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Poverty in Africa has been rising for the last quarter-century, while it has been falling in the rest of the developing world. Africa's distinctive problem is that its economies have not been growing. This article attempts to synthesize a range of recent research to account for this failure of the growth process. I argue that the reasons lie not in African peculiarities but rather in geographic features that globally cause problems but that are disproportionately pronounced in Africa. These features interact to create three distinct challenges that are likely to require international interventions beyond the conventional reliance on aid.

Sub-Saharan Africa's turnaround over the past couple of decades has been dramatic. After many years in decline, the continent's economy picked up in the mid-1990s. Along with this macroeconomic growth, people became healthier, many more youngsters attended schools, and the rate of extreme poverty declined from 54 percent in 1990 to 41 percent in 2015. Political and social freedoms expanded, and gender equality advanced. Conflict in the region also subsided, although it still claims thousands of civilian lives in some countries and still drives pressing numbers of displaced persons. Despite Africa's widespread economic and social welfare accomplishments, the region's challenges remain daunting: Economic growth has slowed in recent years. Poverty rates in many countries are the highest in the world. And notably, the number of poor in Africa is rising because of population growth. From a global perspective, the biggest concentration of poverty has shifted from South Asia to Africa. Accelerating Poverty Reduction in Africa explores critical policy entry points to address the demographic, societal, and political drivers of poverty; improve income-earning opportunities both on and off the farm; and better mobilize resources for the poor. It looks beyond macroeconomic stability and growth—critical yet insufficient components of these objectives—to ask what more could be done and where policy makers should focus their attention to speed up poverty reduction. The pro-poor policy agenda advanced in this volume requires not only economic growth where the poor work and live, but also mitigation of the many risks to which African households are exposed. As such, this report takes a "jobs" lens to its task. It focuses squarely on the productivity and livelihoods of the poor and vulnerable—that is, what it will take to increase their earnings. Finally, it presents a road map for financing the poverty and development agenda.

Front Cover -- Contents -- Foreword -- Acknowledgments -- About the Editors and Contributors -- Abbreviations -- Key Messages -- Overview -- Poverty Reduction in Africa: A Global Agenda -- Poverty in Africa: Stylized Facts -- Africa's Slower Poverty Reduction -- Growth Fundamentals and Poverty Financing -- Earning More on the Farm -- Moving Off the Farm: Household Enterprises -- Managing Risks and Conflict -- Mobilizing Resources for the Poor -- Way Forward: Four Primary Policy Areas -- Notes -- References -- Introduction -- Notes -- References -- 1. Poverty in Africa -- Poverty Today and Tomorrow -- Africa's Poverty in Profile -- Lessons from Recent Experience -- Notes -- References -- 2. Africa's Demography and Socioeconomic Structure -- High Fertility Holds Back Poverty Reduction -- Poor Initial Conditions -- More and Better Income-Earning Opportunities for the Poor -- A Way Forward -- Notes -- References -- Fundamentals 1 Africa's Human Development Trap -- The Health Poverty Trap -- The Education Poverty Trap -- Escaping the Human Development Poverty Trap -- Notes -- References -- 3. Earning More on the Farm -- Largely Favorable Conditions for Agricultural Development -- Not All Agricultural Growth Is Equally Poverty Reducing -- An Integrated Approach Is Needed -- Inclusive Value Chain Development as Response -- The Need for Complementary Public Goods, Especially for Staples -- Notes -- References -- Fundamentals 2 The Nexus of Gender Inequality and Poverty -- Gender Gaps in Human Endowments -- Glaring Differences in the Time Use of Men and Women -- Differences in Asset Ownership and Control between Women and Men -- Gender Gaps Exacerbated by Formal and Informal Institutions and Norms -- Mobility and Safety Challenges for Women -- Policy Levers to Address Gender Gaps and Reduce Poverty -- Notes -- References -- 4. Moving to Jobs Off the Farm.

This report is an important step in the efforts of the Asian Development Bank (ADB) to support its developing member countries (DMCs) more effectively in achieving prosperity and freedom from poverty. Greater scrutiny of the results of ADB's development efforts began in 2004 with a review of the Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS) and the adoption of a reform agenda anchored in managing for development results (MfDR). A periodic assessment of ADB's progress in improving its development effectiveness and its implementation of the PRS is a crucial part of these efforts. It involves examining systematically the results of ADB's own contributions to the development outcomes of its DMCs, the quality and effectiveness of its operations, and the efficiency with which it deploys its resources to meet its objectives.

This report is an important step in the efforts of the Asian Development Bank (ADB) to support its developing member countries (DMCs) more effectively in achieving prosperity and freedom from poverty. Greater scrutiny of the results of ADB's development efforts began in 2004 with a review of the Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS) and the adoption of a reform agenda anchored in managing for development results (MfDR). A periodic assessment of ADB's progress in improving its development effectiveness and its implementation of the PRS is a crucial part of these efforts. It involves examining systematically the results of ADB's own contributions to the development outcomes of its DMCs, the quality and effectiveness of its operations, and the efficiency with which it deploys its resources to meet its objectives.

Introduction 1. Developmental Pathways to Poverty Reduction-- Yusuf Bangura PART I: DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES 2. Employment, Economic Development and Poverty Reduction-- James Heintz 3. Taxation, Developmental State Capacity and Poverty Reduction-- Jonathan Di John 4. The Effectiveness of IMF/World Bank-Funded Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers-- Ricardo Gottschalk 5. Poverty Reduction and the Politics of Bilateral Donor Relations-- Tom Lavers 6. Politics of Growth and Redistribution in a Democratic Context-- Yusuf Bangura 7. Agrarian Social Pacts and Poverty Reduction-- Adam Sheingate PART II: CASE STUDIES 8. Economic Development and Poverty Reduction in Korea: Governing Multifunctional Institutions-- Huck-ju Kwon and Ilcheong Yi 9. Growing Wealth, Poverty Avoidance and Management in Singapore-- Chua Beng Huat 10. Development Strategies and Poverty Reduction in China-- Jean C. Oi 11. The Unsocial Leviathan: Interests, Institutions and Social Policy in Brazil-- Marcus Andre Melo 12. Ireland's Boom-Bust Cycles: The Elusive Search for a Balanced Development-- Peadar Kirby

ABSTRACTPolicy reforms often pit the poor against the poor by triggering a fall in poverty for some but an increase in poverty for others. Aggregated national measures gloss over these fine patterns and pronounce 'a reduction in poverty'– is such aggregation across poor individuals ethically permissible? Addressing this type of aggregation is a hard issue. This paper has made an attempt in that direction by outlining an axiomatically grounded aggregate measure of such gains or losses, duly giving more importance to the losses to a poor compared to the gains of another poor.

Chapter 1. Inequality in middle-income countries: analysis and recommendations for improvement -- Chapter 2. Inclusive growth and poverty reduction in China: progress and key policies -- Chapter 3. China's experience in promoting inclusive development of income distribution policies -- Chapter 4. China's inclusive development and fiscal policy options -- Chapter 5. Population and employment policies that support inclusive development -- Chapter 6. Policy research on rural scientific and technological innovation in support of inclusive development -- Chapter 7. Ecological and environmental policies that support inclusive development.

European countries vary in the extent to which they succeed in reducing poverty using social transfers. However, we do not have good ways of understanding how these different outcomes are achieved. It is therefore very difficult to learn lessons from abroad. This paper uses micro data from the EU Statistics on Income and Living Condition (SILC), and attempts to decompose reductions in child poverty rates and gaps into the contribution made by children, old age, social exclusion, housing and work-related benefits. The analysis is undertaken for all families with children under 16, lone parent families, couple families, and then for families with varying levels of work intensity. Transfers make a substantial contribution to reducing child poverty rates and closing poverty gaps. The contribution varies between countries in the European Union. There is no single model, no most successful exemplar. Some countries do better for their children in lone parent households and others do better for their children in couple households. The analysis has enabled some opening up of the how question, though what is going on is still something of a mystery in some countries. It is probable that analysis at the national level with greater knowledge of national benefits systems is necessary to further open the 'black box'.

Intro -- Editors' Note -- Contents -- 1 Inequality in Middle-Income Countries: Analysis and Suggestions -- 1.1 Main Issues -- 1.1.1 Issue 1: Most of the World's Poor Come from Middle-Income Countries -- 1.1.2 Issue 2: Inequality Is Increasing in Many Middle-Income Countries -- 1.1.3 Issue 3: Inequality May Hinder Development -- 1.2 Why Inequality Persists in Middle-Income Countries -- 1.3 Addressing Inequality in Middle-Income Countries: Policy, Practice and Case Studies -- 1.4 The Need for a Diversity of Policies to Reduce Inequality -- 1.4.1 Addressing Regional Inequalities -- 1.4.2 Addressing Inequalities in Health and Education -- 1.4.3 Changes in Fiscal Policy -- 1.4.4 Improving Social Protection -- 1.5 Summary -- References -- 2 Inclusive Growth and Poverty Reduction of China: Progress and Main Policies -- 2.1 Inclusive Growth in China: Experience and Key Features -- 2.1.1 Reform of the Economic System Promotes Rapid Economic Growth and Drives Large-Scale Poverty Reduction Across the Country (1978-2001) -- 2.1.2 Policy Adjustment Promotes Overall Planning of Urban and Rural Areas and Drives Balanced Development (2002-2010) -- 2.1.3 Building an Institutional System Promotes Inclusive Growth and Boosts Comprehensive, Coordinated and Sustainable Economic and Social Development (Since 2011) -- 2.2 Main Policies Promoting Inclusive Growth in China -- 2.2.1 Adjusting and Optimizing the Industrial Structure, and Emphatically Promoting the Transformation of the Economic Development Model -- 2.2.2 Improving the Quality and Ability of Workers, and Creating More Employment and Development Opportunities -- 2.3 Employment and Social Security Policies for Migrant Population -- 2.4 Labor Transfer and Training -- 2.4.1 Adjusting Income Distribution to Narrow the Income Gap -- 2.5 Policy Concerning Individual Income Tax.