Suchergebnisse

Marine ecosystems represent the greatest volume of the biosphere and the largest surface of the planet. They are home to an enormous diversity of animals, plants and microbes and are crucially important resource for fishing, transport, mining and recreation. Humans have been dependant on the seas and oceans for many millennia and have used the coastal waters as a prehistoric resource for food and expansion around the planet (Moore et al., 2013). Coastal region are frequently areas of great natural beauty and are used extensively for recreation and tourism as reflected in the mass migration of people to the coasts in the holiday seasons (Golyshin et al., 2003). The Mediterranean has become one of the most demanded destinations for organized touristic routes (increasing cruising market) and "self-made" ones (boating and chartering). Despite the strict link between tourism development in coastal areas and port facilities, the sector growth has not been sustained neither by an adequate expansion nor by an adaptation of the ports. Ports have a decisive role in the development of coastal areas and the risk of impact of infrastructures construction and maritime traffic on the coastal zone is high. Ports are part of the logistics chain and the transport networks with a decisive role in the development of coastal areas. However, the risk of impact of infrastructures construction and maritime traffic on the coastal zone is high. The problem with any port expansion is the balance between environmental and social-economic issues (sustainable development). In fact, if on one hand the development of infrastructures has to take into account environmental impact and restoration to ecological standards, on the other hand, denial of port expansion for environmental reasons may favour other competing ports. Due to their strategic location between sea and land, ports are particularly critical environments as they can receive pollution coming from land, ships and from the port facilities themselves. Furthermore, ports are not closed systems and their pollution may impact large parts of the adjacent coastal areas. Specifically, pollution by petroleum hydrocarbons is one of the major environmental problems in ports and it is mainly associated with the heavy ship/boat traffic and the related facilities located in these areas. The ship transport in ports is powered by diesel. The present study was carried out in the framework of the MAPMED project (Management of Port areas in the Mediterranean Sea Basin). The general objective of the project was to improve the environmental sustainability of tourist coastal areas in the Countries of the Mediterranean Sea Basin through the promotion of a long term cooperation between Institutional Authorities and the scientific community and, at a more specific level, to optimize, validate and transfer tools to guide Institutional Authorities in the sustainable management of tourist ports/harbours with regard to monitoring and reduction of hydrocarbon pollution. Strategies for cleaning up hydrocarbon pollution are greatly affected by a variety of factors, such as type of oil, characteristics of the spill site, and occasionally political considerations. A number of approaches and technologies have been developed for controlling oil pollution in marine environments. Bioremediation has emerged as one of the most promising treatment options for oil removal since its successful application after the 1989 Exxon Valdez spill. The general objective of this work was to evaluate and compare the applicability of different bioremediation approaches of seawaters and sediments in Mediterranean tourist ports. Particularly, it was directed to contribute to the answer to two following main questions: -Do different tourist ports share the same bacterial communities? -Do bioremediation strategies have similar applicability in different tourist port areas? The specific aims of the present study were: 1. Definition and comparison of the pollution status of seawater. 2. Comparison of the bacterial communities in seawater. 3. Characterization of the dominant cultivable hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria from seawater and sediments. 4. Comparison of the effects of biostimulation treatment on bacterial communities in seawater at laboratory scale. 5. Comparison of the effect of bioaugmentation treatments on PAH degradation in sediments at laboratory scale. Three tourist ports located across the Mediterranean Sea were selected as case study sites representative tourist harbours in the Basin: Cagliari (Sardinia, Italy) in the western part, El Kantaoui (Tunisia) in the central part, and Heraklion (Crete, Greece) in the eastern part. Beside their geographic position, port selection was also based on other different elements, such as categories of maritime traffic, port dimension and existing information on pollution. The maritime traffic inside the three tourist ports is represented by recreational boats, passenger ships and fishing vessels. In addition to the marine traffic, the major pollution sources related to the three port areas are wastewater discharges into the sea, river mouth, fuelling stations, and fishing activities. Data demonstrated that Cagliari port was characterized by a high level of eutrophication. Coherently with the high nutrient load, the viable title of heterotrophs was one-log higher in the seawater of Cagliari port when compared with values found in the other ports. The structure of the microbial communities in seawater from Cagliari and El Kantaoui were more similar to one another than the others while Heraklion presented different community structures. During the biostimulation treatment in seawater microcosms, comparable degradation kinetics were found for Cagliari and Heraklion sites. Furthermore, nutrient amendments in El Kantaoui microcosms resulted in a two-fold increase in the degradation rates as compared to the other two port areas. The structures of the bacterial communities of El Kantaoui were more homogenous than those from Cagliari, while Heraklion presented a moderate change in community structures during bioremediation treatment. Moreover, different community structures were found for the three sites at the end of the treatment. The community of cultivable degraders from seawater of the Cagliari port was dominated by copiotrophic bacteria belonging to the genus Pseudomonas whereas the majority of the isolates from Port El Kantaoui were Alcanivorax. Both OHCBs and non-professional hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria were equally represented in the community from Heraklion port. The autochthonous population from the sediments of El Kantaoui does not possess the metabolic routes necessary to metabolize BaP being the addition of an allochthonous strain a successful strategy for promoting BaP degradation. Thus, a selectivity of the bioaugmentation treatments was demonstrated both in terms of typology of PAHs and sediments.

The global trend towards greater longevity means that the number of older voters is constantly increasing, and the proportional number of younger voters is decreasing. In many of the world's democracies, older people vote more consistently and in greater numbers than their younger counterparts. The apparent reluctance of the young to exercise their right to vote only serves to reinforce this demographic trend. The result is that politicians tend to pander to the "Grey Vote", and young people run the risk of being under-represented in parliament while seeing their issues overlooked by governments. In such a scenario, young people may be easier targets for unpopular government measures, such as the belt-tightening associated with austerity.The statistics make the case. In Germany's 2013 general election, the average voting turnout was 72.4%. All of the age-cohorts above the age of 45 fell above this average, whereas all of the age-cohorts below 45 fell exactly on or below it. Turnout was highest amongst 60-70 year olds (almost 80%), whereas turnout amongst 18-21 year olds was below 65%.In the United Kingdom, turnout in 2015's general election among those aged 18 to 24 was at a mere 43%, far below the average turnout of 66.1%. The participatory gap has widened over the decades and its last year's figures were exceeded only in 2005, when youth turnout was a staggering 24 percentage points below that of the entire population. A recent article in The Economist (23 April 2016) suggests, however, that this is partly due to the fact that most British university students live in short-term accommodation and tend to move frequently, which makes it harder for them to register as voters in the first place.In either of these cases, would lowering the voting age make a difference? In Germany, where 16 year olds are eligible to vote in the local elections of some Länder (federate states), there is some evidence to suggest that a cohort who obtain their voting right at 16 will have a higher poll turnout over the course of their whole lives than a cohort who are not allowed to cast their first vote until a later age. In other words, early participation seems to set a trend for life.One possible way of reducing the median voting age could be the introduction of compulsory suffrage, which already exists in countries such as Belgium, Greece, Luxemburg, Cyprus, and Australia. However, this kind of imposed political legitimacy is seen by some to offend the principles of liberal democracy – even though it need not imply the imposition of legal sanctions against non-voters, as the case of Belgium and others demonstrates. The question of whether the democratic act of voting should be recast from a civic duty to an obligation is multi-faceted and will remain open to discussion for years to come. Additionally, measures to increase the electoral turnout of the younger age groups could aim at making the very act of voting easier, that is, more "user-friendly" – for example through e-voting.At any rate, it is hardly possible for the interests and preferences of a group, even with the very best intentions, to be better identified by a third-party than by the affected group itself. The paternalistic conception that men understand women's needs better than women themselves, for instance, was successfully rejected by women during their long battle for the suffrage. As John Stuart Mill put it in his Considerations on Representative Government, the rulers and ruling classes are "under a necessity of considering the interests and wishes of those who have the suffrage; but of those who are excluded, it is in their option whether they will do so or not." Therefore, the very idea of democracy is called into question if any group within it become sidelined, while others are favoured. There will be repercussions for political legitimacy if young people perceive themselves as being left out of the political process; hence remedies are needed to ensure that this does not happen. This issue of the Intergenerational Justice Review addresses the topic from two angles: it asks for the reasons why the electoral turnout of young voters is comparably low in the first place, and it discusses some possible solutions to the problem.In the first of two research articles, Charlotte Snelling asks for the potential of education in raising youth turnout. Aggregate increases in education do little to alter an individual's relative status within the education system, she argues. Using the 2011 UK Citizens in Transition Survey, she suggests that education affects turnout by determining young people's positioning within social networks. Some of these networks, however, are more politicised than others. Individuals with relatively lower educational status continue to be excluded from more politically engaged networks – irrespective of their educational attainment – and, as a result, they lack the mobilisation and greater sense of political efficacy required to vote. In short, the simple formula "more education leads to more political interest" turns out to be just that, a simplification.In the second article, Thomas Tozer discusses how to increase electoral turnout among the young. He considers two methods for doing so: compulsory voting and a scheme of financial incentives. The incentive scheme that he prefers would pay young people £30 if they attend an hour-long information session on the election, an hour-long discussion session, and then vote. Tozer argues that this proposed scheme is preferable to compulsory voting because it is more likely to lead young people to deliver reasoned and well-considered votes; and it does so, he holds, without violating individual liberty.In the review section, our authors discuss some of the most recent publications on voting and intergenerational justice. The research articles of this issue are the winning entries to the 2014/2015 Demography Prize, bestowed jointly by the Foundation for the Rights of Future Generations (FRFG) and the Intergenerational Foundation (IF). Please also consider our Call for Papers on "Constitutions and Intergenerational Justice", printed at the end of this issue. Last but not least, we cordially invite you to visit our newly launched website at www.igjr.org. Whether electronically or in print – we wish you a rewarding and insightful read. Antony Mason (IF)Hans-Ulrich Kramer (FRFG)Jörg Tremmel (University of Tübingen)Markus Rutsche (University of Tübingen)

Les sites métallifères naturels représentent des cas d'étude uniques pour la recherche scientifique en géo-pédologie, en biologie et en éco-évolution des métallophytes. Le sud-est de la République Démocratique du Congo (R.D.C.) présente les gisements de cuivre et de cobalt parmi les plus importants au monde et considérés comme des ressources minières de hautes valeurs économiques. Les affleurements sont issus de successions géologiques durant des millions d'années. Ils forment aujourd'hui une centaine de collines isolées dans une région de 300 km de long et 50 km de large dominée par la forêt claire sèche et nommée l'Arc Cuprifère Katangais. Au sommet des collines, la proximité entre la surface du sol et l'affleurement entraine un excès de cuivre et cobalt dans la fraction biodiponible de la solution du sol qui est quasi inexistant en bas de pente. Ces teneurs dépassant les limites de tolérance pour la plupart des végétaux constituent un facteur de stress déterminant les communautés et la présence d'espèces endémiques. Plus de 550 taxa dont environ 10% identifiés comme endémiques sont répartis dans deux communautés végétales herbacées distinctes identifiées comme des savanes steppiques sur les sols peu minéralisés et des steppes sur les sols fortement minéralisés. L'impact des activités minières a aujourd'hui des conséquences majeures au niveau environnemental et sociétal menant à la disparition des sites métallifères naturels et à la pollution de sites naturels non-métallifères dont certains sont proches des habitations. Etant donné les menaces sur les espèces végétales endémiques de l'Arc Cuprifère Katangais, plusieurs stratégies de conservation in situ et ex situ ont été mises en place au cours de ces 10 dernières années en collaboration avec différentes institutions. En plus, les métallophytes constituent de véritables ressources pour la mise en place de biotechnologies telles que la phytoremédiation en raison de leur capacité de tolérance ou d'accumulation. Les sols métallifères anthropogéniques de la région pourraient donc constituer de nouveaux sites conciliant la conservation des métallophytes et la remédiation des sols pollués. Cet enjeu double exige de déterminer les relations entre les espèces et les facteurs environnementaux conditionnant leur distribution dans les sites naturels et leur performance dans les sites anthropogéniques. Cette thèse a pour but de caractériser la niche édaphique des métallophytes de l'Arc Cuprifère Katangais afin de proposer des actions associant leur conservation et la phytostabilisation des sols pollués de la région. Dans un premier axe, deux concepts fondamentaux en écologie ont été développés, la théorie des niches écologiques et le concept d'endémisme édaphique, afin de caractériser les relations entre les métallophytes et leur environnement édaphique à l'échelle des individus, des populations, des espèces et des communautés. Plusieurs espèces endémiques menacées ont été choisies comme modèles d'étude afin de déterminer l'origine de leur présence quasi-exclusive sur des sols métallifères. Un second axe a testé le succès d'introduction de ces espèces dans des stratégies de phytostabilisation en association avec une graminée pionnière Microchloa altera. Une évaluation des autres graminées de cette flore selon les critères de sélection exigés par cette stratégie a été effectuée afin de soumettre des propositions concrètes pour l'utilisation des métallophytes de l'Arc Cuprifère Katangais dans des stratégies de phytostabilisation des sols pollués. Cette thèse a mis en évidence l'existence d'une diversité de niches réalisées le long des gradients en cuivre et cobalt au sein des communautés avec une présence de taxa endémiques dans des concentrations en cuivre et cobalt généralement plus élevées que les autres sols de la région. La comparaison avec les niches fondamentales des espèces a montré que certains taxa endémiques seraient dépendants de la présence de cuivre dans le sol, qualifiés d'endémiques spécialistes tandis que d'autres seraient exclus de la végétation dominante, nommés endémiques refuges. Cette diversité d'espèces endémiques et non endémiques présentant des niches écologiques distinctes démontre que ces communautés herbacées recèlent un véritable potentiel pour les conserver dans des habitats pollués. Les essais en conditions contrôlées et en conditions réelles ont d'ailleurs démontré la possibilité d'associer ces espèces endémiques et non endémiques à des stratégies de phytostabilisation dans la région tout en pointant l'importance de leur sélection et des caractéristiques des sites à phytostabiliser. ; Natural metalliferous habitats represent unique study cases for scientific research as geopedology, biology and eco-evolution of metallophytes. Southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo hosts among the most important copper and cobalt deposits of the world, having a high economic value. Copper and cobalt outcroups have been formed during billion years by geological successions. More than one hundred hills are now scattered in an area of 300 km long and 50 km large in vegetation matrix consisting on an open forest called Miombo. This area is called Katangan Copperbelt. At the top of hills, the close proximity between the deposit and the soil surface lead to a high concentration of bioavailable copper and cobalt in soil solution exceeding the tolerance threshold of most of plants. More than 550 taxa including 10 % are identified as endemics and compose two distinct herbaceous plant formations: the steppic savanna is found on the lowest minralised soils and the steppe occurs in the highest mineralized soils at the top of hills. Mining activities have dramatic consequences on environement and public health, leading to the destruction of natural meatlliferous habitats and to the creation of anthropogenic polluted sites. Considering the threat on endemic plant species of the Katangan Copperbelt, several in situ and ex situ conservation strategies have been implemented for the last ten years in collaboration with several institutions. Furthermore, metallophytes constitute remarkable resources for the biotechnologies such as phytoremediation due to their metal tolerance or their accumulation ability. Anthropogenic metalliferous sites of the Katangan Copperbelt could be considered for the conservation of metallophyte with a perspective of remediation of polluted soils. Both challenges require the characterization of the environmental factors determining the distribution of plant species in natural sites and their performance in anthropogenic sites. This thesis aims at characterising the edaphic niche of metallophytes from the Katangan Copperbelt in order to propose actions combining the conservation of metallophyte and the phytostabilisation of polluted soils. The first axis focused on the study of two fundamental concepts in ecology, the theory of ecological niche and the concept of edaphic endemism, in order to understand the plant-soil relationships. Threatened endemic species were chosen as study case to determine the cause of the restricted distributions of metallophytes on metalliferous soils. The second axis tested the success of the establishment of endemic metallophytes in phytostabilisation strategies using the grass Microchloa altera. An assessment of the potential of other grasses was performed based on the specific criterions needed in phytostabilisation in order to identify candidate species for conservation–phystabilisation strategies.

Цель исследования: Рассмотрение инновационной составляющей экономики Российской Федерации и внесение предложений по совершенствованию процесса государственного регулирования по внедрению инноваций. Задачами исследования являются: 1. Раскрыть особенности инновационного процесса в России. 2. Определить основные направления инновационной политики государства, наметить пути ее совершенствования. 3. Показать пути повышения эффективности инновационной политики государства. Методы исследования: Методологической базой исследования являются общенаучные методы познания, включающие методы моделирования, методы экономического и логического анализа, методы системного структурно-функционального анализа, а также методы сравнения. Результаты исследования: В ходе исследования была изучена специфика внедрения инноваций в Российской Федерации, проведено исследование динамики процессов. Сформулированы выводы о путях совершенствования государственной инновационной политики. Заключение: Изучив проблему, авторы пришли к следующим выводам: 1. Единственно надежный путь обеспечения экономического роста и стабильности на макроэкономическом уровне сегодня – это перестройка экономики по инновационному пути развития. 2. Инновационные изменения – это не только внедрение новых технологий и развитие технологических отраслей. Они затрагивают все сферы жизни общества, так как требуют трансформации как производственных сил, так и производственных отношений. 3. Россия по типу экономического роста относится к интеллектуально-донорской модели, что ставит перед ней задачу реализации инновационного потенциала с целью перехода к единственно эффективной модели – инновационной. Только этот переход сможет ликвидировать хроническое отставание экономического роста от развитых стран Запада и США, а также поможет обеспечить приемлемый уровень жизни населению, снизить инфляцию. 4. Экономический рост в России сегодня характеризуется низким уровнем инновационности. Сырьевая структура экономики тормозит внедрение и развитие высокотехнологичных отраслей. 5. Степень износа производственных фондов близится к 50%, а это свидетельствует об острой потребности в переоборудовании производства, которое тормозится отсутствием реальных стимулов со стороны государства: финансовым структурам выдавать долгосрочные кредиты на переоборудование менее выгодно, чем осуществлять спекулятивные сделки, предприниматели не могут изыскать средства из-за высокой налоговой нагрузки и низкой окупаемости инновационных решений, иностранные инвестиции перестали поступать из-за санкций, а также в виду рисков. 6. Преодолеть негативные тенденции и пустить экономику по инновационному пути роста можно только при помощи серьезных структурных изменений, которые затрагивают все сферы жизни государства и общества. Необходимо: На законодательном уровне разработать стимулирование инвестиционной активности (ввести налоговые льготы и т.д.). Разработать государственные программы для внедрения инноваций в отраслях, где рентабельность предприятий не способствует привлечению инвесторов. Аккумулировать финансовые средства на проведение неоиндустриализации путем изъятия части ренты из добывающих отраслей. Изыскать средства на увеличение финансовых вложений в инновационные разработки, предотвратить «отток мозгов» и интеллектуальной собственности за границу. Наладить связи между академической наукой, производством и предпринимателями. Сформировать эффективную инновационную инфраструктуру, обеспечить ее эффективную работу. Научная новизна: Степень научной разработанности исследования государственного управления инновациями характеризуется постоянным совершенствованием и поиском решений проблем. Определяется широкий спектр подходов к концептуализации инноваций, так как инновации рассматриваются с различных точек зрения: в связи с внедрениями технологий, коммерцией, социальными системами, экономическим развитием и формулированием политики. ; The purpose of the study: Consider the innovative component of the economy of the Russian Federation and introduction of offers on perfection of process of state regulation of innovation. Objectives of the study are: 1.To reveal the peculiarities of innovation process in Russia. 2. To determine the main directions of innovative policy of the state to identify ways to improve it. 3. Show ways of increase of efficiency of innovative policy of the state. Research methods: Methodological base of research are General scientific methods of cognition, including modelling methods, economic methods and logical analysis, methods of systemic structural-functional analysis and comparison methods. The results of the study: In the study, was studied the specificity of innovation in the Russian Federation, the study of the dynamics of the processes. Formulated conclusions about ways of improvement of the state innovation policy. Conclusion: After studying the problem, the authors came to the following conclusions: 1. The only reliable way to ensure economic growth and stability at the macroeconomic level, today is the restructuring of the economy on innovative way of development. 2. Innovative change is not only the introduction of new technologies and the development of technology industries. They affect all aspects of society, because they require a transformation of both the productive forces and relations of production. 3. Russia's type of economic growth refers to the intellectual-donor model, which puts before her the task of realization of innovative potential with a view to transition to the only effective model of innovation. Only this transition will be able to eliminate the chronic backlog of economic growth from developed countries of the West and the United States, and will also help to provide an acceptable standard of living to the population, to reduce inflation. 4. Economic growth in Russia today is characterized by low level of innovativeness. The commodity structure of the economy hampers the adoption and development of high-tech industries. 5. The degree of wear of production assets nearing 50%, and it testifies to the urgent need in re-equipment of production, which is hampered by the lack of real incentives from the state: • financial institutions to issue long-term loans for the conversion is less profitable than to carry out speculative transactions • entrepreneurs are unable to raise funds because of the high tax burden and low payback innovative solutions • foreign investment ceased to flow because of the sanctions, as well as referring to the risks. 6. To overcome the negative trends and to put the economy on an innovative path of growth is possible only through major structural changes, which affect all spheres of life of state and society. Should: • At the legislative level to develop incentives for investors (tax incentives, etc.). • Develop a state program for innovation in industries where the profitability of enterprises is not conducive to attracting investors. • To accumulate financial means for carrying out new industrial revolution by taking away part of the rents from extractive industries. • To raise funds to increase investments in innovative development, to prevent "brain drain" and intellectual property abroad. • To develop links between academia, manufacturing and entrepreneurs. • To create an effective innovation infrastructure to ensure its efficient operation. Scientific novelty: The degree of scientific elaboration of the study of state of innovation management is characterized by continuous improvement and finding solutions to the problems. Determined by a wide range of approaches to conceptualizing innovation as innovations are considered from different points of view: in connection with the introduction of technology, Commerce, social systems, economic development and policy formulation.

Правительство Российской Федерации с 2010 г. занимается непрерывным реформированием общественного сектора экономики. Одной из задач проводимых преобразований является постепенное сокращение бюджетных расходов на содержание государственных организаций социальной сферы, с одновременным повышением эффективности их экономической деятельности и качества предоставляемых населению социальных услуг. После вступления в силу федерального закона о совершенствовании правового положения государственных (муниципальных) учреждений принципиально изменились механизмы работы и внутренние организационные связи социальной сферы, в том числе образующие ее организации стали полноправными участниками рыночных отношений, например, бюджетное финансирование стало осуществляться на основе контрактных отношений в форме государственного задания, покрытие части расходов на ведение дел начало производится за счет коммерческой деятельности, между организациями появилась выраженная конкурентная борьба за привлечение клиентов и прочее. Однако значительных положительных сдвигов достичь не удалось, так, например, в 2016 г. Россия заняла последнее, 55-е место в рейтинге эффективности здравоохранения, составленном агентством Bloomberg. Эксперты сходятся во мнении, что причина организационных неудач кроется в низком качестве планирования, целеполагания и установлении некорректных значений целевых индикаторов развития. Так в частности, в государственных программах периода 2013-2017 гг. предусмотрено более 2000 показателей. По направлению «Новое качество жизни» в 2015 г. осуществлялась реализация 12 государственных программ, предусмотрено к выполнению 700 целевых показателей (индикаторов), из них достигнуты плановые значения только по 421 показателю (индикатору) (60,1% от общего количества). Счетная палата Российской Федерации отмечает, что корректно отследить изменения такого числа показателей крайне затруднительно, в том числе из-за того, что данные Росстата и отраслевой статистики не охватывают такое количество.В Правительстве Российской Федерации признают проблему, связанную с целеполаганием, и в качестве системного решения предлагается внедрение с 2016 г. в деятельность органов государственной власти проектного управления, отличающегося наличием значительной методологической и методической базы постановки объективных и актуальных целей деятельности. По нашему мнению, данное направление также не принесет значимого улучшения функционирования социальной сферы, так как без внимания, как и ранее, остается ее специфичная институциональная среда, сформировавшаяся в процессе неуправляемой трансформации советской плановой экономики в переходную рыночную. Отсутствие государственного регулирования институциональной среды социальной сферы привело к формированию различных институциональных ловушек и появлению институциональных акторов, препятствующих позитивному развитию. Кроме того, в ходе перманентных реформ организации социальной сферы приобрели множество регламентированных нерациональных функций, что в совокупности с расширением их экономической свободы обусловило институцио-нальную неопределенность деятельности.В научной литературе влияние институциональной среды на выбор значений целевых индикаторов рассматривается фрагментарно, в этой связи представляет интерес обобщение некоторых результатов исследований и выделение групп факторов, определяющих направление и силу данного влияния. Кроме того, в условиях кризисных явлений российской экономики актуальным становится поиск нового подхода к предварительной (прогнозной) оценке целесообразности реализации мероприятий по достижению поставленных целей, кроме традиционного метода «затраты результат», учитывающего различные оппортунистическиемотивы отдельных экономических субъектов.В работе анализируется проявление институциональных рисков управления в социальной сфере в аспекте институциональных ловушек, институциональной неопределенности и нерациональности функционирования институтов.The Russian Government since 2010 is engaged in the continuous reform of the public sector of the economy. One of the objectives of the reforms is the gradual reduction of budget expenditures for public organizations that provide social services to the population, while increasing their quality and overall economic activity. After the entry into the improvement of the power of the federal law the legal status of state (municipal) institutions fundamentally changed the mechanisms of work and internal organizational communication of the social sphere, including forming her organization became full-fledged market participants, such as government funding was carried out on the basis of contractual relations in the form of state task, covering part to practice before the start of production costs at the expense of commercial activities between the organizations appeared severe competition to attract customers and so on. However, significant improvements to achieve could not, for example, in 2016 Russia ranked last, 55th place in the ranking of the effectiveness of health compiled by Bloomberg. Experts agree that the cause of organizational failures lies in the low quality of planning, goal-setting and the establishment of incorrect values of target indicators. Thus, in particular, in state programs period 2013-2017 gg. provided more than 2,000 indicators. Direction «New quality of life» in 2015 carried out the implementation of 12 state programs, provided for the implementation of 700 targets (indicators), have achieved planned values only 421 index (indicator) (60.1% of the total). The Accounts Chamber of the Russian Federation noted that the correct trace changes of the number of indicators is extremely difficult, including because of the fact that the Federal State Statistics Service data and industry statistics do not cover that amount.The Government of the Russian Federation recognize the problem of goal-setting, and as a system solution is offered with the introduction in 2016 in the activity of bodies of state power of project management, characterized by the presence of significant methodological basis of objective setting and the actual performance objectives. In our opinion, this trend also will not bring significant improvement in the functioning of the social sphere, because without attention, as before, remains its specific institutional environment that has developed in the process of uncontrolled transformation of the Soviet planned economy to a market transition. The absence of state regulation of the institutional environment of the social sphere led to the formation of various institutional traps and the emergence of the institutional actors, hindering positive development. In addition, during the organization of permanent reform of the social sphere we have gained a lot of regulated non-rational functions, which together with the expansion of their economic freedom has caused uncertainty institutional activities. In the scientific literature, the influence of the institutional environment in the selection of target values of the indicators considered in fragments, in this context, is of interest to some generalization of research results and the allocation of groups of factors that determine the direction and power of influence. In addition, in a crisis the Russian economy becomes more urgent search for a new approach to the provisional (forecast) assess the feasibility of the implementation of measures to achieve these goals, apart from the traditional method of «costs the result» of that takes into account a variety of opportunistic motives of individual economic entities.The paper analyzes the institutional manifestation of the risks in setting the target values of the indicators of social organizations in the aspect: institutional traps, institutional uncertainty and irrationality of the functioning of institutions.

Worldwide, around 780 million people lack access to improved drinking water sources and 2.5 billion lack improved sanitation (WHO, 2013c). The United Nations (UN) declared access to drinking water and sanitation a fundamental human right in July 2010 (UN, 2010). Each year there are approximately 1.7 billion cases of diarrhoea worldwide. It kills around 2.2 million people globally each year (4.0% of all death), of which 760,000 are children under five years old, mostly in developing countries. Diarrhoeal disease is the second leading cause of death in children under five years old (WHO, 2013c). The lack of drinking water, sanitation facilities and good hygiene practises are considered the main causes for diarrhoea (WHO, 2013d). For this dissertation, a specific health intervention (CBHFA - Community based Health and First Aid) was evaluated which had taken place during three years in 20 target communities in Bokeo Province in Lao PDR. The activities were in the field of water supply, sanitation facilities and hygiene education against diarrhoea. Objective: The objective of this survey study is to show that hygiene behaviour changes in a certain target population through the implementation of CBHFA, if a) individuals have access to improved drinking water sources; b) have access to a HH latrine and c) receive hygiene information. An improvement by 50.0% for each of the hygiene indicator: water use and treatment, hand washing, sanitation, food handling, waste disposal and cleanliness was considered a behavioural change and thus an illustration of the effectiveness of CBHFA. Methods: Hygiene behaviour was measured before and after the CBHFA intervention through above mentioned hygiene indicators. Quantitative figures were collected at two different points in time, in a pre- and post-survey, then analysed and evaluated. Interviews and observations were done through community assessment/evaluation with 20 focus groups in all target communities. 488/487 (pre-survey/post-survey) households (HHs) were interviewed and observed. Knowledge about diarrhoea (definition/signs, prevention, danger, treatment and modes of transmission) was tested. The change in hygiene behaviour as well as the water and sanitation situation was measured through a comparison of the pre- with the post-results. The Relative Risk (RR) and Odds Ratio (OR) were calculated for different variables, such as ethnicity, gender, education, age and income and their changes before and after the implementation of the health intervention project. Results: Water use and sanitation This research clearly shows that the availability of a public water system (gravity fed water system) in the target communities has increased (from 45.0% to 85.0%) as well as the availability and use of hand flush pit latrines (from 20.2% to 63.7%). 95.2% of HHs that owned a latrine used them. The water treatment through "boiling" (from 70.1% to 75.0%) in HHs has improved, but not significantly. Open defecation (OD) decreased from 78.9% to 34.7% (by 56.0%). However it is still practised by more than a third of HHs. OD is one of the highest transmission risks of diarrhoea and can only be eliminated by 100.0% sanitation within the community (WHO, 2008). Hand washing There has been a significant increase of interviewees washing their hands with water and soap (from 8.0% to 38.0%). This result was confirmed by observing the existence of soap in kitchens with 33.0% and in latrines with 20.3% of HHs. The ORs calculated for hand washing "with water and soap" and compared for each stratum of the variables gender, formal education and age group show no statistical difference, but there is a statistical difference regarding income and washing hands "with water and soap". Relevant occasions for hand washing, such as "after defecation" and "before food preparing", that could reduce the risk of the transmission of diarrhoeal diseases have not achieved a meaningful improvement. Waste disposal Waste disposal, such as collecting and burning has increased from 23.4% to 42.5% (by 81.6%) according to the HH responses. A matter of concern is the increased HHs (from 26.8% to 29.0%) that disposed their waste by "throwing the waste outside the village". This waste disposal method is statistically different regarding formal education. The number of HHs with non-educated interviewees where this method was practised has increased over the intervention time in contrast to the number of HHs with educated interviewees. Knowledge about diarrhoea Knowledge was tested. The definition/signs of diarrhoea, its prevention, danger, treatment and modes of transmission were not known by more than 50.0% of the interviewees. It seems that hygiene indicators can improve without this awareness, if improved water and sanitation facilities are provided. However, further investigations are required. The results show that knowledge about diarrhoea is not statistically different regarding formal education and age, but regarding gender. Giving at least one right answer was higher in women than in men. Results and income The results of the pre-survey show that income is significantly associated with owning a latrine and using water vessels, such as pots and jars for drinking, but not associated with using soap for hand washing. However after the implementation of the health interventions, the comparison of the ORs of the HHs with low income per capita (≤200,000 LAK, exchange rate: 1 EUR=10,000 LAK) versus the HHs with high income per capita (>200,000 LAK) shows a statistical difference regarding hand washing "with water and soap". The OR of the high income per capita group is stronger than the OR of the low income per capita group. Owning a latrine does not show a statistical difference regarding income due to the provision of subsidized latrines by the health intervention project. Occurrence of diarrhoeal diseases The pre-survey results clearly show that diarrhoeal diseases ranked at the top of all recorded cases of diseases. The post-survey results show fewer villages with diarrhoeal outbreak and reduced numbers of reported cases. Summary: An improvement by 50.0% has been reached in hand washing with water and soap, reduction of OD, safe food (by covering), waste disposal (by collecting and burning) and cleanliness but no improvement has been reached in the hygiene indicators "water use and treatment" and in crucial "occasions for hand washing (after defecation, before food preparing)". Therefore the CBHFA intervention is considered only partially effective in the field of hygiene behaviour change.

Over the last half of the 20th century air pollution has become a political issue and a severe health problem in most of the developed economies of the world. The concentrations of toxic pollutants reached levels that pose risks to human health, together with overpopulation gathered in megacities and as an aftermath the massive industry activities. The potential for serious consequences of exposure to high levels of ambient air pollution was made clear in the mid-20th century, when cities in Europe and the United States experienced episodes of air pollution, such as the infamous London Fog of 1952 and Donora Smog of 1948 that resulted in large numbers of excess deaths and hospital admissions. In the last years, problems connected with air quality in great urban areas and with the stresses that the atmospheric pollution cause on the human health, have urged the European Community to create a framework to establish criteria for air quality data collection and analytical techniques with particular reference to the location and the minimum number of sampling sites. In particular, it has been proposed that air quality monitoring focused on the protection of human health, must be performed in areas where the exposition to the high levels of pollution is maximum for a significant period of time and that the areas chosen for monitoring should be representative of other similar areas. The re-design/optimization of an existing Air Quality Monitoring Network (AQMN) by excluding or relocating monitoring stations with specified methods and criteria is a complicated procedure. The present work attempts to examine and define some of these criteria together with an evaluation model developed using the method of multiple linear regression. In order to achieve this purpose, two air pollution episodes are going to be studied; the first is a photochemical ozone episode in the city of Athens and the second one is a Particulate Matter smog episode in the city of Istanbul. Both cities are in the east Mediterranean territory with more or less similar climate characteristics, typical for their specific geographic location. Each of these cities has also specific and unique cultural and topographic characteristics that have to be taken in account. Both of these areas are very important for studies which evaluating the relationships between monitoring sites in urban environments and their utility for environmental monitoring programs and epidemiologic studies. Most of the studies are trying to establish uniform criteria for classifying and designating locations for air monitoring stations. Sometimes these criteria are not applicable in such areas with certain particularities. The city of Athens has the unique particularity of the classical Antiquities scattered in the center of the city and the suburbs, facing the significant issue for their protection from various traffic and industrial pollutants. On the other hand the city of Istanbul is the largest city in the European territory with serious environmental problems due to heavy air pollution since the beginning of industrialization of the area. The protection of sensitive receptors in a very densely populated city without methodically arranged spatial planning until recently, is another particularity that has to be considered. The objectives of a new Air Quality Monitoring Station (AQMS) setup are presented here and we are trying to categorize the proposed Macro and Micro scale siting criteria for relocating an AQMS. Simultaneously, these criteria could be useful for a possible exclusion/elimination from the network of an AQMS in operation. An active AQMS should be a candidate for exclusion if it is characterized as "redundant". A redundant AQMS is a less "statistical representative" or a "least informative" one. The measurements of the specific site should not be representative according to its current classification and this is also studied with the assistance of the applicable evaluation model, during the aforementioned air pollution episodes at chapter 7. The initial classification of monitoring sites from the governmental authorities is another subject of the present work and it is discussed further in such cases, as we'll see in Athens AQMN, where the initial classifications of most of the stations had been done without future development predictions in the early 80's. A deficient classification or "a not further updated one" through the years reflects a poor representative site. The classification of those AQMSs from Athens' AQMN was preferred to be analyzed against Istanbul's sites because for the former there is additional information and historical data since 1984 and there is also significant information for the spatial structure and planning of the city of Athens. The necessities and objectives of an AQMN have been reported in literature (Liu et al., 1986; Liu et al., 1977; Modak, and Lohani, 1985; Ludwig et al., 1976) and can be summarized as: (1) Planning and implementing air quality protection and air pollution control strategies; (2) Ensuring that the air quality standard is achieved; (3) Preventing or responding quickly to air quality deterioration; (4) Evaluating the exposure population and other potential receptors; (5) Controlling emissions from significantly important sources. These objectives also cover the minimization of network cost. It is difficult to design an AQMN covering all the objectives stated above. Most of the reported methods applied to specific situations wherein one or two of the previous objectives are considered. The role of AQMNs in early warning systems is also discussed in this study and we will try to recommend a monitoring station as the most representative of the network as a "pilot" indication of a potentially evolving air pollution (PM10) episode. The assessment of how representative (for a specific pollutant) is a part of an active monitoring network (although it is difficult to assess using monitoring data only) in certain areas is also discussed. Finally at Annex I and Annex II of the present work, are referenced some case studies and the implementation of contingency plans. Annex III illustrates the international air quality real time information web-sites, with concentration levels for most of the public related pollutants, maps and in some cases pollution forecasts. The time-series raw data for ozone concentrations are officially provided from the web-site of the Greek Ministry of Productive Reconstruction, Environment and Energy. The Turkish Ministry of Environment and Urban Planning also provided the particulate matter time-series data from its website.

Actualmente, más del 50% de la población mundial vive en áreas urbanas (75% en EU), y las ciudades concentran entre un 60-80% del consumo energético global y el mismo porcentaje de las emisiones de GEI CO2. Así mismo, producen el 50% de residuos a nivel global, consumen 75% de los recursos naturales y concentran el 80% del PIB (UNEP-DTIE, 2013). -El cambio climático tiene el potencial de influir casi el total de los componentes del medio urbano y genera nuevos y complejos retos para la calidad de vida, la salud y la biodiversidad urbanas. Algunas ciudades experimentarán sequías y elevadas temperaturas. Otras podrían experimentar inundaciones. El cambio climático afectará muchos aspectos de la vida en una ciudad, desde la calidad del aire, hasta los patrones de consumo. La UE ha puesto en marcha ambiciosas políticas e iniciativas para promover soluciones sobre el terreno, entre las que se incluyen iniciativas para aumentar la resiliencia y promover tanto las energías renovables como las tecnologías de baja emisión de carbono. (EC, 2015). Las ciudades ya han comenzado a desarrollar políticas, planes y acciones específicas para la mitigación o la adaptación al cambio climático, y un relativamente pequeño pero creciente número de ellas, se encuentran liderando pioneros enfoques integrados basados en la resiliencia, que buscan responder a los retos presentados por la incertidumbre y la imprevisible naturaleza de los fenómenos que se abordan, lo cual se ve aunado a una falta de conocimiento especializado en cambio climático, en términos de investigación, evaluación, métodos, herramientas y habilidades de planeación. (EU, 2013). Haciendo una revisión en torno a los principios clave del desarrollo sostenible y a los retos clave a nivel urbano, tales como el cambio global ambiental y climático, aquí se presenta una metodología para el diseño de un proceso de transición hacia la resiliencia urbana. La metodología está basada en la amplia participación de los tomadores de decisiones, siguiendo los principios de co-diseño y co-evolución. El elemento más innovador de la metodología está relacionado con su contribución en términos de la teoría de la planeación y las prácticas para la resiliencia urbana a través de escalas tanto temporales como espaciales, lo cual se encuentra poco desarrollado actualmente. Además, el enfoque participativo del proceso de diseño redefine el rol de los planificadores aportando una perspectiva más amplia, no más como demiurgo, sino como un facilitador en los procesos de diseño y El objetivo original de la tesis, es el desarrollo de una metodología para la evaluación integrada del desarrollo urbano sostenible, expandido y ampliado para abordar la necesidad que existe, como se prueba tanto en la existencia de literatura científica como de documentos de políticas de la UE y de la ONU, de encontrar nuevas formas y métodos para la planeación en términos de resiliencia urbana, vista como un proceso dinámico y continuo de adaptación de la ciudad que permita un balance entre la necesidad de reducir el riesgo y la de innovar, todo ello para aumentar el bienestar de los ciudadanos a través de la co-evolución basada en procesos de planeación participativa. El resultado obtenido es una metodología de diseño de procesos completamente funcional para la transición hacia la resiliencia urbana, incluyendo un enfoque sistémico y un método de evaluación integrada de la sostenibilidad, el cual ha sido desarrollado desde su concepción a un Nivel de Preparación Tecnológica 7-8, finalmente incluyendo una demostración del prototipo del sistema en un ambiente operativo. ; Today over 50% of world population lives in urban areas (75% in EU), and cities account for 60-80% of global energy consumption and the same share of GHG CO2, producing 50% of global waste, consuming 75% of natural resources and producing 80% of global GDP. (UNEP-DTIE, 2013) ¿Climate change has the potential to influence almost all components of the urban environment and raises new, complex challenges for quality of urban life, health and urban biodiversity. Some cities will experience droughts and increased temperatures. Others may experience floods. Climate change will affect many aspects of urban living from air quality to consumption patterns. The EU has put in place ambitious policies and initiatives to promoting solutions on the ground. These include initiatives to increase resilience and promote renewable energies and low-carbon technologies. (EC, 2015) Cities have already started to develop specific mitigation or adaption or risk policies/plans/actions; and a relatively small but growing number of them are now pioneering an integrated approach urban resilience based, facing challenges related uncertainty and unpredictability of the phenomena they are addressing, and ultimately suffering for a lack of knowledge in terms of research, evaluation methods/tools and planning skills. (EU, 2013) Following a review of sustainable development principles and key urban challenges, as climate and global environmental changes, it is here presented a process design methodology for urban resilience transition. The methodology is based on broad stakeholders' participation, following co-design and co-evolution principles. The most innovative element of the process design methodology is related to the contribution in terms of planning theory and practices for urban resilience, cross-scale both in time and space, which is currently very little understood and developed. Furthermore the participatory process design approach re-define the role of planner in a wider perspective, not any longer as demiurges, but as facilitator of planning and design processes. The original objective of the thesis, to develop a methodology for integrated evaluation of sustainable urban development, was expanded and broadened to address the very needed request, as proven by both existence of scientific literature and EU/UN policy document, for new forms and methodology of planning addressing urban resilience, as a dynamic process of continuous adaptation of cities balancing between the need to reduce risk and to innovate, ultimately to increase well-being urban citizens, through co-evolution based participatory planning processes. The results is a fully working process design methodology for urban resilient transition, including the original system thinking approach and embedded with an integrated evaluation of sustainability system, which has been developed from inception to a Technology Readiness Level 7-8, finally including the system prototype demonstration in operational environment. ; Postprint (published version)

30% af elektrisk energi, som forbruges af husholdninger, og efterspørgslen efter energi er stigende hurtigt forårsage en stamme på eksisterende el-løsninger. El produktionsanlæg har blevet set på større skalaer, men de har undladt at nå hver eneste potentiel bruger af elektricitet. Efterspørgslen efter elektricitet er hastigt voksende i byområder, som folk er tiltrukket de store byer. Så regeringer verden fokuserer på el-behov i byerne områder og på de industrialiserede særlige økonomiske zoner indtager alle deres ressourcer og forlader bag elektrificering i landdistrikter. Men elektricitet efterspørgsel i de udviklede lande er langt mere anderledes end udviklingslandene. De udviklede lande har brug for massiv forsyning af elektricitet til sine egne byer for fremtidig eksponentiel efterspørgsel mens udviklingslandene har behov for at løfte deres un-elektrificeret befolkning med at levere elektricitet til levebrød langs siden med urban efterspørgsel. Prisen på elektricitet er stigende hver dag, så godt. Med denne enorme mulighed for off-grid elproduktion på energiområdet nye vedvarende energi og teknologiske enheder bliver masser af opmærksomhed i hele verden. Et vindenergi konverter ses som themost potentielle energi konverter til at levere elektricitet og er gået igennem teknologiske udvikling i de sidste to årtier. Vindenergi omformere vokser større i størrelse og går gennem nye design procedurer på en massiv skala, som verden aldrig har set før, så stor som 10 MW vindenergi konvertere. I dag er vindmøller er de største strukturer på jorden. Den viden og erfaringer fra luftfart og en byggebranchen har gøres hurtigere udvikling i vindmøller. Denne forskning er rettet mod design og Udviklingen af lille en vindmølle. Hovedsageligt er der den vandrette akse vindmølle (HAWT) og lodrette akse vindmølle (VAWT). HAWTs er mere populære end VAWTs grund af svigt af VAWT kommercialisering i slutningen af 1980'erne på en stor skala. Men i nyere forskning arbejde, det er dokumenteret, at VAWTs er mere økonomisk og egnet til brug i byområder på grund af deres støjfri og æstetiske design. Still der er plads til at forbedre effektiviteten af de VAWTs da de ikke er helt forstået. Årsagen til mindre udvikling af VAWTs er den manglende adgang til en præcis aerodynamisk model og meget få eksperimentelle data til validering. I denne Ph.d.-forskning, udvikling af vindmøllerotor planlægges baseret på multi-element airfoil teknologi, der anvendes inden for luftfarten til flyvemaskiner. En metode til eksperimentel og numerisk analyse er kombineret sammen for vellykket forskning. En dobbelt-element airfoil design udføres, og afprøvning af dobbelt-element vindtunnelen airfoil udføres. Det konstateres, at de aerodynamiske egenskaber af bæreplanet forøges betydeligt ved at forsinke vinkel stall. Disse to kendsgerninger er meget velegnet til lodrette akse vindmølle da de opererer i et større sortiment af angrebsvinkel, ±40_, i forhold til den vandret akse vind turbine swhich opererer i området for angreb, ±15_. En ny konstruktion af vertikal akse vindmølle derefter foreslået, og aerodynamik er evalueret baseret på dobbelt flere stream rør metoder. De performance parametre er næsten fordoblet i forhold til traditionel straight-bladet lodrette akse vindmølle. Teoretisk undersøgelse af bladet pitch kontrol metoder til en lodret akse vindmølle er også blevet foretaget og sammenlignet med hinanden. ; 30% of electrical energy is being consumed by households, and the demand for energy is increasing rapidly causing a strain on existing electricity solutions. Electricity production plants have been seen on larger scales but they have failed to reach every single potential user of electricity. The demand for electricity is rapidly growing in urban areas as people are migrating towards the big cities. So governments around the world are focusing on the electricity needs in urban areas and on the industrialized special economic zones consuming all their resources and leaving behind rural electrification. However, electricity demand in developed countries is far more different than the developing countries. Developed countries need massive supply of electricity for its own cities for future exponential demand whereas developing countries needs to lift up their un-electrified population with supplying electricity for livelihood alongside with urban demand. The price of electricity is increasing every day as well. With this immense opportunity for off-grid electricity production in energy field new renewable energy and technological devices are getting lots of attention around the world. A wind energy convertor is seen as the most potential energy convertor to supply electricity and has gone through technological developments in last two decades. Wind energy convertors are growing bigger in size and going through new design procedures on a massive scale that the world has never seen before, as big as 10 MW wind energy convertors. Today wind turbines are the biggest structures on the earth. The knowledge and experiences from aviation and a construction industry has made quicker developments in the wind turbines. This research work is aimed at design and development of a small wind turbine. Mainly, there is the horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT) and vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT). HAWTs are more popular than VAWTs due to failure of VAWT commercialization during the late of 1980s on a large scale. However, in recent research work it has been documented that VAWTs are more economical and suitable for urban use due to their noise-free and aesthetic design. Still there is a room to improve the efficiency of the VAWTs since they are not completely understood. The reason for smaller development of VAWTs is the non-availability of an accurate aerodynamic model and very few experimental data for validation. In this PhD research, a development of wind turbine rotor is planned based on the multi-element airfoil technology used in aviation for aeroplanes. A method of experimental and numerical analysis is combined together for successful research. A double-element airfoil design is carried out, and the wind tunnel testing of double-element airfoil is performed. It is found that the aerodynamic characteristics of the airfoil increased considerably by delaying the angle of stall. These two facts are very suitable for vertical axis wind turbine since they operate in a larger range of angle of attack, ±40_, compared to the horizontal axis wind turbines which operate in the range of attack, ±15_. A new design of vertical axis wind turbine is then proposed, and aerodynamic performance is evaluated based on double multiple stream tube methods. The performance parameters are almost doubled compared to the traditional straight-bladed vertical axis wind turbine. Theoretical study of blade pitch control methods for a vertical axis wind turbine has also been carried and compared with each other.

The purpose of this research report can be divided into three sub-categories: [1] To provide a comprehensive description of the organised crime groups which exist within Hong Kong and China, VI The report begins with the historical account of the development of organised crime in both Hong Kong and China, with a section devoted to each. The Section on Hong Kong Organised Crime deals with the notion of the infamous Hong Kong Triad. These are the criminal organisations that have been in existence for several centuries and have become deeply entrenched in the Hong Kong criminal culture. The Triads conduct business in three ways: through illegal business, monopolised legal businesses, and investment in legal businesses. While they are usually associated with strong, hierarchical organisational structures, the Hong Kong Triad has gone through a series of changes in the past decade, mainly since the incorporation of Hong Kong into mainland China, there has been a significant shift in the way that Triads organise themselves; today, individuals are engaging in more individual enterprise acting independently of the Triad, which is now more horizontally organised than before. Mainland Organised Crime Groups have followed a slightly different historical path. like Hong Kong the concept of organised crime has been present in China for quite a long time. Chinese organised crime groups are mainly local in nature and only deal with localized crime. They deal in business in much ofthe same way that the Hong Kong Triads do, participating in illegal businesses and monopolising legitimate businesses to make their own profit. A defining feature of organised crime in China is the concept of the "protective umbrella" which is a more specific version of the Chinese cultural concept of guanxi. This describes the political-criminal nexus between organised crime groups and government officials; organised crime groups will establish ties with government officials, either through bribes or coercion, to make sure that their organisation is protected from policing authorities. Oftentimes organised crime groups will engage directly with the police to ensure their protection from the law. This has been a major obstacle when writing legislation against organised crime in mainland China. [2] To explain and dissect the pieces of legislation in both Hong Kong and Chinese Law and the steps that each government has taken that pertain directly to the outlawing of organised criminal groups, and The Second Section investigates the histories and contemporary writings of the Hong Kong and Chinese Governments' respective legislation against organised crime. Hong Kong has taken a very specific route of dealing with organised crime; it has focused most of its legislative writings on the Hong Kong Triads, even since the 19th century. This makes sense because this by far the most permanent, and arguably socially and economically dangerous, organised crime groups that operate within Hong Kong. While Hong Kong does use some common law carried over from the time it was a British colony. However, Hong Kong has two ordinances that are specifically designed to target organised crime, especially Hong Kong Triads. These are the Organised and Serious Crimes Ordinance, which focuses on organised criminal groups that are already operating (Chapter 455 of Hong Kong Legislation) and the Societies Ordinance (Chapter 151 of Hong Kong Legislation), which is a registration system that is designed to prevent illegal organisations from forming to begin with, again, directed towards the creation of the Triads. The punishments distributed in Organised and Serious Crimes Ordinance differ greatly depending on whether the individual in question was involved with a regular organised crime group and a Triad, with the Triad affiliation gaining a much more severe punishment. The Chinese legislation against organised crime, up until the reform in 1997, had been much more ambiguous and full of loopholes, written in language that was hard to decipher. Crime is seen in a much more political light in China, in regards to how it makes the CCP appear among the Chinese population, especially pertaining to the problem of the "protective umbrella." In order to combat crime, because the law was written so poorly, the Chinese government conducted several Yanda campaigns that were designed to be brief periods of time in which there was a large number of criminal offences distributed with severe punishment in order to make a statement about the strength of the CCP. In 1997 the Chinese criminal law was rewritten with two articles pertaining specifically to the concept of organised crime: These are Article 26 and Article 294. One is supposed to deal with ordinary group crimes and the latter is supposed to define organised criminal syndicates (of an underworld nature). However, the language was ambiguous and there was a great deal of discrepancy over what the differences between the two actually were. The People's Supreme Court issued an evaluations report in 2000 which gave a list of defining factors of organised criminal groups of a syndicate/triad-like nature, including the controversial claim that they had to be affiliated in a " protective umbrella" network, which is very hard to prove. China has also taken external steps to combating organised crime including the signing of the United Nation's Convention on Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC) and the ASEAN and China Cooperative Operations in Response to Dangerous Drugs (ACCORD). They're good indicators of the Chinese government's mind set in eliminating organised crime, but there is yet to be any significant progress yet to be made because of these treaties. [3] To provide a brief analysis of the applicability of each of the legislative models to the Parliamentary Joint Committee on the Australian Crime Commission (ACC)'s current Inquiry into the legislative arrangements to outlaw serious and organised crime groups. There are three pieces of legislation from the analysis of the Hong Kong and Chinese laws against organised crime that could potentially be helpful in the ACC's current inquiry. These are the Hong Kong Societies Ordinance in relation to the Australian bikie gangs, The indepth descriptions of organised criminal activities provided in both sets of criminal law, and the establishment of domestic law aimed at targeting the infiltration of foreign organised crime groups. Lastly, there is a list of recommendations that include the previous three statements as well as several that pertain directly to the issue of Chinese international organised crime and international crime within the Southeast Pacific, for both of these are relevant to Australia's fight against organised crime.

Институт земских начальников, как особый тип местных органов управления, был введен в процессе реформ александра III и явился важным этапом в становлении структур управления на местном уровне. Причиной введения института земских начальников являлась необходимость наведения порядка в деревне, что привело к многообразию проектов по упорядочению крестьянской жизни. Практически все они сводились к необходимости установления административного контроля за крестьянским населением. дворянство с восторгом приняло новый закон, о чем свидетельствовали адреса, направленные александру III дворянскими собраниями различных губерний россии. неудивительно, ведь это было возвращением данному сословию прежнего влияния, а также было средством улучшения материального положения за счет государственной службы. сословные интересы дворянства и государственные интересы правительства на этом этапе полностью совпадали. В оренбургской губернии первоначально на казачьей территории институт земских участковых начальников не вводился, но 19 февраля 1894 года, после длительного обсуждения, главное управление казачьих войск распорядилось распространить действие закона о земских начальниках и на войсковые земли. В уфимской губернии разделение на участки потребовало скорейшего решения вопроса о межевании башкирских земель. закон 1890 года признавал «земское дело делом государственным», а земские учреждения государственными и подчинил их в судебном отношении правилам, установленным для ведения дел казенными учреждениями. анализируя законодательные акты, необходимо отметить, что закон о земских начальниках не был исключительно дворянским и «ограниченным». Безусловно, предпочтение в занятии должности отдавалось лицам дворянского происхождения, но назвать закон «сословно ограниченным» нельзя, скорее он был «сословно предпочтительным», а это не одно и то же. следует отметить также, что расширение власти и контроля деятельности волостных старшин и писарей, сельских старост, действительно было вызвано необходимостью. По сравнению с проектом в закон был внесен ряд изменений преимущественно редакционного характера. несмотря на установление образовательного ценза, закон предусматривал возможность назначения на должность земского начальника и лиц, не имевших среднего образования. земский отдел мВд, 1291 фонда ргиа, содержит сведения, согласно которым можно сделать вывод о том, что число лиц, занимавших должность земского начальника и имевших высшее и среднее образование, было никак не меньше тех, кто окончил лишь юнкерские училища, что говорит о довольно высоком уровне образованности среди этих чиновников. закон 1889 года был призван создать учреждения, возвращавшие дворянству значительную долю его прежней вотчинно-полицейской власти. несомненно, закон о земских начальниках имел достаточно серьезные недостатки и был далек от идеала. два десятилетия пореформенного развития выявили ряд негативных моментов в жизни русского села. Это слабость должностных лиц сельского самоуправления и недостаточно эффективная деятельность волостных судов, а также рост деревенской преступности. таким образом, элементы административного контроля, что нес в себе данный закон, были важны. необходимо также заметить, что и сама форма попечительства вполне соответствовала традиционным установкам крестьянского патернализма. таким образом, введение органа опеки над сельским самоуправлением соответствовало объективным потребностям российской деревни конца XIX начала хх вв. ; The article offers an analysis of the law on County chiefs from 12 July 1889, provides assessment of its substantive provisions. The contents of this article suggests that the law on County chiefs was not exclusively aristocratic and "limited". Institute of Zemstvo chiefs was to strengthen authoritative supervision of the peasants, to reduce the intensity of social contradictions in the village, to centralize and organize the activities of bodies of local self-government. Summary. Institute of Zemstvo chiefs, as a special type of local government was introduced in the process of reforms of Alexander III and was an important stage in the formation of governance structures at the local level. The reason for the establishment of the Zemstvo chiefs was the need to restore order in the village, which led to a diversity of projects to streamline peasant life.Almost all of them boiled down to the need to establish administrative control over the peasant population. Nobility is fascinated by the new law, as evidenced addresses directed to Alexander III noble collections of various provinces of Russia. No wonder, because it was a return to this bar still influence and was a means for economic advancement at the expense of public service. The class interests of the nobility and the public interest of the government at this stage was identical.In the Orenburg province originally Cossack territory Institute of Zemstvo district chiefs was not introduced, but 19 February 1894, after a lengthy discussion, the Main Department of the Cossack troops ordered to extend the validity of the law on County chiefs and military lands. In Ufa province division into areas demanded a quick solution to the issue of the subdivision Bashkir same. The law of 1890 was recognized as "the Zemstvo case is a matter of state, and provincial agencies state and subdued them in court against the rules established for the conduct of Affairs of state institutions.Analyzing legislative acts, it should be noted that the law on County chiefs was not exclusively aristocratic and "limited".Analyzing legislative acts, it should be noted that the law on County chiefs was not exclusively aristocratic and "limited".It should also be noted that the extension of power and control activities of township officers and clerks, village chiefs, was really caused by the need.Compared with the draft law was amended primarily editorial in nature. Despite the establishment of educational qualification, the law provided for the possibility of appointment to the position of the Zemstvo of the head, and persons who did not have secondary education.A local Department of the Ministry of internal Affairs, 1291 Fund RGIA, contains information, according to which we can conclude that the number of persons held the position of Zemstvo head and had higher and secondary education, no less than those who graduated only colleges that shows quite a high level of education among these officials.The law of 1889 was designed to create institutions that vozvrashalsya nobility significant share of its former estate, the police authorities. Undoubtedly, the law on County chiefs had serious shortcomings and was far from ideal.Two decades of the post-reform development has revealed a number of negative moments in the life of the Russian village. This weakness officials of rural self-government and insufficient activity of the volost courts, as well as the increase in rural crime. Thus the elements of administrative control that carried the law, were important. It should also be noted that the very form of guardianship is quite consistent with traditional installations peasant paternalism. Thus, the introduction of guardianship over village self-government consistent with the objective needs of the Russian village of the late XIX early XX centuries

Η ποιότητα στον τομέα της υγείας έχει μελετηθεί σε μεγάλο βαθμό από την κλινική οπτική γωνία, αφήνοντας εκτός την αντίληψη του ασθενούς για την ποιότητα των παρεχόμενων υπηρεσιών. Η ικανοποίηση των ασθενών είναι πολύ σημαντική για τους ιατρικούς παρόχους, τους ίδιους τους ασθενείς (καταναλωτές) και για τρίτους ενδιαφερόμενους στον ιατρικό κλάδο της υγειονομικής περίθαλψης. Οι απόψεις των ασθενών υιοθετούνται ως μέρος της διαδικασίας παραγωγής ενός συστήματος διαχείρισης ποιότητας και η ικανοποίηση των χρηστών για να καθοριστεί η διάσταση της ποιότητας των παρεχόμενων υπηρεσιών. Η παρούσα διατριβή αποσκοπεί στην αξιολόγηση της ποιότητας του Ελληνικού Συστήματος Υγείας μέσω των προτιμήσεων των ίδιων των καταναλωτών του. Ανάμεσα σε άλλους παράγοντες, αρκετοί κοινωνικοοικονομικές παράμετροι λαμβάνονται υπόψη, όπως και αντίστοιχοι δημογραφικές, και χαράσσονται σχετικές πολιτικές. Το Κεφάλαιο 1 εισάγει το θέμα της ικανοποίησης των ασθενών και το συνδέει με την ποιότητα του συστήματος υγείας. Μέσω της βιβλιογραφικής ανασκόπησης αναδεικνύεται η σημασία του, οι παράγοντες που το επηρεάζουν και άλλες προσπάθειες ποσοτικοποίησης και μέτρησής του. Παρουσιάζονται, επίσης, τα κίνητρα για την παρούσα διατριβή, καθώς και τα προβλήματα και τα ερωτήματα μελέτης. Το Κεφάλαιο 2 μελετά το βαθμό ικανοποίησης των Ευρωπαίων πολιτών-ασθενών από την αποδοτικότητα και την ποιότητα του συστήματος υγείας της χώρας τους. Τα αποτελέσματα δείχνουν ότι περισσότεροι από τους μισούς Ευρωπαίους πολίτες είναι ικανοποιημένοι με το σύστημα υγείας της χώρας τους, με το επίπεδο αυτό να σχετίζεται θετικά με τις δημόσιες δαπάνες υγείας, τη γήρανση του πληθυσμού και τον αριθμό των νοσηλευτών-κλινών. Το Κεφάλαιο 3 εξετάζει την απόκλιση που παρατηρείται ανάμεσα στις προτιμήσεις των ασθενών για τη χρηματοδότηση του συστήματος υγείας και στην πραγματική δημόσια χρηματοδότησή του. Η απόκλιση που καταγράφεται ανάμεσα στην πραγματική δαπάνη σε σχέση με τις προτιμήσεις των ασθενών για την κατανομή των πόρων είναι μικρή. Οι προτιμήσεις αυτές φαίνεται να επηρεάζονται σε μεγάλο βαθμό από το επίπεδο εισοδήματος, τον αριθμό των μελών οικογένειας και τον τόπο κατοικίας. Το Κεφάλαιο 4 αναδεικνύει τη σημασία της ηλεκτρονικής παιδείας για τον τομέα της υγείας και μελετά το επίπεδο των Ελλήνων πολιτών. Οι Έλληνες έχουν χαμηλό επίπεδο ηλεκτρονικής παιδείας όσον αφορά στα θέματα υγείας. Το επίπεδο της σχετικής με τα ζητήματα υγείας ηλεκτρονικής παιδείας σχετίζεται θετικά με το επίπεδο εκπαίδευσης και με το βαθμό φυσικής άσκησης, ενώ αρνητικά σχετίζεται με την ηλικία. Το Κεφάλαιο 5 παρουσιάζει τη μελέτη περίπτωσης του Γενικού Νοσοκομείου «Κωνσταντοπούλειο». Τα δεδομένα συγκεντρώθηκαν από τον Ιούνιο του 2011 μέχρι τον Οκτώβριο του 2012 και αφορούν σε 745 νοσηλευόμενους ασθενείς (εσωτερικούς) και 420 ασθενείς που επισκέφτηκαν τα εξωτερικά ιατρεία (εξωτερικούς). Για την εκμαίευση του επιπέδου ικανοποίησης των ασθενών, μελετήθηκε η συσχέτιση της πρόθεσής τους να συστήσουν το νοσοκομείου σε άλλους με δημογραφικούς παράγοντες και παράγοντες που αφορούν στην αποτελεσματικότητα της παροχής υπηρεσιών υγείας. Τα αποτελέσματα δείχνουν ότι οι παράγοντες που σχετίζονται με τη λειτουργία του νοσοκομείου είναι οι πιο σημαντικοί για τη διαμόρφωση του επιπέδου ικανοποίησης των ασθενών. Από τους δημογραφικούς παράγοντες, η ηλικία των ασθενών είναι η μεταβλητή που παραμένει στατιστικά σημαντικά και για τις δύο ομάδες. Συνοπτικά, η ικανοποίηση των ασθενών σχετίζεται με τις εκροές του συστήματος υγείας, αλλά, επίσης, θεωρείται ως ένα εργαλείο για τη διεύρυνση των κοινωνιών ανισοτήτων. Για το λόγο αυτό, η αποτύπωση των παραγόντων που επηρεάζουν το επίπεδο την ικανοποίησης των ασθενών, λαμβάνοντας υπόψη διάφορα χαρακτηριστικά τους, είναι πολύ σημαντική. Η παρούσα διατριβή συμβάλει σε σημαντικά θέματα της διεθνούς βιβλιογραφίας, όπως για παράδειγμα την ενθάρρυνση της συμμετοχής των ασθενών μέσω πολιτικών ενδυνάμωσης της γνώσης τους, διευρύνοντας ακόμα περισσότερο τη δημοκρατική φύση της διαδικασίας λήψης αποφάσεων. ; Quality in healthcare has been studied largely from the clinical perspective, excluding the patient's perception of service quality. Patient satisfaction is a topic that is important both to medical (health) providers, the patients (consumers) and other third-party stakeholders in the medical care industry. Patients' opinions are taken as part of producing a quality management, and the users' satisfaction is taken to determine the service quality dimension. This dissertation aims to evaluate the quality of the Health System through the revealed preferences of its users. Among other factors, we take into account various socioeconomic factors and demographic parameters and derive relevant policy implications. Chapter 1 introduces the topic of patient's satisfaction, relates it with the quality of healthcare service. The literature review reveals its importance, the factors related to it and previous ways to quantify it and measure it. The research motivation factors along with the research problems and questions are also presented. Chapter 2 studies whether the European patients are satisfied with their country's healthcare system quality. The results demonstrate that more than half of the European patients are in general satisfied with their healthcare system. Public health expenditures as a percentage of GDP, population aging, as well as number of doctors and number of nurses increase patient satisfaction. Chapter 3 examines the deviation documented between patients' preferences with respect to healthcare resources allocation and actual public spending on health. There is a small deviation between citizens' preferences with respect to health resources allocation and actual public health spending, while income, number of family members and residence seem to greatly shape these preferences. Chapter 4 explores ehealth literacy as the ability in searching, analyzing, processing and comprehending information from the Internet in order to address or solve health related issues and reveals that the ehealth literacy level of Greek citizens is fair. The degree of ehealth literacy depends positively on education level and physical exercise, and negatively on the age of the participant. Chapter 5 examines the case study of Konstantopouleio General Hospital, providing evidence for the relationship between patient's satisfaction level and received services. The results demonstrate the important role of the attention received by the medical staff, nursing staff, and hospital's environment for both groups of in- and out-patients, while among the demographic factors, the perceived health status and age also play a significant role for the inpatients' satisfaction. The latter remains significant for out-patients, along with education and insurance. Overall, patient satisfaction is related to healthcare outcomes, but it is also considered to be a tool for disseminating social inequalities; therefore, lightening how several factors associate with patients' preferences, and in consequence with patient satisfaction, taking into consideration specific characteristics of users, is extremely important. This research contributes to important discussions in the literature, for instance, the encouragement of patients' participation by introducing policies of empowerment the knowledge dissemination along with the democratization of the decision making process.

Ways of seeing the role of an advanced teacher in relation to school development in Sweden In today's schools, the teachers' work and professional knowledge are increasingly challenged and questioned, and politicians tend to seek quick solutions to the schools' so-called crisis. One such solution was the implementation of a career position reform for advanced teachers in 2013.The 2013 career position reform for advanced teachers (SKOLF 2013: 147) allows schools to apply for state funding to establish careers for teachers in primary and secondary schools. Fully developed, the reform will include 17,000 teachers in 2016/2017. The reform includes a small number of lecturers (with a doctorate degree), but the project in which this study is carried out is restricted to research on the career positions of advanced teachers. The reform was introduced to offer support to individual teachers and their careers as well as contribute to school development. To what extent this is achievable depends on many different factors; including the conditions created for and by the teachers selected for this position, which, among others factors, is dependent on how the reform is interpreted by various actors. Research on School Effectiveness (see for instance Sammons, Hillman, & Mortimore, 1997)has contributed to knowledge of the characteristics of effective schools, namely schools that, in comparison to other schools, achieve good results. The starting point of the research is that something can be learned from schools that have proven to be successful. When effectiveness research starting points are transferred to local school practices, it seems essential to first identify effective teachers, teachers who, compared to others, achieve particularly good results with their students. And secondly, to work to ensure that their knowledge and teaching methods will be spread throughout the school. One way to interpret the reform is by equating the advanced teacher with the effective teacher, who has access to and can transfer knowledge to their colleagues on how to achieve good results. On the other hand, more process- and learning-oriented research about the development of schools has contributed to knowledge relevant for teachers learning in Professional Learning Communities (DuFour, 2004; Louise, 2006; Stoll & Louise, 2007; Wald & Castleberry, 2000), for teachers' engagement in knowledge building processes based on every day practices as grounds for development (Thelin & Scherp, 2014) and for schools' developmentinto Learning Organizations (Leitwood & Louise, 1998). Within such theoretical frameworks, school development takes the shape of a problem-solving process (Hameyer, 2001, Scherp, 2003). The perspective of school development as an open ended sense making process opens up for other interpretations of the role and work of the advanced teacher; than those based on the efficiency perspective. Instead of being considered a consumer of knowledge, the teacher is regarded as a producer or co-creator of learning and teaching knowledge.The aim of the study presented in this paper is to explore the ways in which the role of an advanced teacher is seen in relation to school development within Swedish educational context, by teachers selected for the position. Methods Qualitative research methods were used to construct and analyze the data. The data consisted of 40 responses to an open-question survey that was distributed to all advanced teachers in one Swedish municipality several months after commencing work. The municipality was chosen within my professional network through convenience sampling (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2011). From a total population of 106 teachers selected for an advanced teacher position in the municipality, 40 participated in the study. Further to the appointment process, which was carried out in two steps, data needed to be collected at two different occasions. From 28 teachers selected for the position in 2013, 19 responded to the survey. In 2014, 21 out of the 78 selected teachers responded. During the period 2013-2014 my research colleges and I conducted interviews with six advanced teachers working in different municipalities. The interviews included several semi-structured questions, which was followed up by unstructured questions (See Löfdahl Hultman, Thelin, Hjalmarsson & Westman, 2014). Thanks to the broader approach, the greater number of questions and the possibility to follow up on the answers, these interviews contributed to a richer and deeper understanding of the complexity of the reform and has thus been useful when interpreting advanced teachers' written answers in this study. Analysis was informed by variation theory (Marton & Tsui, 2004). Variation theory has also been used in defining ways of seeing as a research object. Tentative results Results suggest that variation in ways of seeing the advanced teachers' role in relation to school development can be described by the use of four categories. In this paper these categories are labeled Role model, Educator, Developer and Learning leader. Seeing the advanced teacher as a Role model means focusing on what has already been accomplished rather what needs to be further developed. Through the reform advanced teachers are rewarded for their good work. Seeing the advanced teacher as an Educator means focusing on the sharing of knowledge to other teachers. Advanced teachers are considered experts on teaching and instruction. This way of seeing is typically associated with lecturing or tutoring activities.Seeing the advanced teacher as a Developer means focusing on developing instruction. From this point of view, efforts can be directed towards on subjects such as mathematics or towards specific teaching methods like flipped classroom. Seeing the advanced teacher as a Learning leader means focusing on collegial learning as a foundation for school development. Seen this way the advanced teacher becomes a team leader responsible for organizing developmental processes throughout the whole school. If the variation described in this paper reflects a variation among advanced teachers in general, the effects of the reform can be expected to vary. The question then will be, not only if or to what degree it will have an impact on practice but rather what impact it will have. The results have implications for the conditions set up for the Advanced Teachers (as well as other teachers), the work carried out by the Advanced Teachers, the Advanced Teachers relationships to their teacher colleagues, the result of the carrier position reform. Based on the results of the study, school leaders and advanced teachers are advised to learn more about the various perceptions of the reform's intention as well as the role these teachers play in relation to school development. Different views need to be addressed and communicated.

Lähtuvalt uurimistöö eesmärgist analüüsis autor kuidas ja miks muutub põllumajandusettevõtete struktuur Eestis. Lisaks püstitas autor eesmärgi täitmiseks küsimused: kas ja mida tuleks põllumajandusettevõtete struktuuri muutuse osas ette võtta? Viimasel aastatel on tekkinud väike- ja suurettevõtete vastuseis – kummale on tänapäevane põllumajanduspoliitika soodsam. Töö käigus selgus, et maa on kogu põllumajandusliku tootmise alus ning põllumajndusmaa on peamise tähtsusega tootmisvahend põllumajanduses. Seega Maa on loodusvara, mis on ruumiliselt piiratud, kohtkindel ja asendamatu tootmisvahend põllumajanduses. Tähtsal kohal on viljakas maa ja selle õige kasutus. Viljakas maa on peamiseks objektiks põllumajandusettevõtete struktuuris, mida tuleb võimalikult suurel osal ära kasutada põllumajanduses. Suured ettevõtted nõuavad suuri põllumassiive ja suuremaid põllumasinaid. Põllumajandusekspertide intervjuude analüüsimisel saab rõhutada järgmisi olulisi tulemusi: 1. Talu nimetusest ei tuleks loobuda. Talu hoiab maaelu mainet ning ka lugupidamist esivanemate poolt tehtud tööle ja traditsioonidele. 2. Teise maailmasõja järgne Nõukogude Liidu sundkollektiviseerimine oli ebaõiglane ja vale, mis lõhkus põllumajanduse arengu ja toimiva põllumajanduse struktuuri. Kolhoosi ja sovhoosi põhimõte oli ühiselt tegutsemine, mis pole halb mõte, kuid sunniviisilise tegutsemisega ei saavutatud kiiret edu, vaid pigem aastakümneteks kahju. 3. Taasiseseisvunud Eesti algusaastail ei kasutatud põllumajanduses piisavalt hästi ära ühistegevust, mille tagajärjel suurtootmine kadus paljudes piirkondades. Maade erastamise käigus tehti suur viga sellega, et suur osa põllumajandusmaad tagastati inimestele, kes põllumajandusega enam ei tegele või polnud kunagi tegelenud. Tegelikel põllumajandustootjatel oli peaaegu võimatu säilitada suuri majapidamisi. 4. Eesti põllumajanduse ja maaelu maine on põllumajandusekspertide arvates erinev. Mainet on positiivselt mõjutanud meedia kutsudes eelistama kvaliteetset eestimaist toitu. Negatiivsest küljest lahkuvad noored maapiirkonnast, nähakse maainimeste haridustaset nõrgemana ja alkoholi liigtarbimist. 5. Eesti riik peaks suutma oma elanikkonda kindlustada omal maal kasvatatud põhitoiduainetega. Põllumajandus vajab suuremat riigi tähelepanu, paremat toetamist ja eelkõige paremaid konkurentsi tingimusi. Eesti põllumajandusettevõtete struktuur on olnud pidevas muutuses ning üsnagi sarnaselt muutub see võrreldes teiste ELi liikmete põllumajandusettevõtete struktuuriga. Eestis on vähenenud 2000ndate aastate algusest väikeettevõtete ja väiksemate põllumajandusmajandite arv. Suurettevõtete arv on kasvanud ning samuti võtavad suurettevõtted väiketootjatelt järjest rohkem põllumajandusmaad enda kasutusse. Uurimistöös on selgunud asjaolu, et põllumajandusettevõtete struktuurile on tugevat mõju avaldanud Euroopa Liidu Ühine Põllumajanduspoliitika ning põllumajanduse toetamine ELi ja Eesti riigi poolt. Alates 2010. aastast on väiksemate põllumajandusmajandite arvu vähenemine aeglustunud. Väiksemate põllumajandusmajandite vähenemise pidurdusele on kaasa aidanud maainimeste järjest paranev teadlikkus põllumajandustoetustest ja kasvav põllumajandustoetuse maksmine põllumajandusmaa hooldamise eest. MAK 2014-2020 perioodi toetuste uuendused ja nõuded on esialgu tekitanud arusaamatusi ja raskusi nii põllumajandustoetuste taotlejatele kui ka riigiasutuste töötajatele. Siiski arvab autor, et raskused on ületatavad ja toetuste maksmise eesmärgid on mõeldud asjakohaselt ning tervendavalt kogu Eesti põllumajanduse struktuurile ja konkurentsi tingimuste parandamisele. ; Based on the objective of the research, the author analysed how and why the structure of agricultural enterprises in Estonia is changing. The author also developed the following questions to fulfil the objective: do any measures need to be taken with regard to the changes in the structure of agricultural enterprises, and if so, what should be done? In recent years, a contentious issue has developed concerning small and large companies – which ones are better served by the current agriculture policy? The research underscored that land is the basis of all agricultural production and that agricultural land is the principal means of production in the agricultural sector. Land is thus a natural resource that is geographically limited, place-specific and an indispensable means of production in agriculture. Fertile land and its proper use play an important role. Fertile land is the main object in the structure of agricultural enterprise and must be utilised to the maximum degree specifically in the agriculture sector. Large companies require large tracts of cropland and larger farming machinery. Following analysis of interviews with agriculture experts, the following key findings should be emphasised: 1. Farm names should not be relinquished. Farms maintain the reputation of rural life as well as respect for the work and traditions of forebears. 2. Forced collectivisation of agriculture in the Soviet Union after World War II was unjust and wrong, destroying the development of agriculture and the functioning structure of agriculture. The principle of kolkhozes and sovkhozes was based on collective activity, which is not a bad idea; however, coerced action did not achieve rapid progress but instead damage that persisted for decades. 3. In the early years of re-independent Estonia, agriculture did not make sufficiently effective use of cooperative activity, and as a consequence large-scale production disappeared in many regions. A major error committed in land privatisation was that a large part of farmland was returned to people who were no longer engaged or never were engaged in the sector. It was nearly impossible for actual agricultural producers to retain large operations. 4. Agricultural experts take different views of the image of Estonian agriculture and rural life. The image has been positively influenced by exhortations in the media to buy Estonian food products. A negative aspect is that younger people are leaving rural areas, which are associated with a lower educational level and overconsumption of alcohol. 5. Estonia should be able to supply its population with Estonian-grown food staples. Agriculture needs greater attention from the state, better support, and above all, better conditions for competition. The structure of Estonian agricultural companies has been changing constantly, and the changes have been quite similar to the structure of agricultural enterprise in other EU member states. In Estonia, the number of small businesses and agricultural microproducers has decreased since the early 2000s. The number of large companies has grown and large companies are also taking more cropland away from small producers. The research revealed the fact that the EU's Common Agriculture Policy and subsidies from the EU and Estonian state have exerted a major influence on the structure of agricultural enterprises. Since 2010, the drop in the number of smaller agricultural producers has tapered off. A contributing factor to the slowing of the decrease of smaller agricultural producers has been the increasing awareness on the part of rural people regarding agricultural assistance and increased payment of agricultural assistance for maintaining cropland. The new features and requirements of the 2014-2020 funding period of the Rural Development Plan initially created misunderstandings and difficulties for applicants for agricultural support and civil servants. Nevertheless, the author believes that the difficulties can be overcome and the objectives of paying assistance are designed accordingly and will have a beneficial effect on the entire structure of the Estonian agriculture sector and improve the conditions for competitiveness.

La minería constituye una de las principales actividades económicas de mayor trascendencia que impulsa el desarrollo del país, dicha actividad productiva sigue estableciéndose como la de mayor incidencia de accidentes incapacitantes y de manera especial, los que conlleva en fatales. En los últimos años las tendencias internacionales han registrado un importante cambio de visión en cuanto a la gestión de riesgos, de un enfoque de gestión tradición a una gestión basada en identificación, monitoreo, control, medición y divulgación de los riesgos. La Empresa Especializada JRC Ingeniera y construcción SAC. orientada a la explotación de recursos naturales no renovables, considerado hasta el día de hoy como una de las actividades económicas más importantes con la que cuenta nuestro país, en los últimos 2 años sus operaciones en Sociedad Minera el Brocal S.A.A. pasaron de ser de mediana minería a gran minería, aplicando métodos de minado masivo Sub Level Stoping, esto genero incremento de la ocurrencia de incidentes en las labores, según los indicadores de seguridad, los frecuentes accidentes de trabajo, en los años 2011–2012 que se han producido, teniendo una población de 630 trabajadores. Cuando suceden los incidentes, es una clara indicación que existen debilidades con el desempeño de la organización. Frente a este crítico escenario, en los últimos años, tanto gubernamentalmente como diversas instituciones representativas del gremio empresarial, se han esforzado en poder controlar y atacar el grave problema de la seguridad y salud ocupacional en la minería. Así entonces, se han establecido diversos programas de seguridad para lograr que el personal en todos los niveles de las empresas interiorice la seguridad como la tarea más importante en la ejecución de su trabajo, incluyendo la implantación de diversos sistemas modernos de gestión de la seguridad y salud en las operaciones mineras. Para ello nos abocaremos netamente a dos herramientas de gestión básica e indispensable que viene hacer el Control de Riesgo como es el IPERC y a los Reportes de riesgos cuya implementación a la fecha dan resultados favorable debido a varios factores de enseñanza, entrenamiento tanto por nuestros colaborados y como factor determinante la supervisión en general. la evaluación de riesgo es continua y recurrente, anticipa y previene, se enfoca en la identificación, medición y control de riesgos, velando que la organización logre sus objetivos con un menor impacto de riesgo posible, la evaluación de riesgo está integrada en todas las operaciones y procesos, y la política de evaluación de riesgo es formal y claramente entendida. En este sentido gestionar eficazmente los riesgos para garantizar resultados concordantes con los objetivos estratégicos de la organización, quizás sea uno de los mayores retos. Desde este punto de vista, la gestión integral de los riesgos se vuelve parte fundamental de la estrategia y factor clave del éxito de las organizaciones. La investigación da a conocer que de todos los controles existentes dentro de un sistema de gestión en seguridad principalmente cuando se aplica correcta y eficazmente el IPERC y los Reportes de Riesgos, viene mejorando sus actividades en sus áreas de trabajo, porque considera a la persona, el recurso más importante con el que cuenta una organización, cabe mencionar que la presente investigación aportara nuevas estrategias y herramientas de gestión básicas que son el pilar de prevención de riesgos laborales. Palabra clave: Mejora de gestión, Identificación, monitoreo, control, medición y divulgación, estrategias, herramienta de gestión, gestión integral, efectividad, prevención de riesgos. ; Mining is one of the main economic activities of greater importance that drives the development of the country, that productive activity is established as the highest incidence of disabling accidents and in particular, those involved in fatal. In recent years, international trends have been a significant change of view in terms of risk management, a management approach tradition identification based management, monitoring, control, measurement and disclosure of risks. The company specialized JRC SAC Engineering and Construction. I focused on the exploitation of non-renewable natural resources, considered until today as one of the most important economic activities with which our country in the last two years its operations in Sociedad Minera El Brocal SAA they went from medium to large mining mining, applying methods of mass mined Sub Level Stoping, this generated increased occurrence of incidents in the work, as safety indicators, frequent accidents, in the years 2011-2012 They have been produced, with a population of 630 workers. When incidents happen, it is a clear indication that there are weaknesses in organizational performance. Faced with this critical stage in recent years, both governmentally and various institutions representing the business association, have endeavored to control and attack the serious problem of occupational health and safety in mining. So then, they have established various safety programs to ensure that staff at all levels of companies internalize safety as the most important in the execution of their work tasks, including the implementation of various modern management systems and safety health in mining operations. To do this we will work purely to two tools of basic and indispensable management comes to risk control as the IPERC and reports risks whose implementation date give positive results due to various factors of education, training therefore our collaborated and as a determining factor monitoring in general. risk assessment is continuous and recurrent, anticipates and prevents it focuses on the identification, measurement and risk control, ensuring that the organization achieves its objectives with less impact of possible risk, the risk assessment is integrated into all operations and processes, and risk assessment policy is formal and clearly understood. In this sense effectively manage risks to ensure consistent results with the strategic objectives of the organization, perhaps one of the biggest challenges. From this point of view, comprehensive risk management becomes a fundamental part of the strategy and key success factor of organizations. The investigation disclosed that all the controls within a safety management system especially when applied correctly and effectively the IPERC and Risk Reports, has been improving its activities in their areas of work, because it considers the person, the most important resource that has an organization worth mentioning that this research will provide new strategies and basic management tools that are the mainstay of prevention of occupational hazards. Keyword: Improving management, identification, monitoring, control, measurement and disclosure, strategies, management tool, integrated management, effectiveness, risk prevention ; Tesis