Houthis since 2015. Attacks on the Houthis, even if justified, will only reinforce this trend and further bolster support for the group. But this support will be short-lived. Due to the Houthis' hijacking of the Galaxy Leader and their ongoing threats, insurance rates for ships transiting the Red Sea, and especially for any ships docking at the Houthi controlled port of Hodeidah, have soared. There are indications that some ships that were due to dock in Hodeidah have altered course as a result of Houthi actions. If there are further provocations, it is possible that the port, through which most of Yemen's food flows, will be closed to international shipping. This will put immense pressure on the Yemeni people who are already suffering from ever-increasing levels of food insecurity. There are no good options for dealing with the Houthis. But the simple fact is that they aren't going anywhere anytime soon, and they will not be defeated by military means alone.Saudi Arabia, which has recast itself as a valuable mediator in a number of conflicts, including Yemen, is best placed to try to moderate Houthi behavior through continued hard nosed negotiations. Saudi officials understand that there are moderates within the Houthi leadership who have more interest in business and development than in war. Even Houthi hardliners now have fortunes and legacies that they want to protect and pass on. There are also technocrats within the Houthi organization who understand that Houthi control of northwest Yemen cannot easily weather continued economic decline. Saudi officials are betting that an approach that fosters moderates through development and reconstruction efforts will be more successful over the medium and long-term than a return to war. The Houthis thrive on war, but peace is far more of a challenge for them. However, the Houthis' escalating provocations are all but guaranteeing a kinetic response from the U.S. and its allies. Such a response is justified, but it will be giving the Houthis, or at least the hardliners among them, exactly what they want, war. Dear RS readers! It has been an extraordinary year and our editing team has been working overtime to make sure that we are covering the current conflicts with quality, fresh analysis that doesn't cleave to the mainstream orthodoxy or take official Washington and the commentariat at face value. Our staff reporters, experts, and outside writers offer top-notch, independent work, daily. Please consider making a tax-exempt, year-end contribution to Responsible Statecraft so that we can continue this quality coverage — which you will find nowhere else — into 2024. Happy Holidays!
