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Terry Crolley of Merseyside Probation Service's Research, Evaluation and Information Unit gives his experience of Hillsborough and questions the validity of a punitive response to offenders surviving disasters not of their own making

Post-traumatic stress is observed in people who have been directly exposed to traumatic mental and physical stimuli in the form of post-traumatic stress disorder of systemic reactions. Not only soldiers returning from military missions are affected by it, but also victims of all kinds of disasters, rescuers, providing the former with assistance, people pursuing the stress-related professions, including firefighters, paramedics, as well as fans of extreme sports and people, who have experienced unusual situations, such as death of a beloved person, divorce or a traffic accident. The stress symptoms follow the triggering factor. Reaction of the limbic system, associated with the circulation of emotional state, which takes place in the Papez area, causing a variety of vegetative symptoms, especially the circulatory ones, has a vital role to play. The consequences of post-traumatic stress affect both mental and emotional changes, as well as the changes in dynamic stereotype, and they also manifest indirect effects in the family life of an entity and its immediate surrounding. It is important to provide the people affected by post-traumatic stress syndrome with psychological and psychiatric care. The purpose of this article is to review the available literature data on both the post-traumatic stress disorder and its consequences as well as to focus on the key issues related to the prevention and assistance provided for people affected by the syndrome.

Post-traumatic stress is observed in people who have been directly exposed to traumatic mental and physical stimuli in the form of post-traumatic stress disorder of systemic reactions. Not only soldiers returning from military missions are affected by it, but also victims of all kinds of disasters, rescuers, providing the former with assistance, people pursuing the stress-related professions, including firefighters, paramedics, as well as fans of extreme sports and people, who have experienced unusual situations, such as death of a beloved person, divorce or a traffic accident. The stress symptoms follow the triggering factor. Reaction of the limbic system, associated with the circulation of emotional state, which takes place in the Papez area, causing a variety of vegetative symptoms, especially the circulatory ones, has a vital role to play. The consequences of post-traumatic stress affect both mental and emotional changes, as well as the changes in dynamic stereotype, and they also manifest indirect effects in the family life of an entity and its immediate surrounding. It is important to provide the people affected by post-traumatic stress syndrome with psychological and psychiatric care. The purpose of this article is to review the available literature data on both the post-traumatic stress disorder and its consequences as well as to focus on the key issues related to the prevention and assistance provided for people affected by the syndrome.

Adoption was included for the first time at the world conference of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies last Easter in Amsterdam. Sue Wells presents extracts from her presentation to the conference, based upon her own research as a birthmother.

Post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has become a global health issue, with prevalence rates ranging from 1.3% to 37.4%. As there is little current data on PTSD in Canada, an epidemiological study was conducted examining PTSD and related comorbid conditions. Modified versions of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) PTSD module, the depression, alcohol and substance abuse sections of the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI), as well as portions of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) were combined, and administered via telephone interview in English or French. Random digit dialing was used to obtain a nationally representative sample of 2991, aged 18 years and above from across Canada. The prevalence rate of lifetime PTSD in Canada was estimated to be 9.2%, with a rate of current (1‐month) PTSD of 2.4%. Traumatic exposure to at least one event sufficient to cause PTSD was reported by 76.1% of respondents. The most common forms of trauma resulting in PTSD included unexpected death of a loved one, sexual assault, and seeing someone badly injured or killed. In respondents meeting criteria for PTSD, the symptoms were chronic in nature, and associated with significant impairment and high rates of comorbidity. PTSD is a common psychiatric disorder in Canada. The results are surprising, given the comparably low rates of violent crime, a small military and few natural disasters. Potential implications of these findings are discussed.

The belief that large‐scale natural disaster can bring severe
stress and deviant behaviour has existed for some time, and incidents
have been described from as far back as the 1800s in America. The
resultant behaviour was categorized, in 1980, as "post‐traumatic
stress disorder" (PTSD). There is a division among those
interested in the psychological consequences of large‐scale disaster.
One school argues that mental health effects are significant and long
term, the other that they are not so much so. Reviews the evidence,
including examples from World War II and the Towyn floods in 1990.
Suggests that two positions may apply: that PTSD exists in conventional
terms, with long‐term psychological effects; or alternatively that,
although there may be psychological effects, the main difficulties are
caused by major disruption to normal life patterns by material effect.
Concludes by suggesting that the second position may hold and that,
consequently, organizations should concern themselves more with
alleviating material effect while ensuring that the mental effect is
minimized. Suggests further research with prompt field studies to
establish the nature of the disorder.

The present study endeavors to analyze the symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Muhammad Hanif's Red Birds, focusing on the depiction of PTSD felt by major characters in then ovel. The psychological approach along with a descriptive qualitative method, has been used for evaluating the signs of PTSD in the backdrop of Raymond Benedict Flannery's theory. The significance of this study is to appraise the individuals about the hazardous outcomes of trauma. If trauma shows the symptoms of arousal, intrusive, and avoidance, the result is a post-traumatic stress disorder. Using this mechanism, the novel has been analyzed, and then the relevant data has been categorized according to the tenets of the theory. The study discovers the required symptoms of PTSD,i.e., intrusive, avoidance, and arousal, experienced by the characters. Mother Dear develops more intrusive symptoms as compared to arousal and avoidance symptoms, whereas arousal symptoms are more influenced by Momo.

The concept of involuntary displacement inside the country is growing day by day. Globally, researchers have suggested that due to prolonged internal displacement the Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) usually suffer from mental health issues. The current study was carried out with the purpose of investigating the psychosocial reactions of trauma in IDPs, who were subjected to displacement due to the military operation in the region, with no concurrent aim of diagnosing them with Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). It was a cross-sectional study and 104 (M= 31.20, SD=9.32) IDPs were sampled for it. Post-traumatic Stress Diagnostic Scale (PDS) was administered on IDPs. The findings revealed that around 17% of them showed severe symptoms. The women were at more risk for PTSD as compared to men. Although no significant differences were found in both genders when it was about impairment in daily life functioning and both were equally affected. The satisfaction of life was decreased; too, on many symptoms results were significant. It was revealed that symptom severity decreased when the duration of displacement increased. The results were described according to cultural manifestation.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is one of the anxiety disorders recently included in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Third Edition (DSM-III).1 The disorder refers to the psychological sequelae that may follow a significant stressor. The military has previously referred to PTSD as "war neurosis," "shell shock," and "combat neurosis."